Theme 1: The Indigenous Peoples and the (e) It provided an excellent lookout point.
vided an excellent lookout point. From this vantage point They then crossed the Orinoco River in canoes and settled in the
Europeans
1. Describe the migratory and settlement patterns of
the indigenous people in the Caribbean up to the
arrival of the Spaniards in 1492.
Historians believe that the earliest peoples to settle the Western
Hemisphere did so between 15,000 to 20,000 years ago.
They were a set of people that were nomadic: always on the go in
search of food and warmer climate. This is the reason, it is believed,
they came across the Bering Strait during the winter when it formed
a land bridge connecting Asia to Alaska.
Among these groups of early settlers were the -
1. Incas of Peru
2. Aztecs of Mexico
3. Mayans of Yucatan Peninsula (Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador,
Northern Honduras and a part of Southern Mexico)
4. Kalinagos and the Tainos who occupied the Venezuela and the
Guianas.
The CXC syllabus requires us to study the last three groups: the
Mayans, Kalinagos and the Tainos.
Continuous rivalry between the Tainos and the Kalinagos, for land,
women and food forced the docile Tainos to leave the regions of
South America and move upwards into the neighboring island of
Trinidad. The Kalinagos still followed them so some of the Tainos left
Trinidad and continued into the Lesser Antilles. Some remained so
Trinidad was occupied by both Tainos and Kalinagos.
In time, the Kalinagos came to control the islands of the Lesser
Antilles, for example Dominica and St. Vincent while the Tainos who
had fled further upwards came to control the Greater Antilles,
Jamaica, Cuba, Hispaniola( Haiti and the Dominican Republic)
and the Bahamas. Both groups shared the island of Puerto Rico.
The Tainos settled near the coasts or streams and rivers, for
example Priestman's river in Jamaica. Why?
(a) Fishing was an important source of food: protein
(b) They could easily get water for domestic purposes such as
washing their utensils or bathing
(c) They could get water for their crops
(d) They could go swimming
they could see the Kalinagos approaching and get ready to
fight or run.
The Kalinagos settled near the coasts too. This is mainly because
they were what we can call sea rovers. The sea was like a highway
to them. They used it to get to and from the various islands of the
Greater and Lesser Antilles where they conducted their raids. They
were also excellent fishermen.
The indigenous peoples of
the Americas
a) Migration of indigenous peoples to the Americas and to the
Caribbean territories (through North, Central and South
America) and their interactions.
The history of the Caribbean did not begin in 1492 with the arrival of
Christopher Columbus. In fact, it began thousands of years earlier
with the indigenes (Tainos, Kalinagos and Mayans). These
indigenous peoples (Amerindians) had developed societies that
spread across the Americas - the Caribbean and parts of South
and Central America.
The ancestors of the indigenous peoples were originally from
Central East Asia and came across the frozen Bering Strait/Beringia
to North America during the Ice Age. They were nomadic peoples
who followed their food (mammoth) and this is presented as a
factor that accounted for them wandering from Asia into North
America. The nomads wandered southward through North, Central
and South America, evolving distinct physical and cultural
characteristics Three distinct groups developed societies in parts of
the Caribbean and in Central and South Americas.
b) Geographical location of Taino (Arawak), Kalinago (Carib) and
Maya.
Movement from Asia
1. Migratory pattern of the Arawaks/Tainos
The Arawaks were a group of indigenous people who came from
Asia then walked across the Bearing Strait which was frozen due
to the Ice age.
They then walked into Alaska then down into North Central and
South America.
1
Greater Antilles: (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola , Puerto Rico and
Bahamas).
2 Migratory pattern of the Caribs/Kalinogos
Tha Caribs came from Asia then walked across the Bearing Strait
which was frozen due to the Ice age.
They then walked into Alaska then down into North Central and
South America.
They then crossed the Orinoco River in canoes and settled in the
Lesser Antilles: (St Vincent, Grenada and Virgin Islands).
3. Migratory pattern of the Mayans
These people migrated from Asia across the Bering Strait into
Alaska then into North America areas such as Mexico, Belize,
Guatemala, Honduras, and on the Yucatan peninsula.
4. Migratory pattern of the Aztecs
These people migrated from Asia across the Bering Strait into
Alaska then into North America into Yucatan peninsula and settled
5. Migratory pattern of the Incas
These people migrated from Asia across the Bering Strait into South
America in areas such as Peru and Bolivar.
Exercise:
1. Draw a map of the world and only include the following:
bearing strait, North America, South America, the Caribbean,
Europe and the Orinoco river.
2. From the map you are to put in places where the Mayans,
Tainos, Kalinago and Aztec settled use colour to identify
places where they settled.
You need to be sharp on your map work.
You could be asked to list territories that they settled in. You could also get
a labelled map as you are asked to identify the territories relating to any
of Columbus' four voyages as well.
I would suggest that you make a list of the territories involved in the
migration and settlement of the indigenous peoples..
You also need to know the shape and location of the various territories.
Remember that the labelled map will NOT necessarily have the names of
the territories. Please get yourself an atlas or at least a photocopy of a
map of the Caribbean and study it.

Be familiar terms

Please be familiar with the terms: island/island peoples and

mainland/mainland peoples. For the purpose of the CSEC Caribbean
History syllabus, the islands refer to: the Greater Antilles: Jamaica, Cuba,
Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and the Bahamas and the Lesser Antilles,
comprising the Windward and Leeward islands.

The island peoples refer to the Kalinagos and the Tainos.

The mainland refers to British Honduras (Belize) and the Guianas.

The mainland peoples refer to the Mayans.

If you are asked a question about island peoples, you CANNOT refer to
the Mayans of Belize. Your answer would be wrong! The converse applies.
If you are asked a question about mainland peoples, we do not expect
you to write about the Tainos of Jamaica or the Kalinagos of Dominica.
Got it?

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  In Hispaniola and Cuba the married women decided how worship would go, he led ceremonies

The Taino
wore a piece of cloth around their waist playing a wooden gong and had his own zemis. He
called a nagua fixed the day of worship and celebrations

There were very few laws. Firstly, the Tainos were a

peaceful set of people who believed in and practiced
 Appearance  Political clan-cooperation and respect for elders. They worked
and played together in harmony. There were very few
Political organization speaks to the way in which a people is crimes.
They were short to middle height
governed or ruled. We ask questions such as: Who are the leaders?  Privileges of the Cacique
They were well shaped, but slightly built, except those in
What are the rules or system by which they are chosen?
Hispaniola who were plump in shape.
 The CACIQUE was the head of Arawak society.  He was allowed to have more than one wife. This would
Their skin colour was olive (smooth and brown).
 The cacique was a hereditary title (it passed down increase his chances of having a male heir. They had
They were naturally good looking but
from father to son) many wives.
distorted (changed) their features by
 The cacique ruled large provinces (villages)  His wives skirts were longer than those of the other
artificial means. (Their heads were
 If the cacique died without a son the title would be women, for length of skirt was a sign of high rank.
flattened at the forehead by the use of
passed on to the eldest son of his eldest sister. Or a  His house (bohio) was rectangular while all the others
boards or a bandages when they were
female could inherit the position if her father, the were round. His house was also the largest.
babies) this made the skull slope up to
cacique did not have a son.  His canoe was built by his tribe men. It was the largest in
a peak which the Arawaks thought
 Duties of the Cacique the village and the only one to be painted.
was a mark of beauty.
 He/she was the supreme judge.  He was given the best food and was carried around in a
They had broad noses and their
 He was a ceremonial leader more than a law maker litter.
nostrils were widely flared.
(but he did make laws.)  He was buried in a marked grave or cave or in his own
Their hair was black and straight but
 He dealt with the distribution of land, the ordering of hut and some of his wives were buried with him.
coarse and was worn long.
labour on the land, the planting and distributing of  He sat on a special ceremonial stood
They painted their bodies black, white and other colours
the crops. called a dujo. It was carved out of
usually red, for ceremonial event, war, and to protect them
 He made decisions of peace and war. wood or stone in the shape of an
against insect bites
 He could levy a kind of tax on the people of his animal. This was his symbol of
They painted their faces, eyes, and nose and the bare parts
province. This might be in the form of agricultural authority. On it he sat and dispensed
of their bodies.
produce or of weapon. justice or gave out the orders for the
They wore gold in their noses and ears as plugs or hanging
 He was the leader during war time. day.
ornaments.
 He made few laws. he made the laws and enforced  He was given the best part of the
STYLE of DRESS of the ARAWAKS
them harvest for himself and family.
 They were completely naked in the islands of Guanahani  He was a religious leader who was highly respected  When he travelled by land, he was carried in a litter,
(San Salvador) and given many privileges. As religious leader he while his son was carried on servants’ shoulders.

3

 He and his family wore ornaments of gold and copper
alloy called guanine, for gold was a sign of rank among
them.
Each village was ruled by a mitayno or nobleman while the
province was ruled by the cacique. For most Arawak people, it
was the mitayno’s power which mattered.
His functions were as follows:
 He organized the work of the village.
 He decided when land should be prepared, crops planted
and harvested and any surplus stored for distribution in the
community.
 He was the religious leader of his village.
 He was the judge whose word was law and who could
sentence people to death for disobedience.
Nobles and mitaynos also inherited their position.
Commoners/ordinary people
 People who were born commoners remained in that class.
 Slaves were usually men and women captured in wars,
female captives were given to outstanding warriors as
concubines.
 All work was done communally, the commoners and slaves
doing the work which the nobles supervised.
Cacique
Mitaynos(noblemen)
Ordinary People
 Religious Beliefs and Practices
The Tainos were polytheistic- they believed in many gods.
They had a number of myths to explain the mysteries of life
including earth and the creation of man.
Their gods were represented by zemis which they made
from wood, bone, stone or cotton, which were felt to
contain the forces of nature or the spirits of the
ancestors.
Each household kept a zemi or the bones of dead
ancestors in a basket for use as a zemi to protect the
family.
They believed in:
 The forces of good and evil
 Life after death
 Heaven (coyaba) and hell
 There is punishment in the afterlife for those who lived an evil
life
 There is reward in the afterlife for those who lived a good life.
 The priest was the only one who could communicate with
the gods (zemis)
 Offering food and meat offerings to the gods
 Using tobacco (incense) in the process of communicating
with the gods
 Having festivals and celebrations in honor of the gods
 Keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods)
 Offering prayers to the gods for healing, good harvest,
protection and so on.
1. The cacique’s zemis were felt to be more powerful than
anyone else’s. It was believed that only the cacique could
speak to the zemis.
2. Even though the ordinary people could not converse with
the zemis, each home had its own zemi in a place of honour
on a small table.
4
3. A bowl of snuff (cahoba) or powdered tobacco was placed
before it and when the person wished to pray, he placed
the cahoba on the zemi’s flat topped head and inhaled
from it through his nostrils from a y-shaped cane tube. He
often rubbed the zemi with cassava to feed it, for the
Arawaks felt that if their zemi went hungry, they would fall ill.
4. They placed great importance on religious ceremonies. The
cacique announced the day on which a ceremony was to
take place. Their bodies were washed and painted red,
white and black. The men wore their feathered cloaks and
the women decorated their arms and legs with shells and
coral.
5. When all were assembled the entire people formed a
procession with the cacique at its head. He led them to the
sacred hut on the outskirts of the village and there he and
the priests entered to pray. First they tickled their throats with
swallow sticks to make themselves vomit and prove to the
zemis that no impurity remained in them. After this, they
smoked the cahoba until they lost consciousness. It was then
that the zemis were supposed to speak to them.
6. The arawaks believed in many gods, whom the zemis
represented. The most important among these were the god
of the sky and the goddess of the earth from whom all living
things had descended. They also believed in a God of the
moon which they thought was the sun’s twin brother. They
also believed in spirits called opia, which belonged to the
dead, and who returned at night to try to enter their bodies.
For this reason, they only went out at night in groups and
protected themselves by wearing zemis around their necks
or foreheads.
Taino religious symbols
 Social Organization
 Outside their house the Arawaks cultivated plots called  They used tobacco for peace and contentment and for
helping them to meditate.
conucos where they grew maize (corn), cassava,

ARAWAKS COMMUNITIES/VILLAGES groundnuts, sweet potatoes, and yautia.  The Arawaks made cigars and chewed tobacco.

The Tainos were organized CUSTOMS

along family lines. A number
of families make up a clan Every society has its own sets of customs and norms. This is what
and the clans made up the
defines us and sets us apart from other people and countries. The
village and the villages
formed the community. indigenous peoples were no different.
1. They flattened the children's forehead as a mark of beauty.
2. They were a pleasure loving people. They played ball game
 They were small in size called batos, swam and did wrestling.
 They were built near the sea or on top of hills as a precaution 3. Only men were allowed to smoke and drink
against a surprise attack. 4. They got married early .
 They had two sort of houses 5. Married men and women wore loincloth and cotton skirts
 The bohio-this was the chief’s house. respectively. The single people went naked.
It was to be rectangular in shape 6. The most heinous crimes were theft and adultery for which the
but because it was hard to build punishment was a slow and painful death.
they built him a round house 7. There was no private property, possession or wealth. Everything
instead. was owned collectively by the members of the community.
GENDER RELATIONS
Women were a very important part of the Tainos society. Gender
relation is most clearly seen in the division and organization of
labor.
The women were responsible for the planting of the crops. It was
believed that the fertility of the woman would transfer to the crop
and vice versa. If she was barren, mother earth would transfer
some of its fertility to her.
The women did the weaving so that the men and children could
have loincloths and cotton arm bands to wear.
They were to care for the children and the rest of the family while
the men were away on hunting or fishing trips or out gathering food
such as fruits.
The women were only invited to watch at wrestling matches and
ball games. They were not allowed to participate. They formed the
cheering committee.

 The caneye- this was the family (communally)

house. It was constructed by
PLEASURE AND RECREATION
putting wooden posts in the
ground in a circle. Then canes  The Arawaks enjoyed themselves by singing and dancing
called areytos. During these moments women and men
were woven between them and
usually danced alone but at times they danced together.
tied with creepers. The roof was
thatched in a conical shape and  They drank for pleasure during their fun times.

a hole left in the top so that  They played a ball game called batos on a marked field
called (batey). In this game two teams trying to hit the ball
smoke could escape.
with any part of their body into their opponents goal line. It
 Their houses were strong. was a game similar to volleyball and football.
 Their houses had little furniture such as (polished clay pots,
 The favorite pass time activity for the Arawaks
stools and a few tables. was smoking tobacco.
 They had the hammock which was made of cotton and
 They called the tobacco plant (cohiba). The
used for sleeping. pipe in which the leaves were smoked was
called tobacco.
 They had the zemi (idol) which was made of (wood, stone or
cotton) or used as a basket of bones.

5
 Economic Organization
Production
These are the main activities that the Tainos did in their quest to
provide food, ‘clothing' and shelter for their people. They can be
considered a step above the early hunters and gatherers.
Trading
Let us agree that trading would be limited. Why?
First of all, they produced basically the same things.
Secondly, the Tainos' villages were constantly raided by the
Kalinagos.
Thirdly, they did not engage in surplus production. They provided
just enough for their own use. It was not safe to venture too far out
at sea where the Kalinagos ruled the ‘highway'.
Whatever trading took place was among the Tainos themselves.
Different villages would contact each other when there was a
need. It is interesting to note that the Tainos of Jamaica did
engage in some amount of trading with the Mayans of Belize. If you
follow on your map you will see that a straight line connects
Jamaica to Belize.
Hunting
They hunted conies (utia/hutia) and birds with nets and noose that
they made from fibres and vines. They also hunted iguanas, agouti
and snakes. They also went in search of and gathered wild plants
and the bark of certain trees as directed by their priests to be used
for medicinal purposes. In the hills of Trinidad and Jamaica for
example a lot of wild fruits grew in abundance. These were
gleefully collected and added to the main menu.
Taino community showing farmers, hunters and community
members
Farming
The Tainos practiced subsistence farming. That is they did not
produce and store a surplus. They produced enough for the needs
of the community. They practiced slash and burn agriculture. The
men did the hard work of clearing the land. They used wooden
axes to chop the branches from the trees and then set them on
fire.
The women's duty was to do the actual planting. They planted
roots, seeds and vegetables on their small plots of land or
conoucos. They used pointed wooden sticks to dig holes and drop
the corn grains in. corn or maize was their favorite starch. Then they
covered them over with dirt. The ashes from the burnt tree
provided fertilizer. Aided by the children they watered the crops as
necessary. It was the children's duty to scare away birds from the
newly planted seeds.
6
They grew a wide variety of crops such as:
1. Fruits: pineapples, guava, naseberry, cashew, soursop, papaya
and grapefruit (the only citrus known to them before the coming of
the Europeans)
2. Cassava
Cassava roots
3. Sweet potatoes
Fishing
They would go fishing in the dug out canoes that they made. They
used nets made of vegetable fibres, bone and turtle shell hooks
and bone tipped harpoons. They had an ingenious method of
attaching the remora or sucking fish to the canoe by a thin line. The
fish would then dart after the remora hoping to eat it but would
only succeed in getting itself sucked onto the powerful remora. The
fisherman would then pull up the remora, take off the fish and
deposit the remora once more in the water to wait for another
victim.
Waterfowls were also caught by trickery. The Tainos would allow a
number of calabashes to float on the river. The waterfowls became
used to these harmless objects and paid them no mind. As soon as
he was convinced that the fowls were relaxed, the Taino would
place a calabash over his head and quietly slip into the water
unnoticed. After a few minutes he would grab a nearby fowl by the
legs, pull it under until it drowned and then put it in the bag that he
carried with him.
They caught a wide variety of water animals such as: flying fish,
shell fish, crabs and manatee.
SUBSISTENCE LIVING of the ARAWAKS (FOODS and FOOD
PREPARATION METHODS)
 The Arawaks hunted and grew their food for themselves
and had a well balanced diet and food was plentiful for
them..
 They caught and ate various (different) types of fish such as
(shellfish, turtle and manatee (sea-cow)
 They fished using nets made using fibres, bone hooks and
harpoons.
 The way in which the Arawaks caught the turtle showed
ingenuity (how clever they were).
How they caught the Turtle:
 They caught a remora (sucker-fish)
and tied a long line to a canoe.
 The remora (sucker-fish) would dive
for the turtle and attach itself to the
back of the turtle with its sucker.
 The turtle will the be pulled into the
canoe by the fisherman (Arawaks).
 The Arawaks hunted small animals
such as the utia, agouti and the
iguana whose meat they liked a lot.
 The Arawaks used small dogs called
alcos to help them hunt because they did not bark but
made a growling noise. These dogs were the only animals
the Arawaks domesticated (train to live in their homes with
them)
 The Arawaks caught doves in nets and birds like parrot by
slipping a noose over their heads.
 Their method of catching ducks showed a lot of cunning.
How they caught the duck:
 First they floated gourds down stream until the ducks
became use to seeing gourds
 As the ducks become familiar with seeing the gourd,
the hunter would put a gourd over his head breathing
through a hole and seeing through eye slits
 When he come close to the duck he would pull it
under water by its legs and drown it.
 The Arawaks ate a lot of fruits such as (pineapples, mammee
apples, star apples, naseberries, guavas and cashews) and
vegetables.
 The Arawaks showed their agricultural skills in growing
vegetables:
 They cultivated maize (corn) by
soaking the seeds in water and
planting them in rows.
 They planted cassava, sweet
potatoes, yautia and
groundnuts in large mounds of
earth
 They squeezed the poisonous juices
out of the cassava before making cassava flour.
 The Arawaks used cooking methods such as baking, roasting
and stewing to prepare their foods.
Foods How food was Prepared
Iguana Meat Stewed
Cassava Cakes Baked
Fish Smoked
 The Arawaks favorite dish was Pepperpot soup/stew (made
with meat, vegetables, nuts and pepper), which was a stew
or a soup. Because of how this dish was prepared would
feed a family for several days.
7
 They used salt and pepper to season their foods especially
the cassareep sauce which was made of cassava juice.
 They made intoxicating drinks using cassava and maize
(corn). The only time they got drunk was on some
ceremonial occasions.
Weaving
Hammocks were a favourite item. They were used as beds or just to
‘hang out' and catch the cool breeze. They also did baskets from
straw. These were used as containers for the fishermen's catch.
Mining
The indigenous peoples did not place much value on gold. They
used it mainly as ornaments. The method of collecting gold was
therefore very simple. They would dig a hole at the side of the river
bank and let the water flow through it. They would examine the silt
that was left behind. Any gold found was collected and given to
those in charge of making decorative headdress for the caciques,
masks for religious ceremonies or nose rings and bracelets.
Technology
The Indigenous people lived in the Stone Age. They did not know
iron. Their tools were therefore very simple. Most people consider
their techniques and methods backwards when judged by modern
methods.
1. The remora or sucking fish used in to catch fish
2. Bows and arrows used in hunting
3. Slash and burn agriculture
4. Fertilizer: ashes, animal and
vegetable manure
5. Crude irrigation ditches
6. Crop rotation.
7. Fishing hooks made from bones
8. Fire used as a tool in canoe
building
9. Dyeing
Taino axe

The Kalinago
 Location of Settlements
Brazil, Guiana, Venezuela, Puerto Rico and Lesser Antilles.
 Appearance
Kalinagos were taller than the Arawaks
* Brown in complexion
Stronger than the Arawaks due to emphasis place on
physical training for fighting
Both women and men painted their bodies with dyes
(roucou). The men wore head dress (colourful) and jewellery
through their lips and nose
The kalinago women wore rassada (bracelets) around their
arms and legs.
They flattened the foreheads of their babies by placing the
babies on their mother's breast.
 Political Organisation
 This was not as rigid or as well defined as the Tainos.
• However , in wartime, the Caribs became more strickly
organized.
The Ouboutu (Ubutu) was the most important man among the
Caribs . He was the chief only during war time. His functions were:
a. He decided when the men should be called to the carbet
to plan a raid.
b. He decided who should be attacked, how the raid should
be conducted and when it should take place.
c. He chose the commanders of the canoes of piragas.
 Religious Beliefs and Practices
d. He presided over the victory celebrations during which
everyone who had killed an arawak chief was allowed to The Kalinagos were polytheistic.
take his name as a mark of honour.
They believed
e. The Ubutu also had the responsibility of rewarding the
In many gods
Kalinago men who were successful in raids and hunting. 
f. Piraga (canoe) were used to raid the Tainos villages and the  In evil spirits known as maboya.
Ubutu would chose individuals to captain the Piraga  In life after death.
(canoe).  In the existence of Heaven and hell.
 That there is punishment and reward in the afterlife.
g. He made few laws.
 That those who were brave warriors went to a place where
they were waited on by Tainos slaves.
The position of chief or Ouboutou (Ubutu) was not hereditary. It was
 That the souls of cowards went to a dreary desert where
NOT passed down from father to son. Instead, the chief was
they became slaves to Tainos masters.
elected on the basis of his prowess that is his bravery. As a result
 The priest or boyez was the only one who could
there was constant rivalry for leadership. The leaders also changed
communicate with the gods.
frequently.
 In offering sacrifices to the gods especially when they went
to sea.
There were lesser governors who ruled during times of peace. They
 In using tobacco (incense) in the process of communicating
were called tiubutuli hauthe, and were the heads of families, for
each family lived in its own village. with the gods.
 In having festivals and celebrations in honor of the gods.
His functions were:
 In keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods).
a. He supervised the fishing and hunting.  In offering prayers to the gods for bravery.
b. He led the village in ceremonies and entertainment such
as wrestling, canoe racing, singing, dancing and story- Both the Tainos and the Kalinagos believed in nature and ancestor
telling. worship.
c. He was in charge of the Carbets.
d. He supervised the cultivation of the land.
8
 Social Organization themselves. The boys were then separated from their
mothers. At age ten they joined the men in the carbet and
began to prepare for their manhood initiation ceremony.
Gender relations

Women were also a very important part of the Kalinagos Customs

society. Gender relation is also most clearly seen in the
1. Men and women lived separately.
division and organization of labor. The women were
2. Painting of the body to look fierce especially when going
needed for the planting of the crops. It was believed that on raids.
the fertility of the woman would transfer to the crop and
3. They did not eat turtle. They thought it would make them
vice versa. If she was barren, mother earth would transfer slow and stupid.
some of its fertility to her.
4. They ate a lot of pepper. It was believed that this would
They were to care for the children and the rest of the family make them fierce.
while the men were away on their raids, long hunting or
5. They flattened their foreheads from an early age. This
fishing trips. was to make the arrow bounce off should they get hit in
the forehead during battle.
The women were only
invited to watch at wrestling 6. They often hung the skull and or bones of their victims in
their houses like trophy.
matches. They were not
allowed to participate. They 7. All boys were required to undergo initiation test when
they reached puberty.
formed the cheering
committee. Men and 8. They were scratched with an agouti claw and pepper
rubbed in the wound. If they bore it without flinching they Kalinagos cultre
women lived separate. The were chosen to be a warrior. If they flinched, they would
men believed that they be numbered among the priests. Technology
would become weak and 1. Poisonous bow and arrow
be like ‘sissy' if they lived
2. Weaving straw baskets
with the women. So the
men lived together in the
carbet while the women
and children lived by

9
 The Maya
Tainos and Kalinagos. Belize alone is twice the size of

Tainos:
family — village settlements along river valleys, coastal areas.
Social organization: women did farming, (slash and burn) men did hunting and
fishing, their society was hierarchical and pacific
Government: independent Arawak community ruled by cacique; hereditary
ruler who was also high priest and judge, : mitaynos,
Religion and spiritualism,: cacique was high priest, believed in coyaba
Customs: flattened forehead of babies, singing, dancing tobacco smoking,
playing bates,
Food: seafood, vegetables, pepper, pepper soup, cassava, agouti,
Architecture: rectangular houses. Using indigenous material (thatch, poles)
Technology: skilled in constructing dugout canoes, stone tools, spears, bows and
arrows, straw baskets, hammocks
Farming methods: subsistence farming; slash and bum , primitive tools
A Mayan warrior
We know that the Mayans lived on the Central American
mainland and that they chiefly occupied the Yucatan
Peninsula. Unlike the Tainos and Kalinagos they built most
of their settlement inland. Why?
1. They could get vast expanse of land to build their large
and magnificent temples.
2. They had easy access to limestone for building.
3. There was an extensive trade network in the interior.
Jamaica.
The states were divided into villages which were ruled by
batabs. There were all chosen from the noble class so this
post was also hereditary. They were to see to it that the
laws and policies were enforced.
Because the Mayans were constantly engaged in
defending themselves from neighboring invaders, the war
chiefs or nacoms were also an important part of the
government. They were however elected for three years.
During their term of office they were not allowed to drink
any strong drink! They were responsible for providing and
training soldiers.

Kalingoes 4. There was much fertile land for agriculture.

5. Rivers were located inland so they were also near water

family-village settlement,
Social organization: women did farming, men did hunting and fishing, their
society was militaristic.
Government: family independent, justice carried out on a personal level, civil
leader supervised farming and fishing, answerable to 'ouboutu'
Religion: spiritualistic, special boys trained as priest, each person had their own
maboya (spirit)
Customs: singing, dancing, smoking tobacco, initiation into manhood, flattened
babies' forehead
Architecture: rectangular houses made from indigenous material (thatch and
pole) Technology, skilled in constructing dugout, effective fishing methods
supply.
 Political Organisation
Of the three groups the Mayans were the most advanced.
They built vast empires and independent city states. As
such, they had a fairly elaborate and rigid system of
government. Each independent city state was ruled by a
Halach Uinic. This was a hereditary position. It was passed
A Mayan city
down from father to son only. His powers were wide. He
was almost an absolute ruler. He had the final say in all
matters. He had various civil, military and religious duties to
perform.
He designed all domestic policies and foreign affairs.
Remember that we are dealing with a very large area
when compared to the Caribbean region occupied by the

10
 Social Organisation  Using incense in the process of communicating with
the gods
Not surprisingly therefore the society was also organized  Having birthday festivals and celebrations in honor of
the gods
along rigid class lines. These ranged from the royal family,
 Keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods)
the nobles: those who held top ranking government
positions as well as the scribes, the priests, the merchant
Mayan Gods of Rain, Sun, Maize, Death and the Goddes of death
class, the farmers and craftsmen and the slaves. The
Mayan society was a complex one. They were very
intelligent and therefore the society accommodated these
privileged people in the noble class. Usually though the
astronomers and astrologers and mathematicians were
from the priesthood.

A list of the various occupations that existed will help us to A picture showing Mayan hierarchy in society
understand the various groups of people that made up the Gender Relations
Mayan society.
In Mayan society, the women played a subservient role.
1. Engineers  Religious Beliefs and Practices Mayan women were not allowed to drink at functions. They
2. Architects
3. Priests were supposed to take their drunken husbands home!
The Mayans were polytheistic. They believed in as many as
4. Teachers 166 gods! They had too had a number of myths to explain They could not hold public office. Their main functions were
5. Mathematicians the mysteries of life including earth and the creation of
6. Astronomers child bearers and home makers. In fact, a Mayan man
man.
7. Scribes could divorce his wife if she did not bear him any children.
8. Merchants They believed in:
9. Traders They were also given specific roles. They worked to pay the
10. Farmers  The forces of good and evil tribute tax. Weaving and pottery were done exclusively by
11. Miners
 Life after death the women.
12. Those who worked in the Forest industry
13. Craftsmen or artisans  Heaven and hell
There were more recreational activities that the men were
 The underworld
 There is punishment in the afterlife for those who lived allowed to participate in. for example there was only one
an evil life dance in which the men and women were allowed to
 There is reward in the afterlife for those who lived a dance together. All other dances were done by the men
good life.
together. The men also participated in bow and arrow
 Confessing to the priest on one's death bed.
 Offering human sacrifices to the gods, especially contests.
virgin girls!

11
What were the MAIN activities that they did to produce
their basic needs?
1. Trade
They traded within the mainland. They traded by land and
sea. There was a day set aside for market day and there
established market centers. The highlands had goods that
the lowlands did not have. They used the rivers and the
long coastline as sea routes to get from one city state to
another. This way too, they could carry a large volume of
goods in the large canoes that they built instead of a
limited amount on their heads over long distances.
They also traded obsidian and flint. The flint was in great
demand for fire purposes but was only plenty in a certain
area. Other precious metals and stones were traded to be
used for ornamental or religious purposes. For that same
reason they traded feathers.
We already know that they traded with the people of the
Greater Antilles.
The merchants and traders were known as ppolms. They
were often used as and suspected of being spies who
carried information from one city to another.
Mayan Jade was believed to bestow greenness and fertility to the
land around it.
2. Farming
They practiced slash and burn, terracing and raised field
farming techniques. They grew a wider variety of crops to
include starch and vegetables. Maize (corn) was also their
favourite starch. Among the list of foods, we find squash,
pumpkin and of course cacao. They too had cotton,
cassava, papaya and sweet potatoes.
3. Hunting
The Tainos and Kalinagos only knew two animals. The wild
forests of the Central American mainland were the natural
habitat of many animals such as a number of birds, deer,
and the jaguar. They too hunted the agouti.
4. Animal Husbandry
They reared a wide variety of animals in order to provide
meat for their families and for sale in the market. Examples
of these are rabbits and the tapir.
5. Mining
This was very important to Mayan society and politics.
There were large deposits of limestone to be found along
the Central American mainland. Using their slave labor
they extracted huge blocks of limestone for the
construction of their cities, temples and pyramids.
How did they manage to earn the title of the most
advanced civilization?
Technology
1. We will do engineering and architecture as a separate
item since this was a very important part of Mayan religion
12
and society. Using their limestone and mortar the Mayans
constructed the following to create their magnificent
empires:
- Corbelled arch
- Roads and bridges
- Causeways
- Massive temples with staircases for worship
- Entire cities with huge pyramids were constructed of
stones, like Chichen Itza and Tikal.
- Large public buildings made of limestone and mortar
- Stone stelae with their history depicted on them
2. They were skilled in Mathematics
3. They practiced a form of writing known as hieroglyphics.
4. They had books made from the bark of trees.
5. They created a Calendar very similar to ours with 365
days in a year and leap as well!
6. They practiced astrology. They observed the stars and
planets and used these to determine the ‘right' time to
plant, reap and even marry!
7. They had three farming techniques to include the slash
and burn method
-They had a form of currency. Cocoa beans was used for
money
-They used irrigation methods
-They used dams and wells to ensure water supply
-They knew and used the art of dyeing
Mayan tools
Explain the relationship between the main art forms and the
beliefs and technology of the indigenous peoples
Interaction
not expect you to write about the Tainos of Jamaica or the Kalinagos
Areas Kalinagos Mayans Tainos
of Dominica. Got it?
Social organisation
Remember that you can get a comparative question. You may be
asked to compare any two or maybe even all three indigenous groups. Political organisation
We know that much of the interaction between the Tainos and the
You are expected to know about their: Religious practices
Kalinagos was hostile and involved violence, bloodshed and
 Social and political organisation Customs
death. Through this constant warfare the Kalinagos obtained Tainos
 Religious practices Gender relations
as prisoners and they were used as slaves.  Customs
 Gender relations Trade
 Trade
Technology
 Technology
They also captured some of the women and used them as their
 Agricultural practices Agricultural practices
wives or took away their parts of their land occupied it as we see in  Art forms: architecture, music, painting, pottery and dance
Architecture
Trinidad and Puerto Rico. In instances such as these the people in I would suggest that you make a chart and fill in the historical facts Music
these territories spoke a mixture of Arawak and Carib language. relating to each aspect. This should come in very handy in your
revision exercise. (See table at right.) Painting
There was also a mixing of cultures in the diet since the women
Pottery
Here is a question for you to practise:
were the ones who prepared the food. It is also said that the Tainos
on these two islands were not as docile as the others and that in (a) Name ONE Caribbean territory where the Tainos lived and ONE
Caribbean territory where the Mayans lived. (2 marks)
fact they were quite hostile.
(b) Describe TWO ways in which the social organisation of the
Kalinagos was different from that of the Tainos. (6 marks)
Children born out of this force union also helped in the interaction.
(c) Describe ONE way in which the political organisation of the Tainos
Some Kalinagos came to have Tainos name and so on. The and the Kalinagos was similar. (4 marks)
cultivation of food crops also increased as more and more Taino
(d) Give THREE reasons the Spanish settlers enslaved the indigenous
women were captured and brought to live with the Kalinagos. peoples of the Caribbean. (9 marks)

(e) List FOUR methods of resistance used by these indigenous peoples

________________________________________________________________ in response to the Spanish systems of enslavement. (4 marks)

TOTAL 25 marks

Be familiar terms

Please be familiar with the terms: island/island peoples and

mainland/mainland peoples. For the purpose of the CSEC Caribbean
History syllabus, the islands refer to: the Greater Antilles: Jamaica,
Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and the Bahamas and the Lesser
Antilles, comprising the Windward and Leeward islands. The island
peoples refer to the Kalinagos and the Tainos.

The mainland refers to British Honduras (Belize) and the Guianas. The
mainland peoples refer to the Mayans.

If you are asked a question about island peoples, you CANNOT refer to
the Mayans of Belize. Your answer would be wrong! The converse
applies. If you are asked a question about mainland peoples, we do

13
c) Social organisation of the Tainos, Kalinagos and Mayans.
Division of labour
In Taino villages the duties were designated based on one's sex and age. In this regard,
men and boys undertook tasks such as clearing the fields, hunting, fishing and defence of
the village. Additionally, the men and boys played integral roles in house construction and
canoe making. The women and girls were in charge of crop cultivation, spinning and
weaving of cotton, making handicrafts (baskets, hammocks, aprons and utensils) and
child rearing.
Marriage
Taino women had little choice in marriage as parents often arranged marriages when the
girls were close to puberty. Polygamy was a common practice among the noble classes
and it was usually the norm for the chief or cacique to have many wives. The 'ordinary'
Taino men usually had only one wife for economic reasons. This is so as men desirous of
marrying had to make payment of a 'bride price' and many commoners had to pay for their
wives through service to her parents. Elite men and chiefs, however, could afford to pay
for their bride in trading goods.
Village Life
In Kalinago villages there was the segregation of the sexes and a communal house was
established, to which boys went at puberty and where adult and adolescent males lived,
slept and ate.
This was not the case in Taino communities. Taino villages were normally established on
sites with easy access to reliable fresh water and with the availability of flat fertile ground
for cassava (manioc) cultivation. Additionally, because of the military struggles taking
place in the region, military defence was part of the consideration in setting up these
villages. They were generally laid out around a central village square and consisted of
individual houses with thatched roofs and timber walls. These villages housed between
300 and 500 people.
RELIGIOUS ORGANISATION
Religion and religious practices were important to the indigenous peoples of the
Americas. These groups were polytheistic in nature; they believed in many gods.
Tainos
Tainos worshipped idols known as zemis. Each family in the
village would have a zemi but the cacique's was thought to be
the most powerful in the village. Zemis were considered to
possess potent skills - they controlled the weather, crops,
sickness, war and peace. As such, communication was quite
critical with them and this was carried out by the cacique. The
zemis were often fed cassava because it was believed that if
they went hungry, they themselves would fall ill.
Kalinagos
The maboya was essential in the religious life of the
Kalinagos. Many Kalinago boys were trained as priests or
boyez. During this time, they frequently had to fast and
abstain from eating meat. The boys had to undergo a rigid
initiation process as well. One of the boyez's duties had to do with overcoming evil spirits;
the maboya was used in this process. They felt that since each person had his own
maboya, all evils, whether sickness, defeat in battle or even death, came because of a
spell put on them by an enemy maboya.
Mayans
Instead of idols, the Mayans had several gods; these included Yum Kax (god of Corn) and
Chac (god of Rain). They believed in immortality of the soul and practised burying the
dead with several of their favourite items that they would use in the afterlife.
POLITICAL ORGANISATION
Tainos
The cacique/chief of the Taino society enjoyed a hereditary position. This was passed
from father to son. However, if there were no male heir, the eldest son of his eldest sister
would assume the title. I should point out, however, that this was quite rare. Nobles or
nitayanos assisted the cacique in the village; these were usually older men who were
considered wise and mature.
The cacique was entrusted with several responsibilities such as:
a) making the laws
b) distributing land and allocating labour
c) officiating religious and social festivals
d) heading religious ceremonies
e) being the final judge in all disputes.
Kalinagos
14
The ouboutou was the chief of the Kalinago society - one had to defeat or kill several
enemies in battle to be elected to this position. In essence, he was chosen because of his
prowess in combat. Lesser governors for their villages, who ruled in times of peace,
assisted the ouboutou. These men were called tiubutuli hauthe and carried out duties
such as supervising the fishing and cultivating as well as leading in social ceremonies.
Other leaders included the nobles and priests (boyez), the latter's primary role being that
of a religious nature.
The duties of the ouboutou included:
a) presiding over victory celebrations
b) deciding when raids were to be held.
Mayans
The position of Mayan chief (the halach uinich) was inherited through family lineage. This
position passed from father to son; however, if the son of the deceased ruler was not
competent, one of his brothers became head of state. If this were not successful either, a
council of nobles would elect a suitable person from the ruler's family. Nobles and ppolms
(merchants) were other important persons in Mayan society. The ppolms were important
merchants who had their own laws, worshipped their own gods and did not have to pay
taxes.
ECONOMIC/AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES
Tainos/kalingos
The indigenes were also very good mariners, trading beyond the limits of the Caribbean
Sea and further afield to South and North America. To facilitate this trade they made huge
canoes from tree trunks, which could be as long as 25 metres, with the capacity for 50
people. In these they transported their wares like cotton textile goods and ceramics, which
they traded with neighbouring peoples and further afield. They also possessed well-
crafted stone tools - knives, scrapers and axes that further facilitated the constructing of
their important boats and allowed them to make impressive woodcarvings.
In terms of agricultural practice, it was primarily subsistence farming that was practised by
both the Tainos and Kalinagos. Crops cultivated included maize, peanut, sweet potato,
hot pepper and cassava. They ate animals such as snails, shellfish, turtle eggs, iguanas,
agoutis, birds, yellow snake and their favourite dish pepper pot. The Kalinago cultivated
crops such as cassava, sweet potato and yam and ate animals such as manatee, birds,
agouti and fish. They did not eat pig or turtle because they believed these foods would
make them stupid. They also refused to consume crabs before a voyage, as this would
have caused rough seas.
Mayans
The Mayans had a rich seafood diet that included fish and oyster. Their economic system
was more complex and they had land and seaborne trade between city-states carried out
by the ppolms. A barter system was in place that facilitated the exchange of foods, textile
and minerals. Cocoa beans were the official currency.
15