•~r Journal of

ETHNO
PHARMACOI£)GY
ELSEVIER Journal of Ethnopharmacology50 (1996) 147-156

The ethnopharmacopoeia of Rotuma

Will M c C l a t c h e y
Florida Museum of Natural History, Herbarium (FLAS), University of Florida, 209 Rolfs Hall, P.O. Box 110530,
Gainesville, FL 32611-0530, USA

Received 14 August 1995; revision received 1 December 1995;accepted 5 December 1995

Abstract

The traditional Rotuman herbal pharmacopoeia consists of many plants, each of which is used in a specific way
for specific disease states. The practitioners of traditional medicine are specialists recognized by the culture as having
spiritual power to promote health. These individuals have been interviewed in order to determine which plants are pre-
sently in use. The healers interviewed represent a disappearing tradition which is not being passed on to the next
generation. An effort has been made to record all of the plants used by all of the healers which remain in the Rotuman
culture (on the island). This information is presented as a table of plant species and their respective indications.

Keywords: Rotuma; Ethnopharmacopoeia; Polynesia; Traditional medicine

1. Introduction nal forests in order to plant their crops of papula,

The islands of the Rotuma group (in the Pacific)
lie at 12° 30' south latitude and 177° 5' east
longitude. The island group consists of one central
island and at least eight smaller surrounding
islands. Presently, only the central larger island is
inhabited, but each of the smaller islands have
ruins from former occupation and the resources of
these smaller islands are still occasionally used by
the Rotumans.
The tropical Rotuman islands are covered with
lush vegetation, owing to the rich soils and con-
sistently high annual rainfall levels of at least 355
cm. The Rotumans have cleared much of the origi-
* Corresponding author.
Coiocasia esculenta (L.) Schott (Araceae); 'apea,
Alocasia macrorrhiza (L.) Schott (Araceae); niu,
Cocos nucifera L. (Arecaceae); pari, Musa acumi-
nata CoUa. X M. balbisiana Colla. (Musaceae);
and 'ulu, Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson ex Zoll.)
Fosb. (Moraceae); but the forests constantly grow
back over older garden sites, presenting a con-
tinual cycle with all stages of forest regeneration
present throughout the islands. Although most of
the land on these islands is composed of deep, rich
volcanic soil, some areas consist of more recent
lava flows with little or no soils. These later areas
have been left virtually untouched by agriculture
and represent critical sources of plants used in
many different cultural activities including herbal
medicine.

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148 W. McClatchey/ Journal of Ethnopharmacology 50 (1996) 147-156
The Rotuma group is politically part of the na-
tion of Fiji although it is culturally and geogra-
phically removed from Fiji. The Rotuman culture
has come about through a mixing of Polynesian
and Melanesian influences. Rotuman legends in-
dicate possible cultural origins from Samoa (Chur-
chward, 1937) or 'Uvea. The Rotumans share
many cultural characteristics with these other
Polynesians, but they also have a uniquely
Rotuman way of life as reflected in their language
(Churchward, 1938, 1940), kinship (Howard,
1962) and traditional uses of plants (Bennett, 1831;
Gardiner, 1898; McClatchey, 1993).
A study was conducted of the Rotuman tradi-
tional uses of their flora beginning in 1991. The
Rotuman people may still be found creating com-
mon cultural items such as baskets, clothing,
houses or fish traps etc., with each resembling
those found in other Polynesian cultures, but each
being made of quite different plants or being pro-
duced through very different processes. These uni-
que uses help define what is Rotuman. By docu-
menting and understanding the Rotuman uses of
plants, it may be possible to recreate the world
view and unique perspective of the Rotumans.
Throughout this research, it has become quite
clear that the Rotuman traditional knowledge
about plants and their cultural uses has greatly
deteriorated from what it must have been in the
past. This process of deterioration has not decreas-
ed in recent times but rather has escalated as the
Rotumans themselves have abandoned tradition in
search of western accoutrements and solutions to
their problems. The most threatened form of tradi-
tional plant knowledge on Rotuma concerns the
use of plants as medicines. The Rotuman knowl-
edge of traditional herbal medicine is concentrated
in a very few elderly healers who still quietly prac-
tice their trade of compassion, before dying and
taking their knowledge with them.
2. Healing practices
Rotuman herbal medicine has traditionally been
practised by a limited number of individuals who
are recognized as specialists treating specific
ailments. Each of these specialists has learned her
trade from a close family member (most often the
trade is passed from mother to daughter, although
males and more distant relatives may be trained as
healers). The knowledge of diagnosis and appro-
priate treatment has in the past been carefully
guarded as a familial secret. The cultural prohibi-
tions against sharing secret information have
deteriorated along with the knowledge which these
prohibitions protected.
Rotuman herbal remedies use specific parts of
plants and often a single remedy will contain more
than one species of plant. As an example, a remedy
for high blood pressure may contain Geophila
repens (L.) I.M. Johnst. (Rubiaceae) leaves, Prem-
na serratifolia A.C. Smith (Verbenaceae) bark and
Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae) leaves. Remedies
recorded may contain from one to many species
with various botanical parts used from each
species.
Rotumans' do not credit the plants themselves
as providing effective treatments, but rather, the
healers are credited with having healing powers
about themselves which provide the remedy. This
healing power is usually in the form of aid from
ancestral spirits, the recently dead, or helpful
spirits/gods. Many healers in this Christian era,
credit their healing power to God, the Rotumans
being Methodists and Catholics. Despite attribu-
tion of the spiritual healing power to God, the
power is still viewed from a traditional perspective
in regard to transference of that same healing
power/authority from one generation of healer to
the next. The power to heal can typically only be
passed to close relatives, thus, preventing the effec-
tive transference of knowledge (and spiritual
power) to non-relatives. Furthermore, the power
can only be effectively transferred to fully trained
Rotuman apprentices known to be endowed with
traditional qualities of compassion, generosity and
spiritual understanding.
Rotuman culture is composed of a stratified so-
ciety with differing rolls for chiefs, commoners,
women and men, but the traditional healers may
be found in all strata of Rotuman society. The
healers are more frequently women than men, and
the female healers typically have more treatments
to offer than their male counterparts. Therefore,
the information presented in this paper has been
gleaned from a wide spectrum of Rotuman society,
 W. McClatchey/ Journal of Ethnopharmacology 50 (1996) 147-156
although with a marked skew towards elderly
representatives.
Healers commonly begin their training as child-
ren or teenagers working as assistants to their
mothers, fathers or other relatives who are re-
cognized healers. After having trained for a num-
ber of years, the apprentice will be ceremonially
granted the authority to use a given treatment. The
new healer will then have the social authority and
spiritual backing to use the treatment. This indi-
vidual will be recognized by others in the Rotuman
culture as having mystical power to heal, as well as
having the proper training to use the medicinal
plants and perform therapeutic massage.
Most Rotumans have a general knowledge of
medicinal plants which are used for first-aid
remedies, cough and colds and other simple
ailments. These remedies usually involve the use of
single plants prepared in very simple manners for
internal or external administration. These com-
mon remedies are widely used and are considered
as general knowledge with no training required for
their usage. Although healers may use these same
remedies, they generally will use them in more
complex versions or mixtures in their prepara-
tions.
The non-healers on Rotuma (most of the popu-
lation) know very few of the complex treatments
used by healers. Some non-healers will claim to
know how to prepare treatments which are used by
healers in their family, but most are either not in-
terested or are fearful of preparing remedies
without the proper training and authority to do so.
3. The political setting
Throughout the colonial period of Rotuman
history (1880s-1960s), the government and the
churches suppressed and discouraged the use of
traditional medicine (Howard, 1979). This rejec-
tion of traditions by their government made many
Rotumans forsake their traditional ways and
disrupted the transference of knowledge from
generation to generation. The survival of any tra-
ditional treatments through the colonial era is a
testament to the faith the Rotumans have in their
own therapies, as well as a statement of the possi-
149
ble efficacy which the people have found in these
treatments.
The current government in Fiji is very suppor-
tive of indigenous knowledge systems and is begin-
ning to provide some support for traditional
healers in Fiji and Rotuma. It is likely that this
support and tolerance of traditional medicine is
too late for the bulk of the traditional knowledge,
which has already been buried with those who held
it.
4. Methodology
Cultural and botanical surveys of Rotuman tra-
ditional medicine were conducted during five field
sessions, totalling about 7 months in the Rotuma
group. The first field work and interviews with
Rotuman healers took place in May 1991. During
each subsequent stay on Rotuma, interviews were
performed with as many different healer specialists
as could be identified in order to record their
fading information. Healers were interviewed
using a participant-observation methodology,
wherein the researcher learned through a hands-on
approach how each herbal treatment is prepared.
During January-March 1994, the survey of the
Rotuman medicinal system was accomplished,
after having completed the identification of all of
the widely recognized healers present (in 1994) on
Rotuma.
The ethnomedical data presented in this paper
represent only those collected by the author from
culturally recognized healers. Medicinal plant in-
formation gleaned from non-healers has been ex-
cluded.
Harold St. John collected much of the flora of
Rotuma in his 1938 visit to the island. In his un-
published notes, located in the Bernice P. Bishop
Museum, Honolulu, he frequently recorded medi-
cinal uses for the plants he collected. Other visitors
(Bennett, 1832; Gardiner, 1898; Churchward,
1940) also recorded their observations of the Rot-
uman medicinal system, yet none of these clearly
states the sources of their information. Since the
earlier researchers have not consistently provided
the sources of their information or plant voucher
references, their referenced plants and/or remedies
have not been included here unless the same infor-
150 W. McClatchey / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 50 (1996) 147-156

mation was also obtained corroboratively from a 5. Results

recognized Rotuman healer.
Voucher specimens of each species identified by
the Rotuman healers were collected and placed in
the following herbaria: BISH, BRY and SUV.
Some duplicate specimens hav e also been placed in
FLAS and MO. Voucher specimen numbers are
given in Table 1, with each species listed.
Sixty-eight specialist healers have been iden-
tified out of a total population of about 2500 living
in the island group. Very few healers presently
have apprentices to whom they are passing on
their knowledge. The average age of the healers is
in excess of 54-years-old. Healers in excess of 60

Table 1
The Rotuman ethnopharmacopoeia

Latin name Rotuman name Parts used Medicinal usage or disease treated
(plant family/voucher number)

Acalypha grandis Benth. (Euphorbiaceae/ Karposi Leaves Inflammation, infection (bacterial)

WCM113,573)
Aglaia saltatorum A.C. Smith Ragkori 'uvea Flowers Infection (bacterial)
(Meliaceae/WCM353,414)
Aleurites raoluccana (L.) Willd. (Euphor- Si'ursi Fruits Vermifuge, topical irritations
biaceae/*)n
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (Aloear~eae/1) AIo Leaves Topical bums, malaise/depression
Alpinia sp. (ZingiberaeeaeAVCM389,549) Kapui Shoots Anaesthetic expectorant, malaise/depression,
Rotuam infection (bacterial), infection (viral), sei-
zures, fever
Stems Infection (bacterial)
Amorphophallus campanulatus (Roxb.) BI. ex Soro Stems Infection (bacterial) B, constipationB
Dune (Araceae/WCM375)
Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg 'UIu Leaves Inflammation (aural), pain (aural)
(Moraecae/WCM 165)
Atuna racemasa Raf. Pipi Fruits Astringent, infection (bacterial) a
(Chrysobalanaccae/WCM358)
Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz Hufu Bark Toothache-anesthetic, infection (bacterial),
(Lecythidaeeae/WCM 167,220) inflammation
Fruits Toothache-anesthetic, infection (bacterial)
Calophyllum inophyllum L. (Clusiaceae/WCM095) Hefau Leaves Occular irritation, infection (bacterial), in-
fection (fungal), vermifuge/pediculicide,
inflammation
Fruits Seborrhea, topical irritation
Cananga odorata (Lain.) Hook.f et Thouars. Moskoi Flowers Infection (bacterial) A
(Annonaceae/WCM071)
Capsicum frutescens L. (Solanaceae/WCM079) 'Ai sun, jili Leaves Infection (bacterial)
Carica papaya L. (Caricaeeae/WCM190,271) Esu Roots Inflammation (dental), pain (dental)
Cassia alata L. (FabaceaeAVCM070) 'Ai ne tane Leaves Infection (fungal)
Casurina equisetifolia L. Toa Bark Abortifacient, dysmenorrhea
(Casuarinaeeae/WCM 194)
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Apiaceae/ Ti togo Leaves Thoracic pain (angina?), infection (viral),
WCM 169) fever, seizures, tonic F, depression?
Centosteca lappaeea (L.) Desv. Saurag Leaves Infection (undefined)
(Poaeeae/WCM372)
Cerbera manghas L. (ApocynaceaeAVCM308) Giagia Leaves Infection (fungal), inflammation, topical ir-
ritation
Chamaesyce atoto (Forst.f) Croiz. (Euphor- Majila Sap Topical irritation ictheotoxin/sting
biaceae/WCM530) Leaves Inflammation ictheotoxin/sting
Stems Infection (viral), fever seizures
 W. McClatchey / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 50 (1996) 147-156 151

Table 1 (continued)

Latin name Rotuman name Parts used Medicinal usage or disease treated
(plant family/voucher number)

Citrus sinensis L. (Rutaceae/WCM103,250) Mori Leaves Postpartum bleeding

Bark Miscarriage, dysmenorrhea
Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f. Lamane Leaves Postpartum bleeding
(Rutaceae/WCM349,370)
Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. Ortea Leaves Topical burns
(Lamiaceae J/~VCM52I)
Clidemia hirta (L.) D.Don Fai kau Leaves Diarrhea (dysentary), topical irritation, in-
(Melastomataceae/WCM ! 55) fection (bacterial)
Cocos nucifera L. (Arecaceae/1) Niu Fruit Inflammation, infection (fungal), infection
(bacterial)
Leaves Preparatory compound C, splints, etc.
Cocos nucifera L. ethnovariety "uta" Niu uta Fruit Depression/malaise, constipation
(Arecaceae/WCM533)
Cordyline terminalis (L.) Kunth (Dra- Ji, rauji Stem Mechanical abortifacient
caenaceae/WCM 102,145,147)
Curcuma Ionga L. (Zingiberaceae/WCM392,560) Raga Rhizomes Infection (bacterial), insect repellant, infec-
tion (fungal), skin blemishes, constipation
Cyclosorus unitus (L.) Ching Sakoto Fronds Preparatory compoundC
(Thelypteridaceae/WCM371 )
Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Dioscoreaceae/WCM225) Fui Stems Occular infection/irritation
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Pup Fruits Topical infections, breast lumps (infection?)
(Poaceae/WCM 175,532)
Epipremnum pinnatum (L.) Engler Rauvaru Leaves Inflammation, preparatory compoundC
(Araceae/WCM093,235,330)
Erythrina variegata Stickm. Ratua Bark Dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, promotion of
(Fabaceae/WCM 186,233,541) conception hemorrhage
Leaves Dysmeorrhea, amenorrhea, hemorrhage, in-
flammation
Euodia hortensis Forst.f. (Rutaceae/WCM569) Usi Leaves Inflammation, fever, constipation, infection
(bacterial, viral?),
Stems Infection (bacterial) B
Excoecaria agallocha L. (Euphorbiaceae/ Majila Leaves Topical pain, ictheotoxin/sting, inflam-
WCM409,550) mation
Ficus scabra Forst.f. (Moraceae/WCM777) Malu Bark Eye injury/irritation
Ficus tinctoria Forst.f. (Moraceae/WCM161,220) U'apea Leaves Jaundice (hepatitis?), depression/malaise,
diarrhea
Gardenia vitiensis Seem. Tiere Leaves Preparatory compound C
(Rubiaceae/WCM084,177,229,399)
Geophila repens (L.) I.M. Johnst. Ti Logo Leaves Hypertension (cardiac insufficiency?), con-
(Rubiaceae/WCM577) stipation
Glochidion ramiflorum Forst. et Forst.f. (Euphor- 'Am'ama Leaves Cough, sore throat
biaceae/WCM 130)
Guettarda speciosa L. Hana Pollen Inflammation (aural), pain (aural)
(Rubiaceae/WCM 166,232,562)
Heliconia laufao W.J. Kress Par Samoa Stems Preparatory compoundc
(Heliconiaceae/WCM416)
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Kauta Leaves Promotion of parturition, topical ailments
(Malvaceae/WCM398,566) Stems Dental hygiene E
Ipomoea littoralis BI. (Convolvulaceae/ Johea Leaves Infection (bacterial), inflammation pain/ir-
WCM551,556,558) ritation
lpomoea pes-caprae (L.) R.Br. (Con- Puka Leaves Promotion of parturition, dysmenorrhea
volvulaceae/WCM062,368)
152 W. McClatchey / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 50 (1996) 147-156

Table 1 (continued)

Latin name Roturnan name Parts used Medicinal usage or disease treated
(plant family/voucher number)

Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae/WCM156) Virviri Fruits Food poisoning (emetic)

Lantana camara L. var. aculeata L. Pen kunei Leaves Infection (bacterial), inflammation, postpar-
(Verbenaceae/WCM076,519) tum bleeding, miscarriage
Laportea interupta (L.) Chew (Urticaceae/ Usogo Entire plant Fever Ictheotoxin/sting, inflammation, in-
WCM561) fection (viral), seizures
Roots Infection (bacterial)
Microlepia scaberula Mett. ex Kuhn (Dennstaed- Julia ne moa immature Thoracic pain (angina?)
tiaceae/WC M419) fronds
Micromelum minutum (Forst.f.) Seem. (Rutaceae/ Tar fai Bark Amenorrhea, thoracic pain (angina?)
WCM230,415) Leaves Toothache (analgesic?), tonic F, infection
(bacterial)
Mikania micrantha HBK. (Asteraceae/WCM109) 'Ai raurau Stems Infection (bacterial), topical burns
Leaves Astringent/hemorrhage, fever
Morinda citrifolia L. (Rubiaeae/WCM096) 'Ura Fruits Oral sores, infection (bacterial), infection
(fungal), infection (tuberculosis), seizures,
fever, infection (viral) tonic F, depression?
Leaves Infection (bacterial), topical burns, fever,
inflammation, hemorrhage
Bark Infection (bacterial)
Roots Postparturition health of the mother, ic-
theotoxin/sting, inflammation, pain
Flowers Inflammation (oceular)
Musa acuminata X M. balbisiana Colla Par mea Leaves Infection (bacterial), pain (aural), inflamma-
ethnovariety "mea" (Musaceae/WCM497) tion (aural)
Shoots Dysmenorrhea, hemorrhage, amenorrhea,
miscarriage abortifacient
Musa acuminata X M. balbisiana Colla Par Rotuam Leaves Migraine, headaches, inflammation c
ethnovariety "roro, Rotuma"
(Musaceae/WCM572)
Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae/WCM390,407) Tamor Leaves Cough, pain
Pandanus dubius Spreng. (Pandanaceaefl) Hosoa Young Food poisoning
shoots
Phymatosorus scolopendrium (Burm.f.) Pichi- Sesei Fronds Puncture wounds, infection (bacterial), topi-
Serm. (Polypodiaceae/WCM073) cal irritations/allergic reactions, tonic F,
bleeding wounds
Rhizomes Hepatitis?/jaundice, depression/malaise, sei-
zures, skin discolorations, cough, occular
irritation, infection (bacterial), infection
(viral), fever, tonic F
Physalis angulata L. (Solanaceae/WCM078) 'Urmoa Leaves Infection (bacterial)
Piper insectifugum C.DC. ex Seem. Sasa Roots Infection (bacterial), inflammation
(Piperaceae/WCM 100,513,546) Stems Internal injury G
Leaves Seizures, fever, infection (viral), tonic v, de-
pression?
Piper methysticum Forst.f. Kava, kao Leaves Warts (keratolytic?)
(Piperaceae/WCM522,523)
Pipturus argenteus (Forst.f.) Wedd. (Urticaceae/ Armea Bark Infection (bacterial), inflammation
WCM316,543)
Pisonia grandis R.Br. (NyctaginaeeaeAVCM403) Puak vai Leaves Dysentary
Polygala paniculata L. Pup reag Iolo Roots Infection (bacterial) A, seizures, fever, infec-
(PolygalaceaeAVCM208,412) tion (viral)
 W. McClatchey / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 50 (1996) 147-156 153

Table 1 (continued)

Latin name Rotuman name Parts used Medicinal usage or disease treated
(plant family/voucber number)

Pometia pinnata Forst. et Forst.f. (Sapindaceae/ Fao/fava Leaves Vermifuge, pediculicide, topical irritations
WCM570) Bark Internal injury G
Premna serratifolia A.C. Smith (LamiaceaeJ/ Varvara Leaves Cough, constipation
WCM274) Bark Hypertension, cardiac insufficency
Procris pedunculata (Forst. et Forst.f.) Wedd. Hat ne sina Leaves Dysmenorrhea associated with abdominal
(Urticaceae/WCM559) cramps
Psidium guajam L. (Myrtaceae/WCM178,365) Koao Leaves Dysentary? (antidiarrheai), depres-
sion/malaise, hypertension °
Pueraria lobata OVilld.) Ohwi (Fabaceae/ Ga'a Leaves Irritable bowel
WCMI32,404)
Rorippa sarmentosa (DC.) MacBride Mator Entire plant Infection (viral), fever, seizures
(Brassicaceae/WCM866)
Sida rhombifolia L. (Malvaceae/WCM098,563) Finak ne puak Stems Prevention of miscarriage, dental hygiene ~
Spondius dulcis Sonn. (Anacardiaceae/ Vi Bark Stomachache, headache, dysmenorrhea
WCM 192) Leaves Depression/malaise
Syzygium neurocalyx (A.Gray) Christophersen Ker mi'a Fruits Dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea
(Myrtaceae/WCM355,359)
Syzygium inophylloides (A.Gray) Mueil. (Myr- Hahi'a ram ram Bark Cough
taceae/WCM231,307)
Syzygium samaragense (BI.) Merr. et Perry (Myr- Hahi'a Bark Cough, depression/malaise
taceae/WCM369) Leaves Depression/malaise
Terminalia catappa L. (Combretaceae/WCM388) Togoi, salisa Bark Dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, abortifacient,
malaise, internal injury °, emetic
Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Corr. Pinau Bark Cough, expectorant, asthma, infection
(Malvaceae/WCM 129,273) (fungal), infection (viral), fever, seizures
Fruits Infection (viral), (topical) infection (bac-
terial)
Trema canaabina Lour. (Ulmaceae/WCM410) Maragi Leaves Depression/malaise, dysmenorrhea associ-
ated with abdominal pain, internal in-
jury G, seizures, fever, infection (viral)
Bark Jaundice-hepatitis
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Joan ne pija Leaves Dysentary?, diarrhea, asthma, inflammation
(Tiliaceae/WCM210,387,413,526)

Vigna marina (Burro.) Merr. Karere Leaves Infection (bacterial), topical, pain, inflam-
(Fabaceae/WCM066,362) mation, infection (viral), fever, seizures
Stems Eye irritations
Vitex trifolia L. (LamiaceaeJ/WCM527) Sia'vao Leaves Headaches
Zehneria mucronata (BI.) Miq. (Cucur- Leaves Fever, depression/malaise
bitaceae/WCM532) Jou ne 'atua
Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Sm. Rag'apua Rhizomes Diabetes, cough, infection (viral?)
(Zingiberaceae/WCM203) Stems Depression/malaise

APlant parts which are mixed with coconut oil and applied to many different topical illnesses, but often to bacterial ailments. The
parts are usually added for 'scent' hut may have a medicinal action.
I~Usages of plant parts in which the plants are used in a spiritual sense in which they do not usually contact the patient. These
are listed with possible pharmacological actions since the Rotumans feel they are effective. By western standards these actions could
not occur, but the author has witnessed effective treatments with these therapies and thus they are listed to complete the record on
the Rotuman tradition.
 154 W. McClatchey/Journal of Ethnopharmacology 50 (1996) 147-156

Cpossible modifiers of herbal chemistry. These are plant parts which are used in the processing of herbal remedies. These parts
are used as sieves, strainers, containers, etc. and are then discarded, but in all probability they contribute to or modify the chemistry
of the final herbal concoction.
trrhis plant is used in a combination herbal remedy, it is possible that the action is properly attributed to the constituents of an-
other species which was used in the combination. The plant is a recent introduction into Rotuma and was said to have been added
to an older formulation.
~The stems of these species are used as chewing sticks (toothbrushes) although many other species could be used for this purpose;
these seem to be universally used on Rotuma. These species possibly have antibacterial activity against dental caries, either
mechanically or chemically.
FPlants incorporated into tonics given to prevent illnesses, particularly in children.
Glnternai injury, a poorly defined illness group characterized by thoracic pain, and frequently, vomiting of blood.
nApparently extinct very recently on Rotuma, although common on other islands.
~Common species, no voucher collected.
JSpecies formerly classified in family Verbenaceae,

years of age were found to have a much greater
repertoire of remedies, using many more plant spe-
cies and treating more disease states than younger
healers. In addition to recording the plants used,
the cultural contexts in which the treatments are
given, the diseases treated using a Rotuman view
of disease cause and cure, and the social expecta-
tions of effective treatments were also recorded.
A complete record of the observations regarding
the Rotuman cultural views of health and illness,
the roll of traditional healers and the herbal
remedies which are used will soon be available in
the form of a book. The present paper is a presen-
tation of the plants which are used in the Rotuman
medicinal system, without extensive elaboration
on the cultural setting.
5.1. Traditional remedies
Healers use very specific plant parts (age of
plant, color of part used, volume used, etc.), very
specific dosages and frequently very complex pro-
cedures to extract certain fractions of plant chem-
istry. For example, a bark may be extracted in
coconut oil, then discarded and the oil added to a
mixture of other parts prepared in other ways.
Presumably, only the hydrophobic portion of the
bark chemistry has been added to the mixture.
Fresh plant material is almost always used, al-
though some preparations may use fresh material
to form a mixture or infusion which is then stored
for later usage.
Therapeutic massage is an essential aspect of
many Rotuman treatments. Massage is often used
with internally consumed herbal preparations or
the herbal preparations may be applied externally
by means of the massage. Massage is also fre-
quently given as the sole means of promoting heal-
ing, with no plants being used.
Since most species are used in conjunction with
several other species, no attempt has been made to
sort out which species is contributing to phar-
macological activity of the remedy. The indica-
tions presented are those for which each species
was used, whether alone or in conjunction with
other plants. The following is an example of a
typical herbal remedy.
Disease to be treated: tu kiag: difficulty in
maintaining a menstrual period, frequent
breakthrough bleeding, or no menstrual cycle
whatsoever. (Approximate equivalent indica-
tions: dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea).
Herbal remedy preparation: strips of clean
ratua, Erythrina variegata L. (Fabaceae), inner
bark and paired leaves, along with a pair of leaf
shoots and two young branches of ker mi'a,
Syzygium gracilipes (A. Gray) Merr. et Perry
(Myrtaceae), a young shoot of par mea, Musa
acuminata Colla X M. balbisiana Colla
(Musaceae), two pinau, Thespesia populnea (L.)
Sol. ex Corr. (Malvaceae), branches and some
cleaned inner bark of the mori, Citrus sinensis
L. (Rutaceae), are all finely chopped and mixed
together. The resultant mixture is added to a
cup of water.
 W. McClatchey /Journal of Ethnopharmacology 50 (1996) 147-156
Administration: the entire mixture is swallowed
by the patient. The treatment is usually given
only once, but may be repeated if needed. No
massage is given with this treatment unless
there is a need to promote pregnancy. If mas-
sage is being given then some of the mixture
may be applied topically and massaged into the
skin until dry.
Precautions: the treatment should not be given
to a pregnant woman, since it is felt that this
will cause a miscarriage, although the identical
treatment without the Erythrina variegata is
given to stop a miscarriage.
5.2. The ethnopharmacopoeia
The ethnopharrnacopoeia is presented in Table
1. Each species collected on Rotuma is listed
followed by the corresponding voucher number,
Rotuman name and traditional use/possible mech-
anism. It should be noted that each usage (indica-
tion) given is a close approximation of the western
equivalent of a Rotuman disease which may or
may not correlate completely with a western in-
dication. The proposed mechanisms are not speci-
tic, but are simply estimates based on clinical
experience and field observations. Waller (1993)
has stated that indications need to be specific in
order to direct the pharmacologist selecting an ap-
propriate pharmacological screen.
6. Discussion and conclusions
One of the most striking differences between tra-
ditional Rotuman medicine and western medicine
is the view of poly-pharmacy or intentional usage
of multiple medications in a single delivery system.
Modern western medical practice encourages the
usage of single drug entities each prescribed for a
single symptom, set of symptoms or disease state.
Rotuman herbalism treats diseases holistically,
with single remedies incorporating multiple plant
constituents, presumably incurring a multitude of
desirable healing actions within one delivery sys-
tem. Although Rotuman healers typically use
remedies which employ multiple plant consti-
tuents, the author has chosen to report each
plant/plant usage separately for ease of analysis by
155
western researchers who are largely limited to iso-
lation and experimentation with single plant (and
subsequently chemical) entities. Specific Rotuman
herbal combinations have previously been re-
ported in detail (McClatchey, 1993).
The Rotuman healers are rapidly dying of old
age, and with them their traditions. The present
studies have indicated that the current healers will
probably be the final generation of traditional
healers in the Rotuman culture. The information
available at this time represents a fragment of what
was probably available at one time, but also
represents far more than what will be available in
the future. Perhaps, this study will prove to be of
value to future Rotumans who choose to re-
explore the ways of their ancestors.
Acknowledgements
The author thanks all of the Rotuman healers
who have shared their traditions, and is particular-
ly grateful for the kindness and love of Ana
Stevens-Managreve, Keti Soana and the late
Gagaj Taksas. This work could not have been ac-
complished without the initial contribution of time
and generosity by the late Gagaj Kono. Alan
Howard and Art Whistler are appreciated for their
comments throughout the period of research.
Generous thanks is extended to Dr. Paul Cox and
the Brigham Young University Department of
Botany for technical training and financial
support.
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