Contents

Preface ................................................................................................................................................. xv
Preface to the second edition ............................................................................................................ xvii
Preface to the first edition .................................................................................................................. xix
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................. xxi
Nomenclature.................................................................................................................................... xxiii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Overview ................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Flying and handling qualities.................................................................................... 3
1.3 General considerations .............................................................................................. 4
1.3.1 Basic control-response relationships.............................................................. 5
1.3.2 Mathematical models ..................................................................................... 5
1.3.3 Stability and control ....................................................................................... 6
1.3.4 Stability and control augmentation ................................................................ 6
1.4 Aircraft equations of motion..................................................................................... 6
1.5 Aerodynamics............................................................................................................ 7
1.5.1 Small perturbations......................................................................................... 7
1.6 Computers.................................................................................................................. 8
1.6.1 Analytical computers...................................................................................... 8
1.6.2 Flight control computers ................................................................................ 8
1.6.3 Computer software tools ................................................................................ 9
1.7 Summary.................................................................................................................. 10
References........................................................................................................................ 10
Sources............................................................................................................................. 11

CHAPTER 2 Systems of Axes and Notation ...................................................................... 13

2.1 Earth axes ................................................................................................................ 13
2.2 Aircraft body
fixed axes........................................................................................ 14
2.2.1 Generalised body axes.................................................................................. 14
2.2.2 Aerodynamic, wind, or stability axes .......................................................... 15
2.2.3 Perturbation variables................................................................................... 15
2.2.4 Angular relationships in symmetric flight ................................................... 16
2.2.5 Choice of axes .............................................................................................. 18
2.3 Euler angles and aircraft attitude ............................................................................ 19
2.4 Axes transformations............................................................................................... 19
2.4.1 Linear quantities transformation .................................................................. 20
2.4.2 Angular velocities transformation................................................................ 22

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2.5 Aircraft reference geometry .................................................................................... 25

2.5.1 Wing area...................................................................................................... 25
2.5.2 Mean aerodynamic chord ............................................................................. 26
2.5.3 Standard mean chord .................................................................................... 26
2.5.4 Aspect ratio................................................................................................... 26
2.5.5 Location of centre of gravity ....................................................................... 27
2.5.6 Tail moment arm and tail volume ratio ....................................................... 27
2.5.7 Fin moment arm and fin volume ratio......................................................... 27
2.6 Controls notation ..................................................................................................... 28
2.6.1 Aerodynamic controls .................................................................................. 28
2.6.2 Engine control .............................................................................................. 28
2.7 Aerodynamic reference centres............................................................................... 29
References........................................................................................................................ 31
Problems .......................................................................................................................... 31

CHAPTER 3 Static Equilibrium and Trim ........................................................................... 33

3.1 Trim equilibrium ..................................................................................................... 33
3.1.1 Preliminary considerations ........................................................................... 33
3.1.2 Conditions for stability................................................................................. 34
3.1.3 Degree of longitudinal stability ................................................................... 37
3.1.4 Variation in stability..................................................................................... 38
3.2 The pitching moment equation ............................................................................... 42
3.2.1 Simple development of the pitching moment equation............................... 42
3.2.2 Elevator angle to trim................................................................................... 44
3.2.3 Condition for longitudinal static stability .................................................... 45
3.3 Longitudinal static stability..................................................................................... 45
3.3.1 Controls-fixed stability................................................................................. 45
3.3.2 Controls-free stability................................................................................... 49
3.3.3 Summary of longitudinal static stability...................................................... 54
3.4 Lateral-directional static stability ........................................................................... 55
3.4.1 Lateral static stability ................................................................................... 56
3.4.2 Directional static stability ............................................................................ 61
3.5 Calculation of aircraft trim condition ..................................................................... 63
3.5.1 Defining the trim condition.......................................................................... 64
3.5.2 Elevator angle to trim................................................................................... 65
3.5.3 Controls-fixed static stability ....................................................................... 66
3.5.4 “AeroTrim”: A Mathcad trim program........................................................ 67
References........................................................................................................................ 70
Sources ............................................................................................................................. 70
Problems .......................................................................................................................... 70

CHAPTER 4 The Equations of Motion ................................................................................. 73

4.1 The equations of motion for a rigid symmetric aircraft......................................... 73
4.1.1 The components of inertial acceleration...................................................... 73
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4.1.2 The generalised force equations................................................................... 77

4.1.3 The generalised moment equations.............................................................. 78
4.1.4 Perturbation forces and moments................................................................. 80
4.2 The linearised equations of motion ........................................................................ 80
4.2.1 Gravitational terms ....................................................................................... 81
4.2.2 Aerodynamic terms ...................................................................................... 82
4.2.3 Aerodynamic control terms.......................................................................... 84
4.2.4 Power terms .................................................................................................. 84
4.2.5 The equations of motion for small perturbations ........................................ 85
4.3 The decoupled equations of motion........................................................................ 87
4.3.1 The longitudinal equations of motion.......................................................... 87
4.3.2 The lateral-directional equations of motion................................................. 89
4.4 Alternative forms of the equations of motion ........................................................ 90
4.4.1 The dimensionless equations of motion....................................................... 90
4.4.2 The equations of motion in state space form .............................................. 93
4.4.3 The equations of motion in American normalised form ............................. 99
References...................................................................................................................... 106
Problems ........................................................................................................................ 106

CHAPTER 5 The Solution of the Equations of Motion................................................. 109

5.1 Methods of solution............................................................................................... 109
5.2 Cramer’s rule......................................................................................................... 110
5.3 Aircraft response transfer functions...................................................................... 112
5.3.1 The longitudinal response transfer functions............................................. 113
5.3.2 The lateral-directional response transfer functions.................................... 115
5.4 Response to controls ............................................................................................. 117
5.5 Acceleration response transfer functions .............................................................. 121
5.6 The state-space method ......................................................................................... 123
5.6.1 The transfer function matrix ...................................................................... 123
5.6.2 The longitudinal transfer function matrix.................................................. 125
5.6.3 The lateral-directional transfer function matrix......................................... 125
5.6.4 Response in terms of state description ...................................................... 128
5.7 State-space model augmentation........................................................................... 136
5.7.1 Height response transfer function .............................................................. 137
5.7.2 Incidence and sideslip response transfer functions.................................... 138
5.7.3 Flight path angle response transfer function.............................................. 139
5.7.4 Addition of engine dynamics ..................................................................... 139
References...................................................................................................................... 142
Problems ........................................................................................................................ 143

CHAPTER 6 Longitudinal Dynamics .................................................................................. 147

6.1 Response to controls ............................................................................................. 147
6.1.1 The characteristic equation ........................................................................ 152
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6.2 The dynamic stability modes ................................................................................ 153

6.2.1 The short-period pitching oscillation ......................................................... 153
6.2.2 The phugoid................................................................................................ 154
6.3 Reduced-order models........................................................................................... 155
6.3.1 The short-period mode approximation....................................................... 156
6.3.2 The phugoid mode approximation ............................................................. 159
6.4 Frequency response ............................................................................................... 166
6.4.1 The Bode diagram ...................................................................................... 168
6.4.2 Interpretation of the Bode diagram............................................................ 170
6.5 Flying and handling qualities................................................................................ 175
6.6 Mode excitation..................................................................................................... 175
References...................................................................................................................... 179
Problems ........................................................................................................................ 179

CHAPTER 7 Lateral-Directional Dynamics ...................................................................... 183

7.1 Response to controls ............................................................................................. 183
7.1.1 The characteristic equation ........................................................................ 191
7.2 The dynamic stability modes ................................................................................ 192
7.2.1 The roll subsidence mode .......................................................................... 192
7.2.2 The spiral mode.......................................................................................... 194
7.2.3 The dutch roll mode ................................................................................... 195
7.3 Reduced order models........................................................................................... 197
7.3.1 The roll mode approximation..................................................................... 198
7.3.2 The spiral mode approximation ................................................................. 199
7.3.3 The dutch roll mode approximation .......................................................... 200
7.4 Frequency response ............................................................................................... 204
7.5 Flying and handling qualities................................................................................ 210
7.6 Mode excitation..................................................................................................... 211
References...................................................................................................................... 215
Problems ........................................................................................................................ 215

CHAPTER 8 Manoeuvrability ............................................................................................... 219

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 219
8.1.1 Manoeuvring flight..................................................................................... 219
8.1.2 Stability....................................................................................................... 220
8.1.3 Aircraft handling ........................................................................................ 220
8.1.4 The steady symmetric manoeuvre ............................................................. 221
8.2 The steady pull-up manoeuvre.............................................................................. 221
8.3 The pitching moment equation ............................................................................. 223
8.4 Longitudinal manoeuvre stability ......................................................................... 225
8.4.1 Controls-fixed stability............................................................................... 225
8.4.2 Normal acceleration response to elevator.................................................. 227
8.4.3 Controls-free stability................................................................................. 228
8.4.4 Elevator deflection and stick force ............................................................ 232
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8.5 Aircraft dynamics and manoeuvrability ............................................................... 233

8.6 Aircraft with stability augmentation ..................................................................... 234
8.6.1 Stick force................................................................................................... 235
8.6.2 Stick force per g ......................................................................................... 235
References...................................................................................................................... 241

CHAPTER 9 Stability ............................................................................................................... 243

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 243
9.1.1 A definition of stability .............................................................................. 243
9.1.2 Non-linear systems ..................................................................................... 243
9.1.3 Static and dynamic stability ....................................................................... 244
9.1.4 Control ........................................................................................................ 244
9.2 The characteristic equation ................................................................................... 245
9.3 The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion................................................................... 246
9.3.1 Special cases............................................................................................... 248
9.4 The stability quartic .............................................................................................. 250
9.4.1 Interpretation of conditional instability ..................................................... 251
9.4.2 Interpretation of the coefficient E.............................................................. 252
9.5 Graphical interpretation of stability...................................................................... 253
9.5.1 Root mapping on the s-plane ..................................................................... 253
References...................................................................................................................... 257
Problems ........................................................................................................................ 257

CHAPTER 10 Flying and Handling Qualities..................................................................... 259

10.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 259
10.1.1 Stability..................................................................................................... 259
10.2 Short term dynamic models.................................................................................. 260
10.2.1 Controlled motion and motion cues......................................................... 260
10.2.2 The longitudinal reduced order model..................................................... 261
10.2.3 The “thumb print” criterion ..................................................................... 266
10.2.4 Incidence lag............................................................................................. 267
10.3 Flying qualities requirements ............................................................................... 267
10.4 Aircraft role .......................................................................................................... 270
10.4.1 Aircraft classification ............................................................................... 270
10.4.2 Flight phase .............................................................................................. 271
10.4.3 Levels of flying qualities.......................................................................... 271
10.4.4 Flight envelopes........................................................................................ 271
10.5 Pilot opinion rating ............................................................................................... 274
10.6 Longitudinal flying qualities requirements .......................................................... 276
10.6.1 Longitudinal static stability...................................................................... 276
10.6.2 Longitudinal dynamic stability ................................................................ 277
10.6.3 Longitudinal manoeuvrability .................................................................. 279
10.7 Control anticipation parameter............................................................................. 279
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10.8 Lateral-directional flying qualities requirements................................................. 281

10.8.1 Steady lateral-directional control ............................................................. 281
10.8.2 Lateral-directional dynamic stability ....................................................... 282
10.8.3 Lateral-directional manoeuvrability and response................................... 284
10.9 Flying qualities requirements on the s-plane ....................................................... 284
10.9.1 Longitudinal modes .................................................................................. 285
10.9.2 Lateral-directional modes......................................................................... 286
References...................................................................................................................... 290
Problems ........................................................................................................................ 290

CHAPTER 11 Command and Stability Augmentation ..................................................... 293

11.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 293
11.1.1 The control law......................................................................................... 295
11.1.2 Safety ........................................................................................................ 295
11.1.3 Stability augmentation system architecture ............................................. 296
11.1.4 Scope......................................................................................................... 299
11.2 Augmentation system design................................................................................ 299
11.3 Closed-loop system analysis................................................................................. 302
11.4 The root locus plot................................................................................................ 306
11.5 Longitudinal stability augmentation..................................................................... 312
11.6 Lateral-directional stability augmentation ........................................................... 319
11.7 The pole placement method ................................................................................. 330
11.8 Command augmentation....................................................................................... 335
11.8.1 Command path filter design..................................................................... 336
11.8.2 The frequency response of a phase compensation filter ......................... 338
11.8.3 Introduction of a command path filter to the system state model .......... 339
References...................................................................................................................... 348
Problems ........................................................................................................................ 348

CHAPTER 12 Aerodynamic Modelling ................................................................................ 353

12.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 353
12.2 Quasi-static derivatives......................................................................................... 354
12.3 Derivative estimation............................................................................................ 356
12.3.1 Calculation................................................................................................ 357
12.3.2 Wind tunnel measurement........................................................................ 357
12.3.3 Flight test measurement ........................................................................... 358
12.4 The effects of compressibility .............................................................................. 360
12.4.1 Some useful definitions ............................................................................ 360
12.4.2 Aerodynamic models................................................................................ 361
12.4.3 Subsonic lift, drag, and pitching moment................................................ 362
12.4.4 Supersonic lift, drag, and pitching moment............................................. 363
12.4.5 Summary................................................................................................... 364
12.5 Limitations of aerodynamic modelling ................................................................ 368
References...................................................................................................................... 368
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CHAPTER 13 Aerodynamic Stability and Control Derivatives .................................... 371

13.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 371
13.2 Longitudinal aerodynamic stability derivatives ................................................... 371
13.2.1 Preliminary considerations ....................................................................... 371
13.2.2 Aerodynamic force and moment components ......................................... 373
13.2.3 Force derivatives due to velocity perturbations....................................... 373
13.2.4 Moment derivatives due to velocity perturbations .................................. 376
13.2.5 Derivatives due to a pitch velocity perturbation ..................................... 377
13.2.6 Derivatives due to acceleration perturbations.......................................... 380
13.3 Lateral-directional aerodynamic stability derivatives.......................................... 384
13.3.1 Preliminary considerations ....................................................................... 384
13.3.2 Derivatives due to sideslip ....................................................................... 384
13.3.3 Derivatives due to rate of roll .................................................................. 394
13.3.4 Derivatives due to rate of yaw ................................................................. 398
13.4 Aerodynamic control derivatives ......................................................................... 404
13.4.1 Derivatives due to elevator ...................................................................... 405
13.4.2 Derivatives due to aileron ........................................................................ 406
13.4.3 Derivatives due to rudder......................................................................... 409
13.5 North American derivative coefficient notation .................................................. 410
13.5.1 The longitudinal aerodynamic derivative coefficients ............................ 412
13.5.2 The lateral-directional aerodynamic derivative coefficients ................... 416
13.5.3 Comments ................................................................................................. 418
References...................................................................................................................... 435
Problems ........................................................................................................................ 435

CHAPTER 14 Flight in a Non-steady Atmosphere ........................................................... 441

14.1 The influence of atmospheric disturbances on flying qualities........................... 441
14.2 Methods of evaluation .......................................................................................... 442
14.3 Atmospheric disturbances..................................................................................... 443
14.3.1 Steady wind .............................................................................................. 443
14.3.2 Wind shear................................................................................................ 444
14.3.3 Discrete gusts............................................................................................ 444
14.3.4 Continuous turbulence.............................................................................. 446
14.4 Extension of the linear aircraft equations of motion ........................................... 446
14.4.1 Disturbed body incidence and sideslip .................................................... 447
14.4.2 The longitudinal equations of motion...................................................... 448
14.4.3 The lateral-directional equations of motion............................................. 450
14.4.4 The equations of motion for aircraft with stability augmentation .......... 451
14.5 Turbulence modelling........................................................................................... 456
14.5.1 The von Kármán model............................................................................ 457
14.5.2 The Dryden model.................................................................................... 457
14.5.3 Comparison of the von Kármán and Dryden models.............................. 459
14.5.4 Turbulence scale length............................................................................ 459
14.5.5 Turbulence intensity ................................................................................. 461
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14.6 Discrete gusts........................................................................................................ 462

14.6.1 The “1-cosine” gust .................................................................................. 462
14.6.2 Determination of maximum gust velocity and horizontal length ........... 464
14.7 Aircraft response to gusts and turbulence............................................................ 465
14.7.1 Variance, power spectral density, and white noise ................................. 465
14.7.2 Spatial and temporal equivalence ............................................................ 467
14.7.3 Synthetic turbulence ................................................................................. 468
14.7.4 Aircraft response to gusts......................................................................... 470
14.7.5 Aircraft response to turbulence ................................................................ 472
References...................................................................................................................... 484

CHAPTER 15 Coursework Studies........................................................................................ 487

15.1 Introduction........................................................................................................... 487
15.1.1 Working the assignments ......................................................................... 487
15.1.2 Reporting .................................................................................................. 487
15.2 Assignment 1: Stability augmentation of the North American X-15
hypersonic research aeroplane.............................................................................. 488
15.2.1 The aircraft model .................................................................................... 488
15.2.2 The solution tasks..................................................................................... 488
15.3 Assignment 2: The stability and control characteristics of a civil transport
aeroplane with relaxed longitudinal static stability ............................................. 489
15.3.1 The aircraft model .................................................................................... 489
15.3.2 The governing trim equations .................................................................. 491
15.3.3 Basic aircraft stability and control analysis............................................. 491
15.3.4 Relaxing the stability of the aircraft ........................................................ 492
15.3.5 Relaxed stability aircraft stability and control analysis .......................... 492
15.3.6 Evaluation of results................................................................................. 492
15.3.7 Postscript................................................................................................... 492
15.4 Assignment 3: Lateral-directional handling qualities design for the
Lockheed F-104 Starfighter aircraft..................................................................... 492
15.4.1 The aircraft model .................................................................................... 493
15.4.2 Lateral-directional autostabiliser structure............................................... 494
15.4.3 Basic aircraft stability and control analysis............................................. 494
15.4.4 Augmenting the stability of the aircraft................................................... 495
15.4.5 Inclusion of the washout filter in the model............................................ 497
15.4.6 Designing the aileron-rudder interlink gain............................................. 497
15.5 Assignment 4: Analysis of the effects of Mach number on the
longitudinal stability and control characteristics of the LTV A7-A
Corsair aircraft ...................................................................................................... 498
15.5.1 The aircraft model .................................................................................... 498
15.5.2 The assignment tasks................................................................................ 498
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15.6 Assignment 5: The design of a longitudinal primary flight control

system for an advanced-technology UAV ........................................................... 501
15.6.1 The aircraft model .................................................................................... 501
15.6.2 The design requirements .......................................................................... 503
15.6.3 The assignment tasks................................................................................ 504
References...................................................................................................................... 505

Appendices
1 AeroTrim: A Symmetric Trim Calculator for Subsonic Flight Conditions.......... 507
2 Definitions of Aerodynamic Stability and Control Derivatives............................ 515
3 Aircraft Response Transfer Functions Referred to Aircraft Body Axes............... 523
4 Units, Conversions, and Constants......................................................................... 529
5 A Very Short Table of Laplace Transforms .......................................................... 531
6 The Dynamics of a Linear Second Order System ................................................. 533
7 North American Aerodynamic Derivative Notation.............................................. 537
8 Approximate Expressions for the Dimensionless Aerodynamic Stability
and Control Derivatives ......................................................................................... 539
9 Transformation of Aerodynamic Stability Derivatives from a Body
Axes Reference to a Wind Axes Reference .......................................................... 543
10 Transformation of the Moments and Products of Inertia from a Body Axes
Reference to a Wind Axes Reference.................................................................... 553
11 The Root Locus Plot .............................................................................................. 557

Index .............................................................................................................................. 563