The Vindolanda Horse

Author(s): J. M. C. Toynbee and Alan Wilkins

Source: Britannia, Vol. 13 (1982), pp. 245-251
Published by: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/526497
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 The Vindolanda Horse
By J. M. C. TOYNBEE and ALAN WILKINS
PART I by Alan Wilkins

HE very attractive bronze figure of a horse, found in 1971 under the floor of a
the Vindolanda vicus, has understandably become an emblem of the site on publica
of the Vindolanda Trust.
The horse is 62 mm high and 64 mm long from tail to front hoof; it stands on a thin platfor
or ground 2-3 mm thick, 61 mm long, and 15 mm wide where it projects beyond the mount
which it caps. This hollow octagonal mount is 68 mm high and tapers in maximum width fro
39 mm at the bottom rim to 28 mm at the top (measured across the facets of the octagon). It
is a hollow shell, cast in metal no more than 2 mm thick. Its internal profile is round,
octagonal, presumably to allow it to fit snugly over quite a substantial dowel or shank which
could have penetrated 64 mm up into the mount to within 3 mm of the surface of the groun
The horse itself seems to be complete. Its stance is discussed in Part II. But two featu
have disappeared from the base of the mount: at the front, below the horse's head, there is a
stump, one small finger of which projects forward to a length of 6 mm (PL. XIXA). Even les
survives of the companion stump at the rear (PL. XIXB); both are the same width as the fron
and rear facets of the octagon with which they are aligned. The ground may also be inco
plete: on its underside, below the horse's tail, there is a round indentation which could h
been caused either by a flaw in casting or by the breaking away of some other part (suc
those on the Wadsworth Athenaeum bronze horse discussed in Part II and illustrated on
PL. XXVA). The surface pitting has not penetrated so deeply in this indentation, and the pati
there is a greyer green. Furthermore, while this rear end of the ground is neatly squared of
the front end is 6 mm shorter and with a ragged edge which has probably been damaged
Finally it should be observed that the bottom rim of the mount is not quite level, but dips
towards the left side of the horse (PL. XXA). It is difficult to believe that this is accidental o
a bronze of such high quality both in the modelling of the horse and in the precision of
mount. If this rim is the original base of the mount, then it would seem that it was designe
to stand on a very slightly sloping surface.
In his brief initial publication of the find Robin Birley describes the broken stump
'projecting bar', and states that 'a vexillum or flag would have been hung from these bars'.'
'There is little doubt', he concludes, 'that this bronze is a military standard, once mounted on
a pole with fork-like prong at the base, as portrayed in the representation of a standard-
bearer from Carrawburgh (now in the entrance lobby to the Chesters Museum).' The present
writers read this allusion to the Carrawburgh relief as applying only to the fork-like base. In
his definitive book on the site2 Robin Birley adheres to this interpretation. The horse was
found buried beneath the earliest floor in the north-eastern room of the Corridor House
(Site XXV); this burial would have taken place in the third century, though the horse could
be of second-century date or earlier.

1 Birley, Arch. Ael.5 i (1973), 111-22, p. 122.

2 id., Vindolanda: Roman Fort and Settlement (London, 1977), jacket photograph and caption: fig. 8 and
comments on 4o; p1. 14.

245

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246 J. M. C. TOYNBEE AND ALAN WILKINS
In identifying the horse as a military standard, or more precisely as th
of an auxiliary unit's vexillum (of which the flag itself was the standard
may have been influenced by the bronze sea-capricorn from Wiesbad
which is sometimes published as a military standard.3 Since literary r
precise descriptions of signa, all attempts to identify surviving speci
the many representations of them on sculptural monuments or the
has clearly demonstrated that the famous state monuments in Rome mus
accuracy of detail on military equipment until they have been checked ag
For example, the sculptors of Trajan's Column, working from sketch
front,5 did not reproduce the fastenings of lorica segmentata with comp
were very much at sea in their attempts to portray the new catapults of t
Fortunately vexilla are of straightforward design, and the versions o
monuments are similar to those on reliefs believed to be by regimental a
versions are compared with the real flag discovered in Egypt their authe
Of the several types of legionary and auxiliary signa known from relief
only securely identified survivor.' Its size, 50 cm square, tallies closely w
objects on private tombstones and official monuments where they ar
about two-and-a-half times the width of the heads of the men who
consistency would seem to rule out the possibility that such signa ar
gerated scale.
The four angle-fillers at the corner of the Moscow flag have also been incised on the flags
held by the vexilliferi on the Tropaeum Traiani at Adamklissi.s This correlation increases
confidence in the accuracy of representations of vexilla when one attempts to discover the
design of the finials on their carrying poles. Florescu's photographs seem to show knobs or
roundels above the crossbar on all these Adamklissi examples. But the majority of known
representations have poles in the form of spears whose points project above the crossbar. Very
realistic portrayals of vexilla are on the second-century panels reused on the attic of the Arch
of Constantine in Rome. Two examples with spear point finials are on the profectio scene.9 Of
the three in the scene of prisoners the right-hand one has a facetted spear point.10 The spear
point and roundel types appear together on the scene of sacrifice.11 On the stone panel from
Corbridge part of a roundel survives above the crossbar;12 the flag carries the inscription
vexillus leg. II Aug and the artist was probably serving with this regiment. The vexillum of cohors
XX Palmyrenorum is surmounted by a roundel on the third-century fresco from the temple of
Bel at Dura;13 being a portrait of Terentius and his troops it must surely have been painted
'from life'. A spear point is on the single vexillum on the Arch of Orange of early imperial

3 G. Webster, The Roman Imperial Army (2nd ed., London, 1979), 137 and fig. 22; P. Connolly, The Roman
Army (London, 1975), fig. 5 on 45.
4 H. Russell Robinson, The Armour of Imperial Rome (London, 1975), 7.
5 I. A. Richnlond, 'Trajan's Army on Trajan's Column', Papers of the British School at Rome xiii (1935),
1-40, p. 3.
6 Robinson, op. cit. (note 4), I74.
7 M. Rostovtzeff, JRS xxxii (1942), 92-1o6; Connolly, op. cit. (note 3), 45; it is now in the Museum
Arts, Moscow.
8 Metope 3: F. B. Florescu, Monumental de la Adamklissi (Bucharest, 1960), fig. 182; other vexilla on metope
41 on fig. 220 and metope 42 on fig. 222.
9 H. P. L'Orange and A. von Gerkan, Der spiitantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogens (Berlin, 1939),
pl. 47b; G. Becatti, La Colonna Coclide Istoriata (Rome, 1960), pl. 8.
10 ibid.: L'Orange and von Gerkan, pl. 46b; Becatti, pl. 12.
11 ibid.: L'Orange and von Gerkan, pl. 46d; Becatti, pl. Io.
12 I. A. Richmond, Arch. Ael.4 xxi (1943), 127-224, pl. xb2 and 163.
13 A. Perkins, The Art of Dura-Europos (Oxford, 1973), pl. 12.

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 THE VINDOLANDA HORSE 247

date.14 Several of the twenty-two example

damaged, but twelve appear to have points ;15
Marcus Column has vexilla carried by auxili
of the same basic design. The real flags carrie
which would have enabled the individual un
antiqui ... singulis centuriis singula vexilla con
centuria in illo vexillo litteris esset adscriptum
tumultu a contubernalibus suis aberrare non p
emblem and the brilliance of the colours: t
gold on a scarlet ground. Cumont was disa
scription on the Dura fresco flags.s8 Such
reliefs and have weathered away. The tomb
Longiniana, does however preserve his unit
flag; but the sculptor has not left room for a
The evidence from known representations
other than a spear point or roundel. On sce
bearers on the far bridge include one whos
Victory holding out a wreath.20 The statue is a
ably larger than the heads of the standard-be
Constantine a similar winged Victory tops the
flag, as is the Victory embroidered on the Mo
are shown as imagines on the rex datus pan
metal Victory finial were ever found it wou
more; and this, as is argued below, would se
imago or aquila. A very fine bronze winged
and holding out a wreath, is in the Museo
examination of the actual object would be a
original purpose. For here one runs the risk o
eager to identify metal eagles as aquilae.21 It i
times held globes, or globes topped by eagles
So far, therefore, no animal finial has app
identification. Animals may have featured
Bonn tombstone. And the Carrawburgh rel
the tripod base of the pole25 confirms that m
crossbars and flags as the imagines of auxiliar
on Trajan's Column, perhaps a wolf). Sever
aquiliferi agree with the Carrawburgh relie

14 R. Amy et al., L'Arc d'Orange (Paris, 1962), ii, pl

15 e.g. scene Iv on pl. f in C. Caprino et al., La Colo
16 e.g. scene lxxviii on pl. 1.
17 RIB 2139 and 2200 display inscriptions.
18 F. Cumont, Fouilles de Doura-Europos (1922-23)
19 H. Lehner, Bonner Jahrb. cxvii (1908), 279-86, p
Gaule Romaine vii (Paris, 1922), no. 6282 on p. 252
20 C. Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Trajanssiiule (Berl
21 L'Orange and von Gerkan, op, cit. (note 9), pl.
22 ibid.: L'Orange and von Gerkan, pl. 46a; Becatti
23 Inv. n. 32,637, A. G. y Bellido, Esculturas Roman
24 e.g. the Silchester statuette: J. M. C. Toynbee, A
25 E. A. Wallis Budge, The Roman Antiquities in
H. Russell Robinson, What the Soldiers wore on Ha

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248 J. M. C. TOYNBEE AND ALAN WILKINS
or as slightly larger than, the heads of the men who carry them.26 All suc
is what one would expect of emblems intended to be clearly visible so t
and lead the troops, no matter how difficult the battle situation. Vege
maius est, quod servare ordines discunt et vexillum suum in tantis permixtion
comitantur. ... Orderly advance behind a vexillifer is well shown on scene lx
Column.27
The Vindolanda horse, itself only 62 mm high, is far too small to be an imago. When con-
sidered as a possible vexillum finial it is tiny in comparison with the figures of Victory which
are the only known figured finials. In Part II it will be shown that it belongs to a group of
objects found in quite large numbers, some in pairs and therefore from the same workshop,
possibly from the same mould. This is quite the opposite situation to that of the signa, which
were rare, individualized objects whose value to their units made their accidental loss unlikely.

PART ii by J. M. C. Toynbee

As has been amply demonstated in Part I of this paper, from a study of representations of
Roman military standards on sculptural monuments such as tombstones and historical reliefs,
the Vindolanda horse is far too small to have served as a standard that could have been
recognized on the battlefield. Moreover, when viewed from a position directly opposite its
chest the figurine would appear to be not completely self-contained (PL. XXB). Advancing
forward towards the spectator the horse is seen to turn its head slightly towards the viewer's
left, and its right fore-leg, sharply bent at the knee, with the right fore-hoof raised high off the
ground, is likewise slightly turned in the same direction. The left fore-leg is straight, the right
hind-leg is bent backwards, and the left hind-leg, also slightly bent backwards, is well in the
rear. The stance is, in fact, that of the horse on the extreme right of Anderson's photo, Venezia
24546, of three of the San Marco bronze horses (PL. XXI).
This leftward twist of the Vindolanda horse would seem to imply that it was once matched
by a companion (so far not discovered) on the spectator's left, also advancing forward, but
with its head turned towards the spectator's right, all four legs being in the same position as
on the Vindolanda horse: compare the stances of the right-hand and central horses on the
Anderson photo, Venezia 24546, where the two horses have their heads turned towards one
another. Alternatively the two could have been looking away from one another, as the central
and left-hand horses do on the Anderson photo. In that case the missing horse would have
been turned towards the spectator's right, probably with its right fore-leg straight (unlike the
central horse of San Marco), its left fore-leg raised off the ground, its left hind-leg slightly
bent, and its right hind-leg well to the rear: compare the stance of the left-hand horse on the
Anderson photo. The strut, possibly in the form of a snake's head and neck, which connects
the Vindolanda horse's raised right hoof with the ground on which it stands, would have been
repeated on his lost companion.
If the Vindolanda horse had been intended to be a military standard there would seem to be
no reason for its sideways twist. But as a member of a pair, as argued above, it could well be
an ornament for a cart or chariot. This use for it has recently been suggested by G. Lloyd
Morgan.28 But she gives no reason for rejecting the interpretation of it as a standard, nor does
she note the twist in the animal's stance, which would be quite inexplicable were the figurine
a self-contained object. R. Birley, too, fails to comment on the twist, although it is very ob-
vious in the photograph on p. to of his Vindolanda booklet (i973 edition).

26 Imagines: Flavinus of the ala Petriana, Genialis of cohors VII Raetorum; aquilae: Cn. Musius of legio
XIV Gemina and L. Sertorius Firmus of legio XI Claudia: Robinson, op. cit. (note 4), pl. 307, 242, 468, 443.
27 Caprino, op. cit. (note 15), pl. xlii; Becatti, op. cit. (note 9), pl. 26.
28 JRS lxviii (1978), 242.

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 THE VINDOLANDA HORSE 249

The Vindolanda horse belongs to a class of s

interpreted as ornaments for vehicles as long a
and they are the subject of lengthy articles by
The type of ornament within this class which
representation of a bird or animal, very ra
vertical mount, which is generally polygonal an
at the top. Such mounts can occasionally be cir
being normally thick and substantial, as in
very slender. For obvious reasons a shallow 'g
legs of the Vindolanda horse and the top of
with the figure that it carries. These mounts ar
and secured to, shanks of iron or wood fixed t
Vindolanda horse, and directly below its for
something has been broken off (cf. p. 285 ab
like feature such as occurs on other objects o
namely those on which the thick polygonal o
The hook-like feature projects from the mo
British piece came to light on a riverside Roma
now in the Castle Museum, Norwich, where
my attention (PL. XXII).30 Another example has
Romano-British sites that have yielded eagle
Water Newton,34 Colchester,35 Leicester,36
Suffolk.39 The purpose of the hooks will be co
In the continental Roman provinces finds o
pieces being by far the most numerous. Maybe
of flight. Obviously no attempt can be made
sufficient will be cited to illustrate their dif
gives a list of all the pieces known to him in 1
the rest the head of an eagle. Among those i
head41 (PL. XXIIIB). Of special interest apropos
Museum, Sofia (PL. XXIVA),42 where the polyg
horse, the 'hooks', each attached to its moun
in one case broken off short. A circular mou

29 E. von Mercklin, JbDAJ xlviii (1933), 84-176; A.

263-70.
30 For a full publication of it, see Antiq. Journ. li (1
31 Archaeologia Ivi (1897), 124, fig. 5.
32 Procs. Soc. Antiq. xxiii (1909-11), 496.
33 Arch. Journ. cxv, 158 (1960), 74-5, no. 37, fig. 3
34 ibid., 95, no. 232, fig. 5 on p. 97.
3" ibid., 76, 78, nos. 51, 68; for one of the Colcheste
36 Arch. Journ. cxv (1960), 84, no. 136.
3 History of Northumberland xv (194o), 154, no. T
38 First Wroxeter Report (1913), 28, no. 15 and p. 27,
39 C. Roach Smith, Collectanea Antiqua iv (1857), p
40 op. cit. (note 29), with illustrations on p. 193, fig
2, 4, 6; v, no. I.
41 op. cit. (note 29), figs. 21, 22, 30, two a feline head
venance not recorded.
42 ibid., fig. 33.

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250 J. M. C. TOYNBEE AND ALAN WILKINS

back, on a piece in the Hermitage Museum, Leningrad (PL. XX

displays a rather short circular mount topped by the head of
To turn to other, more recent, studies of these orname
eagle-headed mounts with an S-shaped 'hook' springing lat
Foytmanns publishes a pair of eagle-headed polygonal mo
and a single circular mount with an eagle's head.47 H. Me
mounts in the Historisches Museum der Pfalz,48 among w
and Geinsheim-Bobingen respectively. All have 'hooks' wh
head of a basilisk instead of the usual stylised bird's head. Al
'Wagenaufsditze'.
If these objects did adorn vehicles, being fixed to the bodie
most often in pairs, one on either side, the hook-like project
purpose, could have served to keep the reins in place. Or the
brakes', could have been tied to them when the vehicle w
a Roman relief from Maria Saal in Carinthia depicts a four-w
which has fastened to the right-hand side of its body tw
and facing backwards, just above the axle of a wheel.49 But t
all examples, including the Vindolanda horse, display su
decorative than functional; and anyhow the Maria Saal rel
Much rarer are the pieces that show mounts supporting
to the full-length figure of the Vindolanda horse - of anima

example in the is
whose stomach Badisches Landesmuseum,
supported Karlsruhe,
on a thin polygonal por
mount.5
sea-capricorn, the fore-parts of which are upheld by a su
slightly towards the top.51 Another sea-capricorn, of which
not given), balanced on a somewhat truncated mount, cam
Historisches Museum, Basel.52 A piece from Trier shows
at the junction of body and tail on a slender polygonal m
Spain, but now in the Louvre, features a group in the ro
standing on a shallow 'ground' or plinth, that tops the p
which spring laterally, one on either side, two S-shaped 'h
The Vindolanda horse has already been seen to be in good
closest equine parallels to it are the bronze in the Wadsworth
cut, U.S.A., found in Rome and measuring 17-8 by 14-6 cm
des Antiquit6s, Saint-Germain-en-Laye,56 the total heigh

43 ibid., fig. 40.

44 Third Wroxeter Report (1916), 31, no. I and pl. 20.
45 'Pasarriendas y Otros Bronces de Carros Romanos Hallodos en E
xxxi (1958), 22, fig. 8.
46 Les bronzes romains de Belgique (1979), 157, no. 286, pl. 112.
47 ibid., 152, no. 157, pl. 112.
48 Die ro'mischen Bronzen aus Deutschland I: Speyer (I960), pls. 52, 5
49 Mainzer Zeitschrift xliv/xlv (1949/50), 60o, fig. 5.
50 0. Doppelfeld (ed.), R&mer am Rhein (1967), no. C 183, pl. 88.
51 Germania Romana v (ed. 2, 1930), 22, pl. 34, 5; described as a 'F
52 A. Kaufmann-Heinimann, Die rimischen Bronzen der Schweiz
53 Menzel, op. cit. (note 48), II: Trier (1966), II3, no. 276, pl. 85.
54 de Aviles, op. cit. (note 45), fig. 21.
-5 K. Weitzmann (ed.), The Age of Spirituality (1979), no. 331 with
56 S. Reinach, Bronzes figure's de la Gaule romaine, n.d., 283-4, no.

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 THE VINDOLANDA HORSE 251

Spain, all
horse, measuring 14-6 horses
four of these by 18"3 cma and
show 16 by
sideways t
pieces turned towards the spectator's right, the
on a serpent-headed (?) strut, the Gaulish piec
the spectator's left, with the right fore-leg rais
plinth between the horses' legs and the top of th
there springs an S-shaped projection, each ter
And all four have, unlike the Vindolanda horse,
with the plinth. Another Spanish chariot ornam
instead of walking or standing, as the other hors
belly and the plinth, and the two projections,

form an oval ring. It measures 19.5 by 13.5 cm

Very occasionally vehicle mounts supported
fortress at Gherla (Cluj) in Romania has a th
Cupid, while from a point halfway down the mo
right and left respectively.59 Von Mercklin6O p
a polygonal mount, with 'hooks' springing latera
male heads and necks, back to back, facing in
found in Spain show respectively a bust of He
mount.6' Other pieces carry at the top of the
instance, three fully draped men holding open scr
and cuirassed Greek driving a galloping chario
To conclude with the Vindolanda horse, it has t
examples of chariot ornaments in the form of a
in the distant north-western provinces. In Brita

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A. W. would like to thank Mrs Birley and the Vindolanda Trust for their kind
full facilities for inspecting and photographing the horse, and J. M. C. T
advice and help with checking references not accessible to himself.

22 Park Town, Oxford (J. M. C. T.).

Annan Academy (A. W.).

17 de Aviles, op. cit. (note 45), figs. 7b and 19; figs. i6 and 18.
58 ibid., fig. 15.
59 O. Doppelfeld, Romer in Romanien (1969), no. G 206, pl. 19 : 175 by 16- 5 cm.
60 op. cit. (note 29), 113, fig. 29: provenance not recorded.
61 de Aviles, op. cit. (note 45), 31, figs. I I, 12.
62 ibid., fig. 6b.
63 ibid., fig. 22.

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(Courtesy University of Newcastle upon Tyne) (Courtesy Univers

A. Vindolanda Horse, side view, facing left (p. 245). B. Vindolanda Horse
(P. 245).

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Three of the Horses of San Marco (p. 248).

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Vehicle mounts from (1. to r.) Eisenberg (Speyer Museum); Trier area (Rijksmuseum, Le
Cressingham, Norfolk (Norwich Museum) (p. 249).

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A. Vehicle mount from Silchester (Reading Museum) (p. 249). B. Vehicle mount, provenance unrecorded (British Muse

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 PLATE XXIV

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(Courtesy British Museum)

A. Vehicle mount from Bulgaria (Sofia Museum) (p. 249).

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(Courtesy British Museum)

B. Vehicle mount from Russia (Hermitage Museum) (p. 249).

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(Courtesy Wadsworth Athenaeum, Hartford)

B. Vehicle mount, Athenae

A. Vehicle mount from Italy (?) (Wadsworth provenance u
Connecticut, U.S.A.) (p. 245).

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