1. What are different forms of scalar quantization?

Explain.
 Team 2 questions
Topic: Applications of adaptive quantization and Haar wavelet transforms.
Team members: Sushruth N, Ranjan P, Thejus P, Ajith Kumar S, Amit S K,
Kritika G, Deepak TS ,Shubhashree

1) What is Adaptive quantization? Write a note on its types. 10 marks

 2) Write a general note on HAAR wavelet and its applications 10 marks

In mathematics, the Haar wavelet is a sequence of rescaled "square-shaped" functions which together
form a wavelet family or basis. Wavelet analysis is similar to Fourier analysis in that it allows a target
function over an interval to be represented in terms of an orthonormal basis. The Haar sequence is now
recognised as the first known wavelet basis and extensively used as a teaching example.
The Haar sequence was proposed in 1909 by Alfréd Haar. Haar used these functions to give an example
of an orthonormal system for the space of square-integrable functions on the unit interval [0, 1]. The
study of wavelets, and even the term "wavelet", did not come until much later. As a special case of
the Daubechies wavelet, the Haar wavelet is also known as Db1.
The Haar wavelet is also the simplest possible wavelet. The technical disadvantage of the Haar wavelet is
that it is not continuous, and therefore not differentiable. This property can, however, be an advantage
for the analysis of signals with sudden transitions, such as monitoring of tool failure in machines.

Applications
Modern cameras are capable of producing images with resolutions in the range of tens of megapixels.
These images need to be compressed before storage and transfer. The Haar transform can be used for
image compression. The basic idea is to transfer the image into a matrix in which each element of the
matrix represents a pixel in the image. For example, a 256×256 matrix is saved for a 256×256
image. JPEG image compression involves cutting the original image into 8×8 sub-images. Each sub-image
is an 8×8 matrix.
Q. What is DCT? Write the equation for 1D and 2D DCT. What are its
applications? (5M)

A discrete cosine transform (DCT) expresses a finite sequence of data points in terms of a
sum of cosine functions oscillating at different frequencies. In particular, a DCT is a Fourier-
related transform similar to the discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but using only real
numbers. The DCTs are generally related to Fourier Series coefficients of a periodically and
symmetrically extended sequence whereas DFTs are related to Fourier Series coefficients of a
periodically extended sequence. DCTs are equivalent to DFTs of roughly twice the length,
operating on real data with even symmetry

. The DCT is often used in signal and image processing, especially for lossy compression,
because it has a strong "energy compaction" property. A related transform,
the modified discrete cosine transform, or MDCT (based on the DCT-IV), is used
in AAC, Vorbis, WMA, and MP3 audio compression.DCTs are also widely employed in
solving partial differential equations by spectral methods, where the different variants of the
DCT correspond to slightly different even/odd boundary conditions at the two ends of the
array.The DCT is used in JPEG image compression, MJPEG, MPEG, DV, Daala,
and Theora video compression.

Define wavelets and discrete wavelet transform. Explain the procedure for wavelet
based image compression with a block diagram. Mention the advantages of wavelet over
other compression techniques. (5M)
Wavelets are mathematical functions that cut up data into different frequency components,
and then study each component with a resolution matched to its scale.
Wavelet transform decomposes a signal into a set of basis functions. These basis functions
are called wavelets.
Discrete Wavelet transform (DWT) is the one which transforms a discrete time signal to a
discrete wavelet representation.
                            

1)What is  vector quantization?Mention few applications of vector quantization ?(5 marks) 

Ans) Vector quantization (VQ) is a classical quantization technique from signal processing that allows 
the modeling of probability density functions by the distribution of prototype vectors. It was originally 
used  for data  compression.  It  works  by  dividing  a  large  set  of  points  (vectors)  into  groups  having 
approximately  the  same  number  of  points  closest  to  them.  Each  group  is  represented  by 
its centroid point, as in k‐means and some other clustering algorithms. 

The density matching property of vector quantization is powerful, especially for identifying the density 
of  large  and  high‐dimensional  data.  Since  data  points  are  represented  by  the  index  of  their  closest 
centroid, commonly occurring data have low error, and rare data high error. This is why VQ is suitable 
for lossy data compression. It can also be used for lossy data correction and density estimation. 

Vector quantization is based on the competitive learning paradigm, so it is closely related to the self‐
organizing  map model  and  to sparse  coding models  used  in deep  learningalgorithms  such 
as autoencoder. 

Vector  quantization  is  used  for  lossy  data  compression,  lossy  data  correction,  pattern  recognition, 
density estimation and clustering. 

Lossy data correction, or prediction, is used to recover data missing from some dimensions. It is done by 
finding  the  nearest  group  with  the  data  dimensions  available,  then  predicting  the  result  based  on  the 
values for the missing dimensions, assuming that they will have the same value as the group's centroid. 

For density  estimation,  the  area/volume  that  is  closer  to  a  particular  centroid  than  to  any  other  is 
inversely proportional to the density (due to the density matching property of the algorithm). 

Applications 

Use in data compression 

Vector  quantization,  also  called  "block  quantization"  or  "pattern  matching  quantization"  is  often  used 
in lossy  data  compression.  It  works  by  encoding  values  from  a  multidimensional vector  space into  a 
finite  set  of  values  from  a  discrete subspace of  lower  dimension.  A  lower‐space  vector  requires  less 
storage space, so the data is compressed. Due to the density matching property of vector quantization, 
the compressed data has errors that are inversely proportional to density. 

The transformation is usually done by projection or by using a codebook. In some cases, a codebook can 
be also used to entropy code the discrete value in the same step, by generating a prefix coded variable‐
length encoded value as its output. 
The  set  of  discrete  amplitude  levels  is  quantized  jointly  rather  than  each  sample  being  quantized 
separately.  Consider  a k‐dimensional  vector of  amplitude  levels.  It  is  compressed  by  choosing  the 
nearest matching vector from a set of n‐dimensional vectors, with n < k. 

All possible combinations of the n‐dimensional vector  form the vector space to which all the quantized 
vectors belong. 

Only the index of the codeword in the codebook is sent instead of the quantized values. This conserves 
space and achieves more compression. 

Twin  vector  quantization (VQF)  is  part  of  the MPEG‐4 standard  dealing  with  time  domain  weighted 
interleaved vector quantization. 

Video codecs based on vector quantization 

Bink video[2] 

Cinepak 

Daala is transform‐based but uses vector quantization on transformed coefficients[3] 

Digital Video Interactive: Production‐Level Video and Real‐Time Video 

Indeo 

Microsoft Video 1 

QuickTime: Apple Video (RPZA) and Graphics Codec (SMC) 

Sorenson SVQ1 and SVQ3 

Smacker video 

VQA format, used in many games 

The  usage  of  video  codecs  based  on  vector  quantization  has  declined  significantly  in  favor  of  those 
based  on motion  compensated prediction  combined  with transform  coding,  e.g.  those  defined 
in MPEG standards, as the low decoding complexity of vector quantization has become less relevant. 

Audio codecs based on vector quantization 

AMR‐WB+ 

CELP 

DTS 

G.729 
iLBC 

Ogg Vorbis [4] 

Opus is transform‐based but uses vector quantization on transformed coefficients 

TwinVQ 

Use in pattern recognition 

VQ was also used in the eighties for speech[5] and speaker recognition.[6] Recently it has also been used 
for  efficient  nearest  neighbor  search [7] and  on‐line  signature  recognition In pattern 
recognition applications, one codebook is constructed for each class (each class being a user in biometric 
applications)  using  acoustic  vectors  of  this  user.  In  the  testing  phase  the  quantization  distortion  of  a 
testing  signal  is  worked  out  with  the  whole  set  of  codebooks  obtained  in  the  training  phase.  The 
codebook that provides the smallest vector quantization distortion indicates the identified user. 

The main advantage of VQ in pattern recognition is its low computational burden when compared with 
other  techniques  such  as dynamic  time  warping (DTW)  and hidden  Markov  model (HMM).  The  main 
drawback  when  compared  to  DTW  and  HMM  is  that  it  does  not  take  into  account  the  temporal 
evolution  of  the  signals  (speech,  signature,  etc.)  because  all  the  vectors  are  mixed  up.  In  order  to 
overcome  this  problem  a  multi‐section  codebook  approach  has  been  proposed.[9] The  multi‐section 
approach consists of modelling the signal with several sections (for instance, one codebook for the initial 
part, another one for the center and a last codebook for the ending part). 

Use as clustering algorithm 

As VQ is seeking for centroids as density points of nearby lying samples, it can be also directly used as a 
prototype‐based clustering method: each centroid is then associated with one prototype. By aiming to 
minimize the expected squared quantization error[10] and introducing a decreasing learning gain fulfilling 
the  Robbins‐Monro  conditions,  multiple  iterations  over  the  whole  data  set  with  a  concrete  but  fixed 
number  of  prototypes  converges  to  the  solution  of k‐means clustering  algorithm  in  an  incremental 
manner. 

 
 Team 5
Topic: KL Transform and Symelet Wavelet

Members: Ajay Kumar C.R (Lead)

Ninud
Vishakadatta
Shreyas Rao
Shreyas Hosur
Rahul Mohan
Gunachandan
Appaji

Q1) What is KL transform? Write the major steps involved in finding the
KL transform? (10M)

Karhunen-Lo’eve Transform was developped by Kari Karhunen and Michel Lo`eve.The

Karhunen-Lo’eve theorem is a representation of a stochastic process as an infinite linear
combination of orthogonal functions, analogous to a Fourier-series representation of a function
on a bounded interval. The importance of the Karhunen-Lo`eve theorem is that it yields the
best orthonormal basis in the sense that it minimises the total mean squared error

The KL Transform is also known as the Hoteling transform or the Eigen Vector transform. The
KL Transform is based on the statistical properties of the image and has several important
properties that make it useful for image processing particularly for image compression.The
main purpose of image compression is to store the image in fewer bits as compared to original
image, now data from neighboring pixels in an image are highly correlated. More image
compression can be achieved by de-correlating this data. The KL transform does the task of
de-correlating the data thus facilitating higher degree of compression. K-L transform applies
to random signals/images and has wide applications in data reduction, rotation and data
decorrelation applications. --------------(2)

There are major steps in order to find the KL transform:-

(I) Find the mean vector and covariance matrix of the given image X---------- (2)

(II) Find the Eigen values and then the eigen vectors of the covariance matrix----------(2)

(III) Create the transformation matrix T, such that rows of T are eigen vectors----------

(2) (IV) Find the KL Transform----------(2)

Consider an image X
(I) Find the mean vector and covariance matrix of the given image
X Now the image is broken down into column vectors as

The mean vector is found out as shown below mx=E(x) (Equation 1)

Where E{x} is the expected value
N = number of columns
The covariance of the vector population is defined as

The covariance for the vector population of size N can be approximated by the
formula The covariance matrix is real and symmetric

(II) Find the Eigen values and then the eigen vectors of the covariance matrix
Let viand λI be the eigen vectors and eigen values of Cx, where 1<=i<=N.

Eigen value can be found out using the equation

The covariance matrix is real and symmetric

(II….) Find the Eigen values and then the eigen vectors of the covariance matrix
Let v1 and λ I be the eigen vectors and eigen values of Cx, where 1<=i<=N.
Eigen value can be found out using the equation

Where Cx= Covariance matrix

I= Identity Matrix
λ= Eigen Value

Eigen Vector can be found out corresponding to each Eigen vector as shown
below Cxv1=λv1 (Finding the first Eigen Vector)

(III) Create the transformation matrix T, such that rows of T are eigen vectors

i. The KL Transformation matrix is formed using the Eigen vectors. Each eigen vector is
arranged as a row of the transformation matrix.
ii. The vector corresponding to the largest Eigen value is placed on the first row and so on.
iii. This KL Transform matrix, T, is orthogonal

(IV) Find the KL Transform

We obtain the KL Transformed image by simply multiplying the Transformation matrix with
the centralized image vector (x−mx)
Therefore, X=T.(x−mx)
This is the formula for KL Transform.
1. What is JPEG? Explain JPEG Compression Algorithm.
JPEG is a commonly used method of lossy compression for digital images. The degree of
compression can be adjusted, allowing a tradeoff between storage size and image quality with a
compression ratio 10:1; but with the little perceptible loss in image quality. 

JPEG Compression Algorithm

 
 

 
2. Write a short note on JPEG 2000. Brief out the difference
between JPEG and JPEG2000

JPEG 2000 standard for the compression of still images is based on the Discrete Wavelet
Transform (DWT). This transform decomposes the image using functions called wavelets.
The basic idea is to have a more localized analysis of the information which is not possible
using cosine functions whose temporal or spatial supports are identical to the data.

JPEG 2000 Advantages:

 Better image quality that JPEG at the same file size or alternatively 25-35 % smaller file
sizes with the same quality.
 Good image quality at low bit rates ( even with compression ratios over 80 :1)
 Low complexity option for devices with limited resources.
 Scalable image files – no decomposition needed for reformatting with JPEG 2000, the
image that best matches the target device can be extracted from a single compressed file
on a server. Options include:
o Image sizes from thumbnail to full size.
o Grayscale to full 3 channel color.
o Low quality image to lossless (identical to original image)
 JPEG 2000 is more suitable to web-graphics than baseline JPEG because it supports
alpha-channel (transparency component)
 Region of Interest (ROI): One can define some more interesting parts of image, which are
coded with more bits than surrounding areas.

 Block Diagram of JPEG 2000

 
Difference between JPEG and JPEG2000

Sl. No JPEG JPEG2000

1 DCT DWT
2 Block based segmentation of source Tile based
image
3 Less computational complexity High computational complexity
4 Less compression ratio High compression ratio
(2-30) (2-50)
5 Extension: .jpg, jpe, jfif, jpeg Extension: .jp2
6 Web browser is widely supported in Web browser is not yet widely supported
almost all web browser
7 Lossy compression method Lossy and lossless compression method
in the same file stream
8 Lower than JPEG2000- generate Higher than JPEG- image is clearer
blocky and blurry characteristic without blocky and blurry characteristic
9 PSNR is low PSNR is high
10 Applications of JPEG : Applications of JPEG2000 :
Digital photography Digital photography
Internet imaging Internet imaging
Image and video editing Image and video editing
Printing
Medical imaging
Mobile applications
Color fax
Satellite imaging
1.With a neat block diagram of the subband coding system describe the basic subband coding
algorithm.

THE BASIC SUBBAND CODING ALGORITHM

The basic subband coding system is shown in Figure

FIGURE Block diagram of the subband coding system.

Analysis
The source output is passed through a bank of filters, called the analysis filter bank, which
covers the range of frequencies that make up the source output. The passbands of the filters
can be nonoverlapping or overlapping. Nonoverlapping and overlapping filter banks are
shown in Figure 14.8. The outputs of the filters are then subsampled.

FIGURE 14.8 Nonoverlapping and overlapping filter banks.

The justification for the subsampling is the Nyquist rule and its generalization, which tells us
that we only need twice as many samples per second as the range of frequencies. This means
that we can reduce the number of samples at the output of the filter because the range of
frequencies at the output of the filter is less than the range of frequencies at the input to the
filter. This process of reducing the number of samples is
called decimation,1 or downsampling. The amount of decimation depends on the ratio of the
bandwidth of the filter output to the filter input. If the bandwidth at the output of the filter
is 1/M of the bandwidth at the input to the filter, we would decimate the output by a factor of
M by keeping every imageth sample. The symbol Mↆ is used to denote this decimation.
Once the output of the filters has been decimated, the output is encoded using one of several
encoding schemes, including ADPCM, PCM, and vector quantization.

quantization and coding

Along with the selection of the compression scheme, the allocation of bits between the
subbands is an important design parameter. Different subbands contain differing amounts of
information. Therefore, we need to allocate the available bits among the subbands according
to some measure of the information content. There are a number of different ways we can
distribute the available bits. For example, suppose we are decomposing the source output into
four bands and we want a coding rate of 1 bit per sample. We can accomplish this by using 1
bit per sample for each of the four bands (recall that a 1/4 decimation occurs in each band).
On the other hand, we can simply discard the output of two of the bands and use 2 bits per
sample for the two remaining bands. Or, we can discard the output of three of the four filters
and use 4 bits per sample to encode the output of the remaining filter.
This bit allocation procedure can have a significant impact on the quality of the final
reconstruction, especially when the information content of different bands is very different.
If we use the variance of the output of each filter as a measure of information, and assume
that the compression scheme is scalar quantization, we can arrive at several simple bit
allocation schemes. If we use a slightly more sophisticated model for the outputs of the
filters, we can arrive at significantly better bit allocation procedures

Synthesis
The quantized and coded coefficients are used to reconstruct a representation of the original
signal at the decoder. First, the encoded samples from each subband are decoded at the
receiver. These decoded values are then upsampled by inserting an appropriate number of 0s
between samples. Once the number of samples per second has been brought back to the
original rate, the upsampled signals are passed through a bank of reconstruction filters. The
outputs of the reconstruction filters are added to give the final reconstructed outputs.
We can see that the basic subband system is simple. The three major components of this
system are the analysis and synthesis filters, the bit allocation scheme, and
the encoding scheme..
The bit allocation procedures have also been extensively studied in the contexts of subband
coding, wavelet-based coding, and transform coding.
The separation of the source output according to frequency also opens up the possibility for
innovative ways to use compression algorithms. The decomposition of the source output in
this manner provides inputs for the compression algorithms, each of which has more clearly
defined characteristics than the original source output. We can use these characteristics to
select separate compression schemes appropriate to each of the different inputs.
Human perception of audio and video inputs is frequency dependent. We can use this fact to
design our compression schemes so that the frequency bands that are most important to
perception are reconstructed most accurately. Whatever distortion there has to be is
introduced in the frequency bands to which humans are least sensitive
2.Explain embedded zerotree coder as an application of wavelets for image cpmpression?

Embedded Zerotree Wavelet (EZW) Image Compression

The EZW algorithm is based on four key concepts :

1. Discrete wavelet transform (hierarchical subband decomp.)

2. Prediction of the absence of significant information across scales by exploiting the self-
similarity inherent in images

3. Entropy-coded successive-approximation quantization

4. “Universal” lossless data compression which is achieved via adaptive arithmetic coding

Why Wavelets?

• Traditional DCT & subband coding: trends “obscure” anomalies that carry info – E.g.,
edges get spread, yielding many non-zero coefficients to be coded

• Wavelets are better at localizing edges and other anomalies – Yields a few non-zero
coefficients & many zero coefficients – Difficulty: telling the decoder “where” the few non-
zero’s are!!!

• Natural images in general have a low pass spectrum. – the wavelet coefficients will, on
average, be smaller in the higher subbands than in the lower subbands.

• Large wavelet coefficients are more important than smaller wavelet coefficients.

• Significance map (SM): binary array indicating location of zero/non-zero coefficients –

Typically requires a large fraction of bit budget to specify the SM – Wavelets provide a
structure (zerotrees) to the SM that yields efficient coding

Embedded Zero tree algorithm is a simple yet powerful algorithm having the property that the
bits in the stream are generated in the order of their importance. The first step in this
algorithm is setting up an initial threshold. Any coefficient in the wavelet is said to be
significant if its absolute value is greater than the threshold. In a hierarchical sub-band
system, every coefficient is spatially related to a coefficient in the lower band. Such
coefficients in the higher bands are called ‘descendants’This is shown in figure
If a coefficient is significant and positive, then it is coded as ‘positive significant’ (ps). If a
coefficient is significant and negative, then it is coded as ‘negative significant’ (ns). If a
coefficient is insignificant and all its descendants are insignificant as well, then it is coded as
‘zero tree root’ (ztr). If a coefficient is insignificant and all its descendants are not
insignificant, then it is coded as ‘insignificant zero’ (iz). The algorithm involves two passes –
Dominant pass and Subordinate pass. In the dominant pass, the initial threshold is set to one
half of the maximum pixel value. Subsequent passes have threshold values one half of the
previous threshold. The coefficients are then coded as ps, ns, iz or ztr according to their
values. The important part is that if a coefficient is a zerotree root, then the descendants need
not be encoded. Thus only the significant values are encoded

In the subordinate pass, those coefficients which were found significant in the dominant pass
are quantized based on the pixel value. In the first pass, the threshold is half of the maximum
magnitude, so the interval is divided into two and the subordinate pass codes a 1 if the
coefficient is in the upper half of the interval and codes a 0 if the coefficient is in the lower
half of the interval. Thus if the number of passes is increased, the precision of the coefficients
is increased.

The EZW scheme implemented divides an image into blocks of standard size and performs
coding on each of the blocks. It can be seen that for very small block sizes and very large
block sizes the visual distortions are more pronounced. In case of smaller images the
distortions may be due to the size of the header details needed to be added for each block,
which would be significant compared to the information of the block itself. In case of large
block size the initial threshold is high and hence needs a lot of passes to achieve significant
amount of visual quality.
Q1. (a)What is Haar transform and also state some properties of haar transform. 
(5 marks) 
Ans:  The Haar wavelet is a sequence of rescaled "square-shaped" functions which together form
a wavelet family or basis. Wavelet analysis is similar to Fourier analysis in that it allows a target
function over an interval to be represented in terms of an orthonormal basis.

The Haar wavelet is also the simplest possible wavelet. The technical disadvantage of the
Haar wavelet is that it is not continuous, and therefore not differentiable. This property can, however,
be an advantage for the analysis of signals with sudden transitions, such as monitoring of tool failure
in machines.

Wavelet can keep track of time and frequency information. There are two functions that play a primary 
role in wavelet analysis, the scaling function (father wavelet) and the wavelet (mother wavelet). The 
simplest wavelet analysis is based on Haar scaling function.

The Haar wavelet's mother wavelet function can be described as

 
Its scaling function can be described as

Haar Wavelet's properties: 

 (1) Any function can be the linear combination of ψ ( x), ψ ( 2 x), ψ ( 2 2 x), L,ψ ( 2 k x), L φ ( x), φ ( 2 x), 
φ ( 2 2 x), L φ ( 2 k x), L and their shifting functions 

 (2) Any function can be the linear combination of constant function, and their shifting functions. 

(3) The set of functions {2j/2 Ø 2j x‐k ; k∈Z  is an orthonormal basis. 

b When does one choose a Haar wavelet as opposed to a

Daubechies wavelet? (5marks)

Ans: Daubechies wavelets are usually defined by their number of vanishing moments(m), or,
equivalently, the length of the corresponding filter (2m). The Haar wavelet is a special case of
the Daubechies, with m=1.
 Several aspects can be considered, all connected with each others. The 2 most important, I
think, are the following:
- it is somehow related to the regularity (smoothness, if you wish) of the wavelet: the higher m,
the more regular the wavelet. With only one vanishing moment, Haar is particularly irregular, in
fact it is even discontinuous. More regular wavelets will be able to approximate, or maybe
compress, regular signals more efficiently. This is linked to a property called polynomial
suppression: the number m is in fact the maximum degree of polynomials orthogonal to the
wavelet.
- it is also related to the support of the wavelet function, or equivalently of its corresponding
filter. The higher the number of vanishing moments, the larger the support, which means more
computation. Daubechies wavelets are optimal for a given number of vanishing moments (i.e.
they have the smaller support); since Haar is the simplest Daubechies, it makes it the cheapest
wavelet in terms of computation (plus it is relatively simple to implement).

Q2.Explain vector quantization, list the applications and describe how it is used in data
compression(10marks).

Vector quantization

The idea of scalar quantization generalizes immediately to vector quantization (VQ). In this case,
we have to perform quantization over blocks of data, instead of a single scalar value. The
quantization output is an index value which indicates another data block (vector) from a finite set
of vectors, called the codebook. The selected vector is usually an approximation of the input data
block. The important point about VQ is that, we require reproduction vectors (instead of
reproduction levels) that are known by the encpder and the decoder. The encoder takes an input
vector, determines the best representing reproduction vector, and transmits the index of that
vector. The decoder takes that index, and forms the reproduction vector because it already knows
the reproduction vectors instead of the original. Consider the following figure:

 
The three 2x2 data vectors at the left (x1 ,x2 ,x3 ) are quantized to the 2x2 data vector at the right
(Yi ). This means that the encoder transmits the symbol which represents vector when it
encounters the 2x2 vectors at the left as its input. ObviouslyYi, should be a good representation
Yi for the left vectors. The decoder, therefore, reproduces Yi at the places of the original 2x2
vectors at the left. The issues of "how good a representation of the right vector is for the left
vectors" is still valid, and the distortion measurements will be similar to the scalar case. The
overall encoder and decoder can be given as:

The encoder, therefore, just finds the vector in the set from Y1 to Ynto which is closest to the
input vectorXn . Let's say that the closest vector is . The encoder, then transmits the index
corresponding toYi , which is i. The task of the decoder is even easier. It just gets the index i, and
extracts the vector Yi from the codebook, which is the same as the codebook of the encoder. The
quantized version ofXn is, therefore, Yi

APPLICATION

Vector quantization is used for lossy data compression, lossy data correction, pattern recognition,
density estimation and clustering.
Lossy data correction, or prediction, is used to recover data missing from some dimensions. It is
done by finding the nearest group with the data dimensions available, then predicting the result
based on the values for the missing dimensions, assuming that they will have the same value as
the group's centroid.

How it is used in data compression

For density estimation, the area/volume that is closer to a particular centroid than to any other is
inversely proportional to the density (due to the density matching property of the algorithm).

Team 10 – Manu, Skanda, Varun, Rajath Jain, Vishwas, Prince, Shakeel, Vinay
Topic: Quantization and coding of transform coefficients

1. What are transforms? Explain DCT with suitable diagram and mention its
advantages.
A.
2. Describe multistage vector quantization and illustrate a three stage quantizer.
A.