An Introduction to

Heat & Cold

as
Therapy

By Laurel Fowlie RMT, BA, MEd

Curties-Overzet Publications
Many thanks to:
1. For the image on page 12: © Gunther von Hagens, Institute for Plastination,
Heidelberg, Germany (www.bodyworlds.com)
2. For their Liquid Library stock photo images: © 2006 Inmagine
JupiterImages Corporation
3. For permission to use their photographic images: Diane Deinstadt, Chiara
Grisanzio, Jim Petersen, Winnie Wong, Jun Xiao

An Introduction to Heat & Cold as Therapy

Laurel Fowlie, RMT, BA, MEd
© Copyright 2006

To order copies, please contact:

Curties-Overzet Publications Inc.
330 Dupont Street, Suite 400
Toronto, Ontario
Canada M5R 1V9
Toll Free Phone: 1-888-649-5411
Fax: 416-923-8116
Website: www.curties-overzet.com
Email: info@curties-overzet.com

ISBN 0-9685256-5-2

Please respect the time, effort, and commitment that have gone into creating
this book by not copying its contents without permission. All rights reserved.

Printed and bound in Canada by University of Toronto Press

 Acknowledgements

For Joan

I would like to express my most enormous thanks to my parents and brother,

Mary, George, and Wilson, for their endless support and encouragement, in
this and all my endeavours.
I must say a huge thank you to my publisher, Debra Curties, for her advice,
experience, and unending patience. Many thanks to the text readers: Cathy
Fournier, Margaret Rockliffe, Peter Becker, and Sabine von Boetticher,
who provided excellent comments and suggestions, and to the other
knowledgeable people, including my colleagues Nadine Currie-Jackson
and Candace Gerrior at the Atlantic College of Therapeutic Massage in
Fredericton, who read the unfinished copy and offered valuable feedback.
Also, my heartfelt appreciation goes to Bev Ransom for her illustrations and
designs, to photographer Ellen Prose, and to proofreader Patsy Cunningham.
Shelley, Eileen, Raz, and André were all there when my knowledge of
temperature therapy began back in Hamilton, and I couldn’t have done it
without them. I must express a big thank you to Carrie, Shampa, and
Michelle who were all key in my becoming the instructor I am today. And
thank you to Pete S., who demonstrated so well the importance of caution
with contrast foot baths!
And, of course, a very special acknowledgement of Alisa who was there at
the inception of the idea, and throughout the entire project with endless faith
and encouragement.

3
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 3
Preface: Hydrotherapy or Temperature Therapy? 7
Chapter 1: Core Concepts 11
Properties of the Skin 13
Skin Functions 15
Reaction 18
Temperature Regulation 18
Properties of Water 24
Transfer of Heat 26
Manual Therapies 28
Effects of Temperature Therapy Applications 29
Chapter 2: Physiological Effects of Cold 35
Retrostasis and Heat Conservation 37
Hunting Response 38
Inflammation and Cryotherapy 39
Stages of Inflammation 43
Why Cold is Effective 44
Duration of Effects of Cold 47
Influences on Cold’s Effects 49
Direct Effects of Cold 51
Reflex Effects of Cold 56
Indications for Cold Applications 57
Caution with Cryotherapy 58
Chapter 3: Physiological Effects of Heat 61
Warm and Hot 63
Passive Derivation 64
Factors That Influence Heat’s Effects 67
Direct Effects of Heat 69
Reflex Effects of Heat 78
Indications for Heat Applications 83
Caution with Thermotherapy 84
Chapter 4: Physiological Effects of Contrast 87
Indications for Contrast Treatments 94
Caution with Contrast 95
Chapter 5: Temperature Therapy Guidelines 97
Case History 99
Assessment 100
Dosimetry 108
Informed Consent 114
General Treatment Guidelines 116
Ending a Treatment 121
Negative Reactions 123
Chapter 6: Contraindications and Cautions 131
What are Contraindications and Cautions? 133
Temperature Therapy Critical Thinking 135
Medications 138
Contraindications and Cautions List 141
Chapter 7: Commonly Used Treatments 161
Gel Packs and Ice Bags 164
Ice Massage 166
Ice Bandage 168
Compresses and Fomentations 170
Foot Baths 184
Tonic Friction Applications 188
Washings 198
Thermophore 202
Hydrocollator 204
Paraffin Wax Bath 207
Hot Stone Massage 212
Chapter 8: Large, Intense Hydrotherapy Treatments 217
Introduction: Large Scale Hydrotherapy Treatments 219
General Procedures 221
Steam Treatments 223
Baths 232
Sitz Baths 235
Whirlpool 240
Spray 242
Chapter 9: Additives 245
Essential Oils 247
Epsom Salts 252
Apple Cider Vinegar 254
Ginger 254
Mustard 256
Baking Soda 258
Oatmeal 258
Castor Oil 259
Chapter 10: Home Care Temperature Therapy 263
Client Education 265
Recommending Home Treatments 267
Monitoring Outcomes 273
Appendix 275
Celsius/Fahrenheit Conversion 276
Temperature Range Chart 277
Key Words and Terms 278
Bibliography 284
Index 288
 The word ‘spa’ is an
acronym for ‘salus per
aquam’, which is Latin
for ‘health from water.’

“ We forget that the

water cycle and the
life cycle are one.”
Jacques
Cousteau

6
 Preface
Hydrotherapy or Temperature Therapy?

The therapeutic use of hot and cold has traditionally been referred to as
hydrotherapy because so many of the applications employed have been
water-based – hydro means ‘water’. Water is indeed an effective choice for
such treatments. It can be used in any of its three forms: gas (steam), liquid
(water), and solid (ice), and has been employed in healing for centuries
because it is accessible, affordable, and has few adverse effects when used
properly.
The human body is made of about 70% water, so water treatments work
synergistically with the natural healing mechanisms of our bodies. The
body’s cells reside in watery fluids through which are transported the many
elements they need for healthy function, such as nutrients, hormones, and
substances for repair. Because the body and its activities are so fluid-based,
water applications complement the natural functioning of the body.
It is essential to understand, however, that water is merely the medium
through which the true therapeutic application, temperature, is applied. The
therapeutic value of the treatments used in clinical practice (and in home
care) comes from the temperature employed to achieve their effects. The
difference in temperature between the source of the heat or cold and the part
of the body to which it is being applied is what creates the therapeutic
outcome. The application’s temperature in relation to the body’s temperature

7
is the most important factor, not the medium that is heated or chilled. For
this reason, many health professions are moving away from using
‘hydrotherapy’ as a blanket term for therapeutic temperature applications.

While water is the basis of many of the treatments discussed in this book,
it is just one method of delivering temperature to the body. Gel packs,
for instance, do not involve water, yet they are commonly used as effective
hot and cold applications. Treatments like castor oil compresses do not
employ water so it isn’t accurate to call them hydrotherapy. Recently stones
have become a popular therapeutic medium. For the sake of accuracy,
then, the term hydrotherapy will only be used in this book when referring
to a water-based treatment. We will refer to thermotherapy (thermo=heat)
as the term for the therapeutic use of heat, and cryotherapy (cryo=cold)
for the treatment of conditions with cold. The general term employed in
this text to describe the use of heat and cold as treatment modalities is
temperature therapy.

Temperature therapy has stood the test of time and continues to have an
important place in a diverse range of health care disciplines. This textbook
will start you along the path to understanding how it works and how to
employ it safely and effectively in your clinical work.

8
try this:
Put one hand in hot
water and the other
hand in cold water.
Then put both hands
in warm water and
note the difference in
the feeling in each
hand: the effects of
temperature are
relative.

9
Dr. Simon Baruch (1840-1921)
of Poland taught his medical
students that water has a place
in Materia Medica, stating that
“of all remedial agents in use
since the dawn of medicine,
water is the only one that has
survived all the vicissitudes of
doctrinal change.”
 Chapter One

Core Concepts

Learning Objectives
After learning the contents of this chapter, the reader should be able to:

∙ define the main factor essential for temperature therapy to

be effective
∙ demonstrate an understanding of the methods of heat
transfer
∙ describe the thermal properties of water
∙ explain ‘reaction’
∙ show an understanding of body temperature and its
regulation
∙ demonstrate the complementary nature of temperature
therapy and manual therapy
∙ explain the theory of local, systemic, and reflex effects of
temperature therapy
12
Figure 1.1: The skin is the body’s largest organ.
© Gunther von Hagens, Institute for Plastination, Heidelberg, Germany (www.bodyworlds.com)
Chapter 1: Core Concepts

Using temperature effectively depends on being able to intentionally mimic

the natural influences that heat and cold have on the body. In order to use
thermotherapy and cryotherapy properly, we must understand what their
effects are and why. This includes having an awareness of the properties of
skin and a basic understanding of the body’s temperature regulation processes.
Equally important is the understanding of how heat is transferred between
substances, including the role of water, which is the most commonly used
therapeutic medium. This chapter introduces some elementary concepts
about the body and its reactions to temperature.

Properties of the Skin

The skin is the body’s access organ for temperature therapy. It is actually
the body’s largest organ, making up about 16% of the total body weight.
On a typical adult, the skin covers about 2 m2 (22 ft2). Averaging 1-2 mm
(0.04-0.08”), the thickness of the skin varies from 0.5-4.0 mm (0.02-0.2”).
The skin is structured into layers. The thinner, superficial layers of skin
comprise the epidermis. The deeper section is the dermis, and the layer deep
to the dermis is the hypodermis, or subcutaneous (sub-Q) layer.

• Epidermis
The more superficial epidermal layers contain cells that have completed
their functions and have undergone scheduled death (apoptosis). The skin
as we can see it, then, is comprised only of dead cells. The deeper layers of
the epidermis have live, active cells which perform tasks that form and
protect the skin.

• Dermis
The dermis contains proteins that give the skin its structure and pliability.
Collagen is a very strong fibre that provides form and strength, and elastin
gives skin its elasticity. Also found in the dermis are blood capillaries, nerve

13
 dead cell layer

keratinocyte
(produces keratin)

melanocyte
(produces melanin)

collagen

elastin

nerve endings

blood capillaries

epidermis

dermis

subcutaneous
(sub-Q) layer
(hypodermis)

sweat & oil glands

hair follicle

Figure 1.2: The structure of the skin.

14
endings (receptors), sweat and oil glands, and hair follicles. The nerve
receptors in the dermis are the vehicles for providing sensation: touch,
pressure, vibration, tickle, itch, pain, warmth, and cold.

• Subcutaneous Layer (Hypodermis)

The subcutaneous layer sits directly below the skin and contains blood
vessels that supply the skin’s capillary network, nerve fibres that conduct
messages from the skin’s receptors, and fat.

Skin Functions

Although we may tend to take our skin for granted, it plays some very
important roles:
1. Protection: Skin performs a variety of protective tasks. It acts as a
barrier to foreign substances, functioning as the body’s first line of
defence – bacteria, viruses, and fungi must have a port of entry in order to
pass into the body. Melanin provides the brown pigment of the skin, which
protects us from the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays. Keratin toughens the skin
and makes it durable. A fatty, or lipid, substance in the skin waterproofs it,
keeping fluid in that is supposed to be inside the body and keeping fluid
out that is supposed to stay outside. Skin can also reinforce itself
protectively – continuous friction will cause
the skin to develop a callus, which is a
thickening that protects the underlying,
more fragile structures.
normal
2. Thermoregulation: At rest, the dermis
contains 8-10% of the body’s blood flow, so
the skin acts as a blood reservoir. This
vasoconstriction
function of the skin is important to
understand because of the key vascular
effects of temperature therapy. Subcutaneous
vasodilation blood vessels change in diameter in response
to heat and cold. They open up (dilate) in
Figure 1.3.

15
 cold normal hot

Figure 1.4: Cold on the skin’s surface causes vasoconstriction

of superficial capillaries, while heat results in vasodilation.

response to heat, filling capillaries that bring more blood flow to the body
surface – in this way heat contained in the blood is allowed to escape. In
reaction to cold, the blood vessels narrow (constrict), reducing the blood
flow to the surface and promoting heat conservation in the body. Temperature
applications can reproduce these natural responses to heat and cold for
therapeutic purposes.
As well, sweat glands secrete water and waste products (perspiration). As
perspiration evaporates from the skin surface heat leaves the body, so
sweating is important in temperature regulation.
3. Excretion: Skin excretes salts, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and urea (a
waste product produced by the kidneys during the production of urine).
While it is not a primary organ of elimination, if the skin is healthy its
elimination role helps reduce demand on other organs that act as toxin filters
or eliminators (the kidneys, intestines, liver, lungs, and spleen). Used daily,
temperature therapy can increase the efficiency of elimination and strengthen
the body’s general immunity.

16
 remember this:
The organs of filtration and
elimination are S.K.I.L.L.S. :
Skin
Kidneys
Intestines
Liver
Lungs
Spleen

4. Absorption: Skin is also important for absorption, which is the

movement of materials (good and bad) from outside the body into body
cells. The role of absorption is significant therapeutically when additives
are used in water. It is important to know the effects of any additives, such
as oils or salts, that are used to enhance temperature therapy applications.

try this…
Put a couple of
peeled cloves of garlic
in your sock next to your
skin. Monitor how long it
takes for your breath to
smell like garlic. See how
well the skin absorbs
substances into the body?

17
Reaction
In physiological terms, reaction refers to the body’s healthy response to
stress. Within reasonable parameters, it will respond to stressors by initiating
strengthening reactions that increase the speed and efficiency of its feedback
responses. Over time this enables the body to successfully withstand stronger
and more frequent stressors. A feedback cycle is a primary means of adjusting
to discomforts; it reflects changes in body function to adapt to a stimulus.
For example, exercise causes changes in structures like skeletal muscle and
the heart to increase the person’s tolerance of exertion.
While stress can strengthen the body and its responses to stimuli, too much
stress overwhelms defence mechanisms and leads to tissue damage.
Temperature therapy can be seen as a form of strengthening stressor, but
because of this potential for injury, it is important to be aware of
contraindications to heat or cold. There are times when such applications
are ill-advised or in need of modification. As well, hot and cold treatments
can result in incomplete or negative reactions. Contraindications and
negative reactions are discussed in later chapters.
Temperature therapy applications produce their effects through stimulating
strengthening reactions of various types. To do so safely and effectively,
they must stay within an appropriate temperature gradient. The body can
withstand a temperature range of about 62ºC (112ºF). The skin’s surface
temperature is usually 28º-32ºC (82º-90ºF), but it can drop as far as 21ºC
(70ºF) if uncovered at room temperature. The skin can tolerate a gel pack
that is -5ºC (23ºF), and a paraffin wax treatment of 57ºC (135ºF).

Temperature Regulation
The body has narrow parameters within which its functions work properly.
For example, when their temperature rises or drops too much, body systems
are unable to function normally. Unless protective mechanisms are activated,
death of the tissue, and of the individual, can occur. The core temperature is
the temperature in structures that lie deep in the body, and is considered to
be healthy at 37ºC (98.6ºF). The shell temperature is the temperature near
the body’s surface and is generally 1-6ºC cooler than the core.

18
 warm cold

core 36˚C (96.8˚F)

37˚C (98.6˚F)
28˚C (82.4˚F)

32˚C (89.6˚F)

shell 34˚C (93.2˚F)

36˚C (96.8˚F)

shell
28˚C (82.4˚F) 31˚C (87.8˚F)

Figure 1.5: Shell temperature and core temperature.

Consider when your hands become very cold and fine activities such as
writing seem impossible. An analogous effect occurs when the body’s
internal systems are affected by an excessive temperature change (hot or
cold) and can no longer work properly. Because of this sensitivity, there are
mechanisms in place that constantly regulate and adjust tissue temperature.
Keeping body functions constantly re-adjusting back to normal values
involves a number of regulatory mechanisms. Homeostasis is the term used
to represent the effects of all of the body’s feedback cycles in maintaining
healthy parameters. The hypothalamus, located in the brain, is important to
homeostasis as the central nervous system’s temperature regulator.

19
• The Role of the Hypothalamus in Temperature Regulation
Acting like a thermostat, the hypothalamus promotes heat conserving
activities when the body is cold and heat losing activities when it is hot. It
receives signals that keep it apprised of the temperature in the various body
parts, and also monitors the temperature of the blood that passes through the
hypothalamus itself.

body
temperature
decreases

hypothalamus
(senses blood temperature)

body
skin receptors temperature
increases

hypothalamus
(heat promoting centre)
&
thyroid & pituitary glands

Vasoconstriction Adrenal Glands Skeletal Muscles Thyroid Gland

decreases increase repetitive increases
heat loss cellular contraction cycle metabolic rate
through metabolism (shivering) to increase body
the skin heat generation

Figure 1.6a: Heat conserving activities.

20
1. Heat Conserving Activities: When blood that is cooled at the surface
returns to the circulation deeper in the body, it stimulates heat conserving
mechanisms initiated by the hypothalamus. Some activities that conserve
body heat are shivering, goose bumps, and re-allocation of blood from the
extremities to the body core. Shivering generates heat, as any body movement
does. Goose bumps (piloerection) cause the body’s hairs to stand erect and

body
temperature
increases

hypothalamus
(senses blood temperature)

body
skin receptors
temperature
decreases

hypothalamus
(heat losing centre)
&
thyroid & pituitary glands

Sweat Glands Vasodilation Respiration Skeletal Metabolism

in Skin increases rapid Muscle slows
perspiration heat loss exhalation to decreases to reduce
through release heat muscle tone internally
the skin (panting) generated
heat

Figure 1.6b: Heat losing activities.

21
create an insulating layer of hair that traps air by the skin. Unfortunately,
people no longer have thick coats of hair so this type of insulation is not as
effective as it once was! Diverting blood to the inner part of the body helps
keep the more important core temperature as warm as possible to protect
proper functioning of the internal organs. A cold application, then, results in
constriction of blood vessels (vasoconstriction) near the skin surface,
directing blood flow toward the inner parts of the body.
2. Heat Losing Activities: Perspiration, increased breathing rate, and
dilation of the blood vessels near the skin surface are some of the ways in
which the body strives to lose heat, again initiated by the hypothalamus.
Perspiration is generally removed by evaporation, an action that results in
cooling at the body surface. (Perspiration that drips off the body does not
have the same cooling effect as perspiration that evaporates.) Rapid breathing
allows the escape of heat via warm breath. The dilation of blood vessels
(vasodilation) near the exterior of the body brings warm blood to the surface
where the heat can escape into the surrounding air.

The hypothalamus
receives signals that
keep it apprised of
the temperature in the
various body parts,
and also monitors the
temperature of the blood
that passes through the
hypothalamus itself.

22
 temperature regulation

• when the body is cold, heat conserving activities are

initiated
• when the body is hot, heat losing activities are initiated

temp activity effect

cold vasoconstriction reduces heat loss
via blood at the
body’s surface
shivering generates heat
due to the movement
goose bumps hair creates an
insulating layer which
conserves heat at the
surface of the skin
hot vasodilation increases heat loss
via blood at the
body’s surface
perspiring evaporating
perspiration cools
the body’s surface
↑ ↑ breathing rate heat escapes via the
warm breath

23
Properties of Water

The body can be heated or cooled so effectively when water is the medium
used because of water’s thermal properties, namely specific heat and thermal
conductivity:
• Specific heat is the capacity of a substance to store heat. Water can
store four times more heat than air and twice as much as a paraffin wax
mixture. That means that paraffin wax has about 50% less heat energy
than water that is at the same temperature.
• Thermal conductivity is the capacity of a substance to conduct heat to
other substances or materials. The higher the conductivity of a material,
the better that material transfers heat. The thermal conductivity of
solids is about 100 times that of liquids, which have about 100 times
more conductivity than gases. This difference in conductivity explains
why, for instance, moist hot towels provide a more effective treatment
than dry ones.

Specific heat is the

capacity of a substance
to store heat; thermal
conductivity is the
capacity of a substance
to transfer heat to other
substances.

In addition to its thermal properties, water can also be effective as a

therapeutic medium because of mechanical and chemical effects. The term
mechanical effects refers to the stimulation that results from water striking
the body, such as with a shower or water jets. Chemical effects are present
when substances such as salts or oils are added to the water and the resulting
mixture is used on the body.

24
 Imagine walking
outside into air
that is 1ºC (38ºF).
Now imagine
immersing yourself
into water of the
same temperature.

moist dr y

Figure 1.7:
Even though these
towels are heated to
the same temperature,
the moist one will feel
hotter. This is because
water is an excellent
temperature conductor.

25
Transfer of Heat

Heat transfer is an exchange of energy between two materials that occurs in

relation to the temperature difference between the two materials. A heat
treatment will have a different effect on a warmed body part than on the
same area after it has been chilled. Cold is defined as the relative absence of
heat. Rather than adding cold to a body part, then, cold applications remove
heat from it.
eat transfer (heating and cooling
H
body tissues) occurs by five methods.
Our treatments transfer temperature Rather than
using one or more of these methods. adding cold
to a body part,
They are: cryotherapy
• conduction removes heat
from it.
• convection
• evaporation
• radiation
• conversion

Conduction is the exchange of heat between two surfaces that are in direct
contact with each other. For example, an electric heating pad lying on the
body transmits heat to the tissue by conduction.
Convection is the result of movement of a heated gas or liquid between
surfaces at different temperatures. For instance, when the hot air of a sauna
touches the body’s cooler skin, the body becomes warmed.
Evaporation is the conversion of a liquid to a vapour. Each millilitre of
evaporated water takes heat with it as it evaporates, as in perspiration. Note
that perspiration that drips off the body rather than evaporates does not
remove much heat.

26
 adiation is the transfer of heat between objects via infrared rays. Radiation
R
requires no direct contact between the objects. The heat that the body absorbs
when in sunshine is an example of radiation.
Conversion involves no externally applied heat, but uses energy coursing
through a substance to heat it. Ultrasound is an example of conversion.

convection
(heated air → skin)

conduction
(heating element
→ rocks)

radiation evaporation
(sun’s rays → skin) (water changes
from liquid → gas)

conversion
(heat energy
moves into and
through tissues)

Figure 1.8.

27
 means of heat exchange

means how it works example

conduction surfaces in contact hot pack
convection heated gas/liquid steam
moving between areas treatments
evaporation conversion of liquid perspiration
to vapour
radiation infrared rays sunshine
conversion energy through ultrasound
the substance

Manual Therapies

Because using heat and cold for therapy is typically gentle and natural, such
applications are complementary to other healing modalities. Thermotherapy
and cryotherapy have similar effects on many of the body systems as, for
example, massage. Heat treatments and deep massage using petrissage
strokes, for instance, both decrease muscle tone. Conversely, stimulating
techniques such as tapotement can increase muscle tone, creating similar
effects as a cold treatment. Sometimes it is a matter of choosing the modality
best suited to achieve the desired effect in the individual client’s body.
Many practitioners combine temperature therapies with manual treatment
to achieve enhanced effects, for example, by applying thermotherapy over
a muscle group before a massage treatment. Sometimes temperature therapy
is used to mitigate the effects of manual treatment, as with the use of
aggressive techniques like frictioning. Since frictioning can generate an
inflammatory response in the treated tissues, cold therapy (e.g., ice massage)
is usually partnered with the manual treatment to control the results.

28
 Many therapists
combine
temperature
therapy modalities
with manual
treatment to
achieve enhanced
effects.

Temperature therapy and manual therapies generally have fewer adverse

effects than medications that could be prescribed for the same condition. As
well, because of the accessibility of temperature therapy, such treatments
can actively involve an individual in her or his own care.
In addition to the ways clients benefit, practitioners of manual therapies can
make excellent use of temperature therapy in their own self care. Just as an
example, warm water on the hands before performing a treatment and cold
water afterward can promote good perfusion and drainage to optimize
function. Temperature therapy can also play an important role in injury
prevention and maintenance of occupationally overused body areas.

Effects of Temperature Therapy Applications

• Local Effects
In many instances, temperature therapies are applied as local treatments;
that is, to a specific body area or body part. Their results are intentionally
local, ensuing from the effects of increasing or decreasing blood flow,
altering local immune responses, and improving pliability of the tissue.

29
• Reflex Effects
The primary means by which hot and cold treatments affect the internal
organs is through reflex effects, since their temperature isn’t actually changed
by the applications. In the context of temperature therapy, a reflex is a
reaction in response to a stimulus that is applied to the periphery of the body
but enacted in a deeper structure through the mediation of the central nervous
system (CNS). These are programmed reflex responses to adapt to the CNS’s
perception of the intent of the stimulus, for example to increase/decrease
glandular activity, alter blood flow into the structure, and so on.
These reflex patterns can be used therapeutically to stimulate the body
surface and produce desired effects in deeper structures, since treating the
skin in a reflex area can address the related organ. Often the section of skin
that overlies an organ is the reflex area for that organ; however, some reflex
areas are more distant, as you can see in Figure 1.10.

skin referral
area reflex arc
increased
digestive activity

ice massage

vasodilation inc
reas
ed bloo d flow

Figure 1.9: Cryotherapy applied to the reflex zone on the

abdomen surface can promote increased digestive activity.

30
liver & liver &
gallbladder lung & diaphragm gallbladder

heart

stomach
small pancreas
intestine kidney
ovary urinary
colon bladder
appendix ureter

Figure 1.10: Visceral reflex referral zones on the skin surface.

31
Reflex effects are classified into three categories based on their functions:
• vasomotor
• visceromotor
• glandular

Vasomotor effects are the ways a stimulus affects the smooth muscle of the
blood vessels supplying a tissue, leading to constriction or dilation of the
vessels.
Visceromotor effects are the effects that temperature change has on the
smooth muscle tissue of the viscera. The smooth muscle is what causes
movement within an organ.
Glandular effects are the effects temperature therapy can have on glandular
secretions (e.g., mucus, enzymes, hormones).

An important reflex to keep in mind is

the arterial trunk reflex. Whatever the
influence a temperature therapy
treatment has on a large artery, the
same effect may be conveyed to
smaller blood vessels branching off
the primary artery. In conditions
where heat is contraindicated, for
instance, it is important to be aware of
this type of reflex: if you want to
apply heat to the thigh, consider the
needs of the lower leg as well, because
the lower leg’s vessels are continuous
with those in the upper leg.

32
• Systemic Effects
Temperature therapies can be applied to the whole body, creating significant
additional systemic effects. With a bath or a whirlpool, for example, the
pressure exerted on body tissues and cavities by the water in which the
person is immersed creates changes beyond those caused by the temperature
itself. The pressure of the water increases venous pressure, increasing blood
flow back to the heart. With a hot application, there is also an increase in the
heart rate; the heart rate will slow down if the treatment is cold.
I ncreased venous return to the heart also causes a larger volume of blood to
be pushed into the thorax, reducing the amount of space the lungs have
available to fill with air. Breathing increases in difficulty with full body
treatments, so individuals being treated must be monitored, particularly if
they have a history of respiratory difficulties.
Full body heat treatments also cause an overall increase in blood flow to the
skin, subcutaneous tissues, and superficial muscles.

As we proceed to take a more detailed look at the effects of heat, cold and
contrast applications in the next three chapters, more information will be
added to refine our understanding of how the effects of temperature therapies
can be directed to achieve specific therapeutic goals.

33
Sebastian Kneipp (1821-1897) of
Germany had pulmonary tuberculosis
in the 1840s, at a time when the
disease was usually fatal. He read a
hydrotherapy book, On the Healing
Virtues of Cold Water, Inwardly and
Outwardly Applied, as Proved by
Experience from the 1730s by a
Dr. Hahn, and decided to try some
techniques. Kneipp immersed himself
several times a week in the freezing
Danube River, which appeared to
bolster his immune system because his
TB went into remission. He published
My Water Cure in 1866, a book which
recommended bathing in and drinking
cold water, going to bed and rising
early, and taking long walks barefoot
in the grass. He believed that if a
person were dis-eased, water would
“dissolve, remove, and strengthen.”
He was once arraigned for quackery,
of which he was eventually acquitted.
 Chapter Two

Physiological
Effects of Cold
Learning Objectives
After learning the contents of this chapter, the reader should be able to:

∙ define retrostasis
∙ explain the hunting response and active derivation
∙ demonstrate an understanding of the first stage of the
inflammatory response and how cold addresses the effects
of acute inflammation
∙ list the five cardinal signs and symptoms of inflammation
∙ explain hypoxia
∙ define the countercurrent heat exchange of blood vessels
∙ demonstrate an understanding of the factors that influence
the effects of cold
∙ identify the direct and reflex effects of cold
∙ identify common indications for the use of cryotherapy
∙ show understanding of cautions related to the use of cold
 hypothermic comas for central nervous system injuries

Doctors at the Foothills Hospital in Calgary, Alberta, and at

Memorial Hermann Hospital in Houston, Texas, are studying
the effects of inducing a hypothermic coma for the treatment
of acquired brain and spinal cord injuries.

The procedure involves lowering the body temperature to

34°C/93.2°F (36°-38°C/96.8°-100.4°F is normal). Ideally, this
should be done within 90-120 minutes of the injury.  The body,
which goes into hibernation mode, slows its functions so
blood-borne oxygen is conserved and can be concentrated
to heal the injured nervous tissue. Bleeding and swelling are
also greatly reduced.

The potential benefits of hypothermic coma were found

because of a “laboratory accident.” One of the doctors
involved was supervising a drug test for central nervous
system injuries induced in lab animals. The experimenters
noticed that in the winter, when the temperature went down
in the older building where the experiments were being
held, control animals who did not receive the drug therapy
treatment were still not showing signs of their injuries.

Doctors are currently running a human study which will involve

240 subjects.

http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20060303/WFIVE_on_ice_060303

36
Chapter 2: Physiological Effects of Cold

What effects does cold have on the body? Most of the time the reaction is
depressive, meaning that cold tends to slow down metabolic functions. The
effects of cryotherapy may also be stimulating – this tends to occur if the
application is brief or is used to achieve reflex effects.
Cold modalities work by extracting heat from the warmer skin. The greater
the temperature difference between the application and the skin, the larger
the drop in tissue temperature. Cooling of the body surface initiates
responses that underpin the effects of cold: retrostasis, heat conservation,
and the hunting response.

Retrostasis and Heat Conservation

When a tissue requires blood or fluid for any reason, that fluid will be drawn
from an area of congestion first. Likewise, if the heat of warm blood is
needed in a body part, it will be shunted in from other body parts that have
excess blood. Retrostasis, the result of blood vessel constriction in the
skin and subcutaneous tissues, is the action of fluid being mobilized
from the body surface into
deeper tissues and internal IC E
organs. Cold applications
utilize these reactions to
move blood away from or
into desired tissue zones.

Figure 2.1:
Cryotherapy produces
vasoconstriction in
superficial capillaries,
keeping blood moving
toward deeper tissues.

37
When the body constricts the superficial blood vessels in response to cold,
it is also activating a protective heat conserving mechanism to minimize
heat loss through the skin. Vasoconstriction at the body surface limits the
amount of blood circulating through the skin and subcutaneous tissues,
restricting the amount of heat that can be released. This vasoconstriction
complements the cold-induced retrostasis because it aids blood flow into the
deeper tissues and resists flow toward the skin surface.

Hunting Response

Another event that happens in response to an application of cold is the

hunting response. The hunting response occurs when the temperature in a
tissue is reduced for 12-15 minutes or more, or when it is brought below
10ºC (50ºF). Under such conditions a cold-induced vasodilation follows the
initial vasoconstriction. This vasodilation is referred to as derivation, which
is the drawing of fluid from its main pathway, away from a higher volume
area toward the chilled tissue. What ensues are cyclic periods of vasodilation
and vasoconstriction, and therefore increased and decreased temperature in
the cool region. During these cycles, however, the tissue does not return to
the pre-treatment temperature.
The hunting response is an attempt by the body to ensure that peripheral
body parts receive sufficient blood when exposed to cold so that they can
resist tissue damage (i.e., frostbite). The magnitude and frequency of the

The hunting response occurs when

the temperature in a tissue is reduced
for 12-15 minutes or more, or when it
is brought below 10ºC (50ºF), causing
cyclic periods of vasodilation and
vasoconstriction to help the tissue
resist cold-induced damage.

38
hunting response is in direct relationship to the person’s core body
temperature. This protective mechanism is only useful if the individual has
a relatively warm core temperature while subjected to cold, so may not
prevent tissue damage when the entire body is exposed to severe cold. The
vasodilation that occurs in the hunting response is active derivation, meaning
that the body must expend energy in order for the derivation to occur.

Inflammation and Cryotherapy

One of the main uses of cold applications is the management of inflammation,

especially in the acute stage. The inflammatory response is the body’s
non-specific reaction to damage, meaning that inflammation occurs
regardless of the type of damaging stimulus. The primary functions of
inflammation are to dispose of foreign entities (e.g., bacteria) at the site of
injury, to prevent spread of those foreign entities beyond the site, and to
prepare the injured tissues for repair.

One of the main uses

of cold applications
is the management
of inflammation,
especially in the
acute stage.

A key event in inflammation, important to the rationale for our use of cold
treatments, is vasodilation and increased permeability of the blood vessels
supplying the damaged tissue. When a blood vessel dilates the diameter of
its lumen (inner cavity) increases, which allows a great deal more blood to
flow through the tissue. This increase in blood flow facilitates two important
things: first, the nutrients and cells that are needed for repair are able to get
there faster; and second, waste products and fluid accumulation are more
efficiently removed.

39
 Figure 2.2a:
nutrients out Normal capillary
dynamics, where
small-sized nutrients
and wastes pass
through the capillary’s
walls and the larger
blood cells do not.

wastes in

The permeability of a vessel refers to how easily substances pass through

the vessel’s wall. Permeability relates mainly to capillaries, which are the
tiny vessels in contact with their tissues’ cells. It is through these capillaries
that nutrients and metabolic wastes are exchanged between the tissue and
the bloodstream. The more permeable a capillary becomes, the more material
can pass through freely. The increase in capillary permeability that comes
with the inflammatory process permits larger items that would not normally
leave the blood to enter the tissues. In this way, the specific cells that help
defend and repair the body can travel to the damaged tissue.

40
 chemicals
released by
damaged edema
cells

white blood
cells attack
bacteria

Figure 2.2b: Chemicals released by damaged cells enter the

bloodstream and activate pain and inflammation responses.
During inflammation greater capillary wall permeability
permits increased nutrient delivery and waste removal, as
well as passage of white blood cells and other elements
necessary for the immune response and for tissue repair.

41
Vasodilation and increased permeability in early inflammation contribute to
what are called the cardinal signs of inflammation:
• Redness is the result of the large volume of blood that has entered the
tissue and is called hyperemia. Depending on the person’s skin colour,
there will be obvious redness or pronounced darkening of the skin.
• Heat is due to the extra blood accumulation, plus the rise in the
metabolic rate that occurs as part of the immune and healing processes.
The hotter the body the faster chemical reactions occur, and the more
metabolic activity is taking place, the more heat is generated. A cycle
develops that sustains heat at the site for some time.
• Swelling (edema) results from the increase in capillary permeability,
which allows not only nutrients and cells but also additional fluid to
pass through the blood vessel wall into the interstitium (the spaces
between the body cells).
• Pain is usually due to substances released by injured cells and perhaps
from the release of chemicals from an invading agent. If nerves are
damaged, this may add to the pain, as may pressure from the increased
fluid volume on the injured and neighbouring structures.
• Altered function is caused by the pain and swelling, the injury itself,
and the protective muscle guarding that almost inevitably occurs. In
musculoskeletal structures
this usually presents as
reduced mobility. remember this:
There are 5 characteristic
signs and symptoms of
inflammation (S.H.A.R.P.):
Swelling
Heat
Altered Function
Redness
Pain

42
Stages of Inflammation

As the inflammatory response activates, progresses and subsides, the tissue

is said to go through three stages: acute, sub-acute, and chronic. Acute
inflammation is the swelling stage and manifests with the cardinal signs
listed above.
Sub-acute inflammation is the regenerating stage in which healing and repair
are initiated. Edema and hyperemia begin to diminish and any bruising
starts to change colour and resolve. Local range of motion begins to increase,
but there may continue to be pain, and the tissue remains fragile.
Chronic inflammation is the scar tissue and healing stage. In this phase there
are few visible signs of inflammation at the site – perhaps some cool edema
and point tenderness – and scar tissue becomes increasingly effective in
securing the injured tissue. Reduced range of motion can persist because
of local adhesions and/or muscle tension. Resolution of the injury brings
the chronic stage of inflammation to a natural end; prolonged symptoms
usually indicate that the tissues are not healing properly or the site has been
re-injured, often due to premature activity.
Each stage of the inflammation process requires a different treatment
approach. With respect to temperature therapy the general rule is: cold for
acute, contrast for sub-acute, and heat for chronic. (Hot and contrast
treatments will be discussed
in upcoming chapters.) This
rule is over-simplistic, since
there are cases where these Heat
approaches can be varied or should
should be adapted, especially
in the sub-acute and chronic never be
stages. As a universal rule, applied
however, ‘cold for acute’ is to acutely
strongly adhered to. Heat inflamed tissue.
should never be applied to
acutely inflamed tissue.

43
Why Cold is Effective

The body’s inflammatory response is often excessive relative to the injury.

Because of this, helping to control the intensity of inflammation reduces
symptoms and potential complications. Cryotherapy helps minimize the
degree of vasodilation that occurs – remember that a key effect of a cold
application is superficial vasoconstriction. Another important benefit of
vasoconstriction at an injury site is that blood loss (internal or external) is
minimized by narrowing of the affected blood vessels. The more constricted
a blood vessel is, the less blood can travel through and escape the body or
pool at the site as bruising or a contusion.

Figure 2.3.

When placing cold on an acute injury, it is best to combine the cryotherapy

with compression and elevation. Local pressure and elevation of the body
part above the level of the pumping heart help to reduce blood loss and to
control accumulation of fluid (edema) around the injury.

remember this:
When treating an acute
injury, follow R.I.C.E.:
Rest
Ice
Compression
Elevation

44
The early closing of a wound is created by soft granulation tissue. Fibroblasts,
the cells that lay down scar tissue, travel to the site to create a sturdier,
permanent resolution. While scar tissue is essential to the healing process it
can also be overproduced. Scars are not made of functional tissue, so they
can impede efficient tissue performance. The vasoconstriction induced by
cryotherapy prevents excessive fibroblast migration and activity, helping
control the amount of scar tissue developed and therefore the amount of
dysfunction it might cause.
muscle fibre

scar tissue fibroblast

Figure 2.4: While scars unite and stabilize an injury site, they
can also reduce tissue performance and be a source of
irritation and pain.

The onset of acute inflammation can cause secondary hypoxic injury as a

result of the effects of swelling or of accumulation of metabolic wastes.
Hypoxia refers to inadequate oxygen supply and its damaging effect on
cells. Cells in and around the damaged tissue can be further compromised
by oxygen deprivation.
Inadequate oxygen delivery can be compounded if there is damage to the
blood vessels that supply uninjured, peripheral cells in the affected tissue
zone. The vasoconstriction and slower local metabolism that result from a

45
cold application help reduce hypoxia. By reducing the metabolic rate, the
cells’ oxygen demand is minimized. The cells at and around the trauma
site are then better equipped to cope with a temporary period of reduced
oxygen availability.
In addition to helping control the physiological events of inflammation, an
application of cold also relieves pain via the anaesthetic effect of numbing
local nerve endings and elevating the individual’s pain threshold.

In addition to helping control

the physiological events of
inflammation, an application of
cold also relieves pain by numbing
nerve endings and raising the
local pain threshold.

Ideally, cold should be applied immediately after trauma in order to reduce

the extent of soft tissue damage from cell death and hemorrhage, and to
decrease the inflammation. After the inflammation is well established,
cryotherapy can still function as a painkiller and antispasmodic, but will
have less effect on the inflammatory response. Once swelling has been
minimized, the cold treatment should be discontinued so healing is not
delayed by lengthy vasoconstriction. The best approach with acute injuries
is usually to apply cold, remove for a period of time, then re-apply so that
inflammation is controlled but local blood flow is kept adequate for transport
of the necessary cells and nutrients, and metabolism is sufficient for the
healing processes to get under way.
In addition to addressing inflammation, cold treatments are effective in helping
manage fevers. Full body applications like cool washings are generally most
helpful in reducing fever. Brief washings should be applied so as not to

46
hinder perspiration, since perspiring is the body’s natural way of lowering
its temperature (heat losing activity), and this mechanism should not be
inhibited. Intermittent washings are best since they provide relief without
over-treating – fever is an important part of the immune response.

events during inflammation

injury

injured cells
release chemicals
vasodilation migration of
immune and healing
increased cells (including
local hyperemia capillary fibroblasts) to area
permeability

heat redness swelling pain

increased altered function scar formation

metabolism

healing

Duration of Effects of Cold

Arterial blood (blood in the arteries) carries oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood

from the heart to body tissues, while venous blood (blood in the veins)
carries deoxygenated blood with waste products from body tissues back to
the heart. As blood reaches the surface of the body, heat in the blood is
released to the external environment. Normally, as warm arterial blood from
the body’s core travels to the peripheral tissues and passes by the cooler

47
returning venous blood, there is
a countercurrent heat exchange.
That is to say, as the arterial and
venous blood pass each other,
the arterial blood warms the artery
cooler venous blood, and the (warmer blood)
venous blood cools the warmer
arterial blood.
The vasoconstriction caused by
a cold application reduces the
amount of warm blood entering
a tissue area. The countercurrent vein
heat exchange is reduced and (cooler blood)
the tissue will not re-warm as
quickly as usual. Cold penetrates
deeper into tissue than heat
because the presence of cold
related vasoconstriction reduces blood from blood from
periphery body core
the arrival of fresh warm blood
that can diminish the influence
of the cold. The effects of cold
also last longer than those of Figure 2.5: Countercurrent
heat since a cooled area takes heat exchange between
longer to return to resting warm arterial blood and
temperature than warmed tissue cooler incoming venous
because of the effects of cold on blood.
blood flow.
As has already been mentioned, prolonged intermittent cryotherapy is
superior to a single cold application. This type of treatment protocol sustains
the desired effects of cold while minimizing potential negative effects. As
well, the cold applications can be removed before activation of the hunting
response takes place, thereby avoiding its vasodilation (derivation) effects.

48
 A longer protocol of intermittent
cryotherapy is superior to a single
cold application. This type of
treatment protocol sustains the
desired effects of cold while
minimizing potential negative effects
and avoiding the vasodilation of the
hunting response.

Influences on Cold’s Effects

The form of cold application used impacts the degree of cooling. A dynamic
ice massage, in which ice is continuously moved over the target tissue, has
greater results than, for instance, a static cold gel pack application which
tends to become warmed by the body tissues.
The colder the application, the more intense the vasoconstriction. Extreme
cold is more tolerable if the cold source is not kept continuously on the
tissue; a mobile application accomplishes the desired results more efficiently.
Percussive techniques coupled with cold make the cryotherapy more
tolerable for an individual who dislikes cold applications. The percussion
functions as a distraction to reduce the perception of cold intensity. Care
must be taken with such techniques, however, because the numbing effects
of the cryotherapy may decrease the perception of pain.
The physical characteristics of the individual receiving the treatment have a
significant impact on its efficacy. The greater the temperature difference
between the skin and the cooling source, the greater the resulting temperature
change. Someone who is warm will experience greater effects than a person
who is chilled.

49
 Figure 2.6:
Fat is a powerful
temperature insulator.
For example, even in
frigid waters the
temperature of the
whale’s warm-blooded
body systems is
maintained because of
the insulating effects of
a thick subcutaneous
fat layer.

The amount of subcutaneous fatty (adipose) tissue the recipient has affects
the rate of temperature reduction when cold is applied, and of re-warming
when it is removed. The adipose is not the target tissue, and its additional
thickness can reduce the effectiveness of the cold treatment in addressing its
target. Fatty tissue is a poor conductor of temperature, acting as an insulator
and impairing cold’s ability to reach and affect the tissues below it. Similarly,
structures with little or no adipose covering, like bony prominences, can be
overchilled by prolonged cryotherapy.

factors that influence cold’s effects

temperature of application
duration of application
size of treatment area
temperature of individual
amount of adipose tissue in treatment area

50
Direct Effects of Cold

Cold, as previously mentioned, has depressive effects on tissue metabolism

when the treatment is prolonged, while short applications are stimulating.

• Brief Cryotherapy Applications

Brief cold (<1 minute) is stimulating because of immediate vasoconstriction
followed by a counteracting vasodilation response (active derivation). This
activity of the blood vessels brings a fresh supply of oxygen and nutrients
to the cells, optimizing their ability to perform their tasks.

• Longer Cryotherapy Applications

Cold applications of longer duration have sedative effects including slowing
of metabolism in the treated tissues. They also cause shunting of blood away
from the treated body surface area. These effects are central to the rationale
for using cryotherapy in most cases.
In addition to reducing body temperature and metabolism, larger scale
cryotherapy applications also decrease the heart and breathing rates. With
slower metabolism comes
diminished need for oxygen neuron
spasm cryotherapy
to be inhaled and pumped to
the tissues, and a reduction in
the amount of carbon dioxide neuromuscular
and other waste that must be junction muscle cell
returned to the heart and lungs
for removal from the body.
Most types of muscle spasms
can be addressed with cold
therapy. The cooler a muscle
is, the slower the rate of firing
of the nerve impulses that
cause the muscle to contract. Figure 2.7: Cold reduces transmission
Neurons demonstrate less across the neuromuscular junction.

51
frequent conduction as they cool, and transmission becomes greatly reduced
where the neuron meets the muscle cell (neuromuscular junction). There is
a direct relationship between neuron temperature and frequency of impulses
causing muscle fibre contraction.
Not only does cold reduce motor neuron impulse activity, it also decreases
muscle spindle sensitivity. Muscle spindles are receptors found in skeletal
muscles. Their function is to monitor stretch in the muscle and to initiate a
countering reflex to prevent overstretch injury. Because these receptors are

muscle spindle receptor

Figure 2.8a:
sory neuron When a muscle is
sen
tense or spasmed,
small movements
elicit strong
muscle spindle
motor neuron spinal responses that
cord tend to prolong
the spasm.
COLD

Figure 2.8b:
Cooling the
spindle receptor
apparatus makes
it less sensitive to
stretch and helps
release the
muscle spasm.

52
responsible for inducing muscle contraction, their desensitization reduces
muscle tension and therefore can help treat muscle spasm. It should be noted,
however, that if the primary cause of a muscle spasm is ischemia (decreased
oxygen supply), heat is usually a more appropriate treatment choice.

While cold helps reduce

muscle spasm by slowing
neuronal activity,
if the primary cause of
a spasm is ischemia
heat is a more appropriate
temperature therapy choice.

Joint pain and inflammation can often be decreased with cold. As cold
compresses are applied, the temperature of the skin drops first, then of the
subcutaneous soft tissue, then the intra-articular region (inside the joint). As
little as five minutes of cold can reduce intra-articular temperature, helping
relieve joint swelling and discomfort.
A less desirable result of longer cold applications is increased viscosity of
the local tissue environment, which can lead to decreased plasticity and
therefore resistance to motion, reduced dexterity, and slower reaction time.
The downside for some individuals is that they may experience joint stiffness
secondary to cryotherapy applications.

53
 direct effects of cold

• brief treatment

area effect
any brief vasoconstriction followed
by vasodilation; refreshes local
blood supply and stimulates
tissue performance

• longer treatment

area effect
any induces vasoconstriction and
retrostasis, then vasodilation
and active derivation
inflamed tissue reduces inflammation and pain
metabolic rate slows
respiratory system sedates
cardiovascular system sedates
abdomen stimulates underlying viscera
kidneys increases function
muscles eases spasms
joints decreases swelling; can
increase stiffness

54
 local application of cold

↓ body temperature ↓ nerve firing

↑ heat-conserving ↓ muscle spasm

mechanisms

↓ muscle pain
vasoconstriction/retrostasis

↓ metabolism hunting ↓ joint ↓ inflammatory ↓ fluid

response/ inflammation response viscosity
active
derivation
↓ joint ↓ soft
pain ↓ vasodilation tissue
elasticity
↓ breathing ↓ heart ↓ secondary
rate rate cell hypoxia ↓ dexterity

↓ swelling ↓ blood loss ↓ cell migration

↓ local pain ↓ immobility ↓ scar formation

55
Reflex Effects of Cold

Cryotherapy applications can have effects beyond the tissue area to which
the cold is applied. While its effects on local tissue metabolism are generally
depressive, cold can be used reflexively to stimulate activity in target organs.
Despite the inability of the cold to actually reach the organs, these effects
happen because of retrostasis. (See Figure 1.10 in Chapter 1 for a reflex
referral zone chart.) Reflex effects of cryotherapy can be produced with
both brief and longer treatments.

• Brief Cryotherapy Applications

Brief cold (can include percussive touch) to the skin surface reflex area of
an organ increases the organ’s functional activity. On the chest, with friction
or percussion, cold induces an immediate increase in the respiration rate,
followed by slower, deeper breathing. Applied over the heart, brief cold
results in an increased heart rate. A short cold treatment on the hands, face,
and head stimulates the central nervous system to increase mental activity
and alertness. Brief cold can also enhance digestion, urine production,
elimination, respiration, pulse rate, immune functioning, and muscle tone
via reflex effects.

• Longer Cryotherapy Applications

Prolonged cold to the nose and back of the neck causes contraction of blood
vessels in the nasal mucosa, which can be very helpful with nosebleeds. An
extended cold treatment on the abdomen increases blood flow to the
intestines, making more blood available for nutrient absorption from the
digestive organs. A prolonged treatment of cold over the heart reduces the
heart rate. An extended cold application over the kidneys provides a fresh
blood supply, enhancing their efficiency. A long cold treatment to the scalp
contracts the blood vessels in the head, which can help relieve migraine
headaches (providing the tissue temperature is increased gradually on
removal of the cold to avoid headache rebound).

56
 reflex effects of cold

• brief treatment

area effect
charted reflex area stimulates the organ’s activities
chest temporarily ↑ the breathing rate
over heart ↑ heart rate
hands, face, head ↑ mental activity

• longer treatment

area effect
nose, back of neck vasoconstriction in nasal mucosa
over heart ↓ heart rate
scalp vasoconstriction in head
kidneys stimulates filtration function
abdomen stimulates blood flow, motility and
absorption in digestive organs

Indications for Cold Applications

There are many conditions for which cold is generally indicated. It is

important to take a thorough case history and to do an appropriate assessment
in order to determine any cautions or contraindications in the individual
case, but the following are conditions for which cold is typically helpful:
• acute sprains and strains
• acute soft tissue trauma in general, including contusions
• inflammation
• edema
• muscular pain

57
• muscle guarding, muscle spasm (except when ischemia is
the primary cause)
• acute tendonitis
• acute bursitis
• fractures
• post-surgical conditions
• headaches, migraines
• hemorrhoids
• rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory arthritides
• inflammatory joint disorders in general
• multiple sclerosis
• depression

Caution with Cryotherapy

Several physical disorders necessitate

caution when considering cryotherapy.
In Chapter 6 we will be looking at
conditions that involve contraindications
to or require extensive adaptation of
temperature therapy. In that chapter the
conditions are discussed individually. As
we are focused here on the use of cold, we
will consider some general cautions for
working with cryotherapy:

Once you have decided that cryotherapy is appropriate, there are some
specific reactions to watch for and avoid. Frostnip (skin becomes pale,
numb, and/or tingly) is the first stage of frostbite, which is damage to the
skin and underlying soft tissues that results from exposure to severe cold.
Any cryoagent with a surface temperature of less than 0ºC (32ºF) must

58
be used with caution. Using some type of insulator (such as a towel) or
lubricant between the cold source and the skin can help reduce the potential
for damage.

Cold can be applied over a cast, but it must be done in a way that prevents
the cast from becoming wet. For example, the cast can be covered in an
airtight plastic bag before the application is done.

Superficial wounds must be treated with caution. While some symptoms of

acute injuries can be effectively addressed with cold applications, care must
be taken with any open wounds to maintain hygienic conditions and to avoid
disrupting an early seal by wetting it.

Individuals who are very young, very old, or immunocompromised must be

monitored closely – cryotherapy treatments may need to be modified (using
shorter, less extensive treatments) to accommodate body system fragility.

Because of the short-term increase in blood pressure during a full body cold
treatment (caused by global vasoconstriction), it is important to supervise
anyone who has high blood pressure or cardiac disorders; in more severe
cases full body cold will be contraindicated. As well, when treating a large
area or multiple sites with cryotherapy, keep an eye on the person’s blood
pressure to make sure that it does not increase above acceptable parameters
when the cryoagent is initially applied.

If the person receiving the treatment has a condition that involves nerve
conduction problems, it is important to carefully monitor the effects of
treatment on the tissues, since sensation may not be accurate and protective
reflexes may not function normally. This applies to both peripheral and
central nervous system injuries and disorders.

If the person has a thermoregulatory disorder it is important to monitor her

or him carefully to avoid adverse reactions to cryotherapy.

Now that we have examined the primary features of cryotherapy, we will

move on to study the effects that heat applications can have on the body.

59
There is evidence that the sweat
lodges of the North American First
Nations people date back to 400
B.C. Sweat lodges were used right
across North America, and while
each tribe’s procedures differed,
their intentions were similar.
These sweat lodges ultimately
promoted physical, mental, and
spiritual health. Sweat lodges
also increased group cohesion
because of the camaraderie in the
lodges. Often sweat lodges were
connected with gods and creation.
The Sioux saw the interior of a sweat
lodge as representing the womb of
Mother Earth, its darkness as human
ignorance, the hot stones as the
coming of life, the hissing steam as
the creative force of the universe
being activated.
 Chapter Three

Physiological
Effects of Heat

Learning Objectives
After learning the contents of this chapter, the reader should be able to:

∙ indicate the difference between warm and hot temperatures

∙ indicate the rate of burning with temperature that is
excessively hot
∙ define passive derivation
∙ explain hydrostatic pressure’s effects on body fluid
re-distribution
∙ demonstrate an understanding of the factors that determine
treatment effects
∙ describe the pain → spasm → pain cycle
∙ identify the direct and reflex effects of thermotherapy
Muhammad, the Muslim prophet,
recommended that people take
sweat baths, which brought the
Islamic hammam back into vogue,
replacing cold showers. Originally
women were not allowed to be in
the hammam, but when they finally
were allowed to participate, this
privilege became a right. In fact, if
a woman were denied the right to
visit the hammam by her husband,
she had grounds for divorce.

62
Chapter 3: Physiological Effects of Heat

How does heat affect the body? Heat applications result in many of the
same responses that a natural temperature increase (i.e., fever) causes, but
these reactions can be controlled when intentionally induced. The length
of a heat treatment influences the body’s response to the temperature
therapy: short applications tend to be stimulating, while longer treatments
are usually sedating. Since most people naturally prefer heat to cold and
tend to overuse it, it is essential for practitioners to understand its effects
and proper therapeutic usage.

Warm and Hot

In using heat applications, it is important to note the difference between a

warm treatment and a hot one. Warm includes treatments that raise the target
tissue’s temperature to between 33ºC and 38ºC (92°-100ºF); hot is over
38ºC (100ºF). Caution must be taken with prolonged hot applications
because of the large increase in metabolism they can cause, which can lead
to overheating. Warm treatments, however, can generally be very long with
no adverse effects. The increased heat during a warm application is usually
sufficiently countered by the cooling mechanism of perspiration.

Caution must be taken with

prolonged hot applications
because of the large increase
in metabolism they can cause,
which can lead to overheating.

With hot treatments, the temperature difference between the application and
the target tissue must be enough to increase blood flow and cell metabolism.
In order to accomplish this increase, the tissues typically must be heated to
between 40º and 45ºC (104°-113ºF). 40ºC is greater than the average resting

63
temperature of soft tissue and 45ºC is less than lethal temperature. Between
45º and 50ºC (113°-122ºF), the rate at which burns occur doubles for every
1ºC increase.

With hot treatments, the temperature

difference between the application
and the target tissue must be enough
to increase blood flow and cell
metabolism. In order to accomplish
this increase, the tissues typically
must be heated to between 40º and
45ºC (104ºF-113ºF).

The heat treatments that we will be considering are superficial. Deep

penetration of heat involves a specialized type of application, ultrasound,
which moves through subcutaneous tissues to deeper structures. Superficial
treatments tend not to penetrate more than about 1 cm (½”) (Bélanger, 2002)
because of the body’s heat losing mechanisms. The local effects of these
treatments can sometimes be enhanced when used with other activities such
as passive range of motion, stretching, and exercise. Heat and stretch
together, for instance, decrease pain and spasms and increase range of
motion more than heat alone or stretch alone. It is important to remember,
however, that ‘deep’ and ‘superficial’ can be misleading because of the
reflex effects of heat applications. Additionally, when large scale or multiple
heat applications are used, the body can experience systemic effects, not
just local ones.

Passive Derivation

The first effect that occurs following the application of a heat source is local
vasodilation, the purpose of which is to allow heat to escape. Blood rushes
to the body surface so extra warmth can be released and the tissue doesn’t

64
become damaged by excessive heat. This vasodilation response is a form of
derivation, manifested as the movement of fluid away from the body core or
from an inflamed or congested part toward the skin surface. When
thermotherapy is applied, the ensuing warming of the tissue is perceived by
the body in the same way as if it had become inflamed.

AT
HE Figure 3.1:
Heat produces
dilation of superficial
capillaries, bringing
more blood to the
skin surface so
excess warmth can
be released.

In response to a heat application the derivation is passive, meaning that it

doesn’t require expenditure of energy. The blood that moves to the body
surface does so passively as a result of hydrostatic pressure. Fluids exert an
equal pressure in all directions on the walls of their container. When this
type of outward pressure is exerted by body fluids in blood vessels and
tissue spaces, these fluids will naturally tend to re-distribute outward from
the region of higher pressure toward lower fluid volume tissues. So, if there
is congestion in an area of body tissue, the fluid-filled region will experience
more pressure than normal and fluid will tend to move outward from that
tissue. When the blood vessels under a heat application dilate to cool the
tissue, fluid from a higher hydrostatic pressure body area redistributes,
helping de-congest the higher pressure tissue.

65
Figure 3.2:
Surface thermotherapy causes
superficial vasodilation, which
draws fluid out of a deeper
area of congestion.

try this...
Next time you have
swelling (somewhere
other than your legs),
or a headache, soak
your feet in very warm
water. See if your
swelling decreases or if
your headache lessens.

66
Factors That Influence Heat’s Effects

The amount of heat that thermotherapy actually transfers to soft tissues

depends on many factors. The greater the temperature difference between a
heat source and the body, the more quickly and intensely effects occur – ‘hot’
is relative to body temperature. Also, the longer the duration of the hot
application, the more the effects of heat will be experienced.

The greater the temperature

difference between a heat
source and the body, the
more quickly and intensely
effects occur – ‘hot’ is relative
to body temperature.

The physiological changes that occur in response to heat depend on:

• the extent of the rise in tissue temperature
• the rate at which the heat is applied to the tissue
• and the size of the treatment area

Keeping in mind that an elevation in temperature increases local blood flow

in order to remove excess heat, if the rate of temperature increase is very
slow, the heat that is added could be counterbalanced by the incoming cooler
blood. In such a case, therapeutic levels of warmth may not be obtained.
Conversely, if the local temperature rises faster than any excess warmth can
be dissipated, heat may build up and tissue damage may occur.
Qualities of the body part being treated impact an application’s outcomes
significantly. The larger the treatment area, the more widespread the effects.
As well as the dimension of the body part being treated, its location greatly

67
impacts the results. Subcutaneous adipose tissue conducts heat half as as
well as skin and a third as well as muscle. This poorer conduction occurs
because fatty tissue acts as a thermal insulator that reduces the transfer of
heat to deeper tissues. It is important to keep in mind that the thickness of
fat varies from tissue area to tissue area, so the same heating agent has
different effects in different locations.

Figure 3.3: The amount of subcutaneous fatty tissue

influences how much heat can penetrate into the
tissues beneath.

Increasing the temperature to compensate for more adipose tissue may not
always be a good idea because of the risk of burning the skin. However, heat
transfer can be facilitated and accelerated by using a coupling medium,
which is a medium or material paired with the temperature therapy to help
tailor its effects to the goals of the treatment. For instance, as mentioned in
Chapter 1, moist warm towels have a greater effect than dry towels of the
same temperature because of water’s conductivity.
Heating sections of the body can also effect changes in addition to those in
the local tissues. The larger the volume of tissue treated by the thermotherapy
application, the greater the likelihood that the effects will be systemic or
reflexive as well as local.

68
 factors that influence heat’s effects
temperature of application relative to temperature
of treated tissues
speed that the tissue is heated
duration of application
presence/absence of coupling agent
size of treatment area
amount of adipose tissue in treatment area

Direct Effects of Heat

• increased metabolism of affected tissues

One of the key physiological effects of heat is increased metabolic activity.
Stated simply, metabolism is the sum of chemical reactions in the body (the
primary work of the cells); these activities occur more rapidly with elevated
temperature. Van’t Hoff’s law states that chemical reactions increase two to

Van’t Hoff’s law states that chemical

reactions increase two to three times
for every 10ºC (18ºF) temperature
increase. With sufficient, well tolerated
heat, an increase in chemical activity
increases oxygen and nutrient uptake
in tissues, enhancing tissue health and
performance.

69
three times for every 10ºC (18ºF) temperature increase. If tissue temperature
rises past 45º-50ºC (113º-122ºF), burning will result because the mechanisms
that prevent burning will not be able to keep up with thermally-induced
damage. With sufficient, well tolerated heat, an increase in chemical activity
increases oxygen and nutrient uptake in tissues, enhancing tissue health and
performance.

• altered cardiovascular dynamics

Dilated vessels increase the rate of local blood flow, and increased metabolism
increases the demand placed on the heart to deliver more nutrient-filled
blood to the active tissues. With larger-sized thermotherapy applications,
these effects in combination can be substantial enough to increase the return
of blood to the heart, affecting cardiac output (the amount of blood pumped
out by the heart per minute). The pulse rises about 6-10 beats per minute for
every core temperature increase of 1º. This effect is strongest initially, since
over time the individual usually relaxes under the influence of the
thermotherapy and sympathetic nervous system activity decreases, resulting
in a slower, deeper heart beat.

As well, large applications of heat create movement of blood from the core
circulation into tissue beds. When there is a net shift of blood into the
peripheral tissue beds, the pressure in the core circulation goes down,
tending to normalize or reduce blood pressure. However, the initial effect,
caused by an immediate increase in blood flow to the heart before there is
time to achieve the counterbalancing peripheral hyperemia, can produce a
quick rise in blood pressure.

Despite the potential for ultimately beneficial effects, these initial changes
in cardiovascular dynamics caused by large-scale heat may not be well
tolerated if the individual’s heart is not completely healthy.

70
The pulse rises about
6-10 beats per minute for
every core temperature
increase of 1º. With
thermotherapy, this effect
is strongest initially, since
over time heat usually
induces relaxation and
sympathetic nervous
system activity decreases,
resulting in a slower,
deeper heart beat.

71
72
 Figures 3.4a & b:
A full body heat
application moves blood
from the core circulation
into the periphery, which
tends to lower blood
pressure.

73
• altered blood dilution
With the vasodilation and increased blood flow that follows application of
heat, there is initial diluting of the blood (more interstitial fluid is mobilized)
and increased blood volume. In counterbalance to this, diaphoresis (excess
sweating) can cause fluid to leave the blood and make it quite concentrated
(viscous). Fluid loss through perspiration necessitates replacement – usually
by drinking water – so that good hemodilution is maintained throughout a
long hot treatment and the person does not become dehydrated.

• detoxification
Perspiration increases the use of the skin as an elimination organ. This
means that thermotherapy can have beneficial effects in reducing toxicity
and supporting the other organs of elimination, especially the kidneys, lungs
and liver. As well, metabolism in these organs tends to increase (a reflex
effect discussed below) when their temperature rises, improving their
performance.

Perspiration increases the use of the

skin as an elimination organ. This means
that thermotherapy can have beneficial
effects in reducing toxicity and supporting
the other organs of elimination, especially
the kidneys, lungs and liver.

Heat also impacts on respiration rate. Breathing can be increased by a large

scale heat application at a rate of 5 to 6 breaths for every 1º rise in temperature.
This increased respiration helps blow off additional carbon dioxide.
As with heat’s effects on the heart, however, these types of responses are
more readily tolerated by organs that are healthy. Heat can also increase the
volume of blood flow through the eliminatory organs, and it must be

74
recognized that if there is impairment they may not always be able to handle
the increase well. There will be more said in Chapter 6 about temperature
therapy contraindications when these organs are diseased.

• direct effects on soft tissue structures

Other than reflex effects (to be outlined shortly), the impact of superficial
heat on skeletal muscles is minimal. It is possible to effect more change to
skeletal muscle tissue by coupling heat with exercise. Heat does directly
affect joints, however, reducing their fluid viscosity and decreasing capsular
stiffness. Thermotherapy applications that combine effects on muscles and
joints can promote improvements in overall mobility.
eat has a loosening effect on the strong connective tissue (fascia) that
H
surrounds muscles and separates and supports other structures in the body.
Fascia is not a very elastic tissue, so it has limited capacity for stretch. It can
become stiff (contractured) and it can adhere to neighbouring structures.
Heat can help loosen the fascia’s ground substance, making its fibre network
more pliable, and can also help ‘unstick’ it from other structures. Scars are
fascial configurations as well. Heat is often used as part of treatment plans
aiming to soften and stretch scars, improve their fibre alignment, and help
reduce their tendency to adhere to tissues around them.

Heat is often used as

part of treatment plans
aiming to soften and
stretch scars, improve
their fibre alignment,
and help reduce their
tendency to adhere to
tissues around them.

75
 fascia surrounds muscle bone

fascia surrounds
bundles of
muscle fibres

fascia surrounds
fascia as tendon
muscle fibres
attaches muscle
to bone

Figure 3.5: It is the fascial components of muscles, joints

and tissue compartments that become stiff and restricted
in contracture.

Figure 3.6: Scars are fascial structures that often have

disorganized fibre direction, and that can adhere tissue layers
that ordinarily move freely relative to each other.

76
 direct effects of heat

area effect

any induces passive derivation;

stimulates local metabolism
and perspiration

cardiovascular increases demand on the heart

system but over time can produce a more
relaxed heart by lowering
sympathetic activation
increases then decreases blood
pressure
increases then decreases blood
viscosity

respiratory increases breathing rate and

system elimination of carbon dioxide

urinary system aids due to increased excretion

through the skin

joint decreases stiffness

fascia increases pliability

77
Reflex Effects of Heat

rief heat applications do not tend to result in significant reflex effects.

B
Longer treatments, however, can affect sites distant to or underlying the
warmed surface area. There are a number of possible reflex effects on
viscera. To give some examples:
• A long treatment to the abdomen reduces the blood flow to the intestines,
decreasing motility and secretions, and therefore slowing digestive
processes. Such a treatment can be effective in addressing intestinal
cramping and diarrhea.
• Long hot treatments on the chest relieve respiratory congestion through
derivation and relax the smooth muscle of the bronchioles, improving
ease of breathing.
• An extended heat treatment on the pelvis relaxes the pelvic organs,
for example, the uterus during menstruation onset. Blood vessels
constricted by menstrual cramping dilate, so cramps diminish and
menstrual flow is easier.
• The kidneys benefit from a prolonged try this:
heat application to the back or lower Submerge your
abdomen. The production of urine right arm into
a tub of hot water
increases because of faster metabolism (40ºC/104ºF). After 3
and more filtration in the kidneys. This minutes, check your
thermotherapy can also help the ureters left arm for warmth
and the smooth muscle of the bladder and vasodilation.

wall to relax.
• A long heat treatment on the
trunk also relaxes the bile
ducts, which helps to relieve
gallbladder conditions.
• Prolonged heat to one limb
induces vasodilation in the
contralateral limb.

78
The effects of heat on nervous tissue are not fully understood. We know that
heat can have an analgesic (painkilling) effect. One theory is that heat
applications block nerve impulses travelling to pain centres higher in the
nervous system. Heat applications not only help diminish pain, they can
also reduce muscle guarding. It is believed that heat elevates an individual’s
pain threshold, alters nerve conductivity, and decreases the firing rates of
muscle spindles, which are the stretch receptors in muscles responsible for
initiating protective reflex muscle contractions.
With a tissue injury (to muscle, joint, etc.) a cycle of pain→spasm→pain
can start. Tissue vulnerability and the experience of pain result in muscle
guarding that can persist well after the injury leaves the acute stage. Pain
can raise the level of tone in muscles enough to cause spasm. Tension in
muscles leads to compression of their intrinsic blood supply and drainage
and to pressure on local nerves. These irritating events result in the muscles
tightening and shortening further. Shortening of the muscles leads to
restricted movement, which causes more pain, muscle spindle activation
with smaller movements, and so on: pain→spasm→pain.

HEAT

Figure 3.7: Warming of the skin

initiates reflex responses that
reduce muscle tension and
muscle spindle activation.

sory neuron
sen
muscle
spindle
receptor

spinal
cord
motor neuron

79
Because superficial heat is likely unable to raise temperature inside muscles
enough to decrease the pain→spasm→pain cycle, another mechanism must
account for the reduction in pain. Heating the skin reflexively results in a
reduction in certain types of efferent (motor) activity. Reduced efferent
activity leads to less muscle spindle activation, which in turn decreases
the afferent (sensory) nerve firing from the spindle. Ultimately there is a
reduction of the motor firing that causes muscle contraction, decreasing
the spasm.
This type of chronic elevated tone in muscles is characteristic of non-injury
based cramps and spasms as well – these also tend to respond well to
thermotherapy.

pain → spasm → pain cycle

damage, ischemia, chronic tension

pain

muscle spasm muscle guarding/spasm

nerve compression
and
↓ blood supply

80
 reflex effects of heat

• prolonged treatment

area effect

chest relaxes bronchioles

pelvis eases menstrual cramps

abdomen decreases blood flow, motility and

absorption in digestive organs

kidneys increases filtration and urine

production

trunk relaxes bladder, ureters and bile

ducts

extremity vasodilation in opposite extremity

nervous system analgesic, sedative

muscle decreases pain→spasm→pain

cycle
reflexively increases flexibility

81
 local application of heat

↑ body temperature ↓ joint viscosity ↓ nerve firing

↑ heat-losing ↓ joint ↓ muscle pain

mechanisms stiffness

local ↑ breathing ↑ perspiration ↓ muscle

vasodilation/ rate spasm
passive
derivation ↑ blood
viscosity ↑ dexterity

↑ blood
flow

↑ metabolism ↑ pulse ↓ blood

pressure

promotes soft
tissue healing

82
Indications for Heat Applications

here are many conditions for which heat is generally indicated. It is

T
important to take a thorough case history and do an appropriate assessment
in order to determine any cautions or contraindications associated with the
person’s case, but the following are conditions for which heat is typically
helpful:
• promote injury/wound healing (after acute stage)
• non-inflammatory muscle pain, muscle spasm
• myofascial trigger point pain
• delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS)
• conditions involving spasticity
(note: most people with multiple sclerosis do not tolerate heat well)
• chronic tendonitis
• chronic bursitis
• scars
• soft tissue contracture
• non-inflammatory joint pain
• limited joint mobility, adhesive capsulitis
• poor mobility in general
(to help increase stretch and range of motion)
• osteoarthritis
• rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory arthritides
(not in flare-up)
• labour pain/perineal pain
• anxiety

83
 Caution with Thermotherapy

There are a number of physical

conditions that require caution when
considering using a hot application.
Heat can be very soothing to
people, but it is important during a
thermotherapy treatment that the
person not be allowed to sleep, as she
or he will not be able to report
sensations.
Any sensory or thermoregulatory disorders
must be taken into consideration in determining an appropriate treatment,
and careful observation of the tissue is important to avoid burns.
If a person is overheated before the treatment, or if a heat rub (e.g., A535)
was recently used on the target area, time must be allowed for its effects to
subside to avoid excessive local vasodilation.
If the individual is dehydrated (for example, at a sporting event), she or he
must rehydrate prior to a thermotherapy application. The perspiration caused
by a heat application will further dehydrate the person, so making sure fluids
are replenished beforehand is important if using thermotherapy is
indicated.
Heat increases demand on the cardiovascular, renal and respiratory systems,
so it is necessary to evaluate the tolerance of the client. When disorders of
these systems are present, heat applications often need to be modified to
make them less intense.
Heat must be used with caution on a person who has a bleeding disorder
such as hemophilia, or who has undergone prolonged steroid use. Either of
these conditions can lead to an increase in the frailty of the capillaries, and
heat can further tax those capillaries.
eople with diabetes mellitus or peripheral vascular disease must be
P
monitored carefully with thermotherapy because of compromised circulation

84
in the extremities. Thermotherapy can put more strain on the peripheral
blood vessels, so modification of the chosen application may be necessary.
As well, individuals with these conditions tend to have accompanying
sensory impairment and often cannot give accurate feedback about
heat intensity.
Caution must be exercised when applying heat over the abdomen or pelvic
area of a pregnant woman. A significant increase in the maternal body
temperature may have negative effects on fetal growth and development.
Now that we have a good understanding of the effects of cryotherapy and
thermotherapy on the body, let’s look at what happens when they are
combined in the same treatment.

People with diabetes

mellitus or peripheral
vascular disease must be
monitored carefully with
thermotherapy because
of compromised
circulation in the
extremities.

85
“We all know how man came
into being. Man was created
when God took a bania and
sweated profusely.”
Russian sorcerer, 1071

The Russian bath, or bania, was

filled with hot steam. People
anointed themselves with
tallow and lashed themselves
with young reeds to stimulate
circulation. After being in the
steam, they finished off in cold
water or with a roll in the snow.
 Chapter Four

Physiological
Effects of Contrast

Learning Objectives
After learning the contents of this chapter, the reader should be able to:

∙ define contrast treatments

∙ demonstrate an understanding of vascular flush
∙ identify the minimum temperature differential that must be
used for effective contrast temperature therapy
∙ identify suitable time ratios for different treatment needs
∙ describe how to end a contrast treatment appropriately
∙ explain indications and cautions for alternating treatments
Turkish baths are heated by hot
dry, not moist, air. People go
into three rooms of increasing
heat, and often repeat the
process with a cool swim or
shower in between. The bath is
followed by a massage and a
full body wash, and concludes
with a long period of relaxation
in a cool room.

88
Chapter 4: Physiological Effects of Contrast

As we have discussed in the two previous chapters, heat and cold each have
their own effects on the body. The range of therapeutic usage of these effects
can be further expanded when heat and cold are used alternately on the
same tissue, in what is referred to as alternating or contrast treatments.
Contrast applications enhance peripheral blood flow because they take
advantage of the primary effects of both heat and cold, alternating local
derivation and retrostasis (vasodilation and vasoconstriction). The result is
known as a vascular flush or circulatory whip and can increase local blood
flow by up to 100%. The derivation caused by the hot application brings
fresh oxygenated blood that carries defensive and healing cells, and the cold
limits local pain and reduces the build-up of edema and waste products.
Because the temperature interchange creates opposing effects in circulatory
flow, the effects of contrast treatments remain largely superficial and local,
but they can work very efficiently to ‘flush’ the tissue. It is important to have
a sufficient difference in temperature between the cryoagent and thermoagent
to induce the desired effect.

HOT COLD HOT COLD

Figure 4.1: Contrast temperature therapy involves alternating

use of heat and cold, producing cycles of vasodilation and
vasoconstriction that ‘flush’ the tissues.

89
Contrast applications are much more effective at increasing circulation
locally in a tissue area than heat or cold alone. Alternating treatments also
reduce the possibility of having the increase in metabolism coupled with
congestion that can occur with heat applications.

Contrast (alternating)
applications are
much more effective
at increasing local
circulation in a tissue
area than heat or
cold alone.

The duration of the components of contrast applications can vary, but an

average guideline is a 3:1 ratio of heat:cold. For instance, a hot pack can be
placed for three minutes, followed with a 60 second application of a cold
pack to the same location. Generally this pair of applications is repeated six
to eight times, making the entire treatment about 30 to 45 minutes long.
When the treatment is combined with other modalities such as massage, it
may be shortened to 3-4 applications. If a vascular flush with a reduction in
swelling is the goal, always start with heat and end with cold. If the goal is
ultimately to increase local circulation, finish with a hot application or a
prolonged cold application, both of which cause derivation. Usually,
however, contrast treatments end with brief cold to complete the ‘flush.’ If
it is desirable to reduce the intensity of an alternating treatment, the
temperature values can be reduced as long as a sufficient differential is
maintained to ensure therapeutic effect. The minimum temperature
differential must be 10ºC (18ºF).

90
 In a contrast treatment,
there must be sufficient
temperature differential
between the
thermoagent and the
cryoagent to ensure
therapeutic effect. The
minimum temperature
differential must be
10ºC (18ºF).

It is important to explain contrast applications to the individual receiving

the treatment. People can be startled by a cold application on a warmed
body part. Immersion of a body part into a cold bath after a warm bath can
be especially disconcerting, so a thorough description of what to expect
during the treatment helps minimize distress.
he 3:1 heat:cold ratio is a common guideline, but there are circumstances
T
in which a different use of a contrast application can be helpful. If the
individual has an injury or condition in the sub-acute stage of inflammation,
where swelling is decreasing but still present, a higher proportion of cold to
heat is appropriate. While heat is generally inappropriate on tissues that are
inflamed, in this circumstance, when the symptoms are starting to abate,
brief heat interspersed with longer cold (e.g., 5 minutes cold to 30 seconds
heat) can increase the influx of fresh blood alongside of the flushing of
wastes created by the alternation, helping speed the healing process.
Likewise, when inflammation has subsided but swelling is still present,
shorter heat with longer cold (e.g., 3 minutes cold to 1 minute heat) can be
effective for facilitating the healing process while still reducing swelling
and helping clear any remaining bruising.

91
 Figure 4.2:
Commonly used heat:cold
ratio patterns for contrast
treatments. The temperatures
used can be modified to suit
the case as long as there is
an adequate differential.

generally used flushing

3 minutes hot 1 minute cold application

for conditions involving

5 minutes cold 30 seconds warm
sub-acute inflammation

for later stages of

healing: inflammation
has subsided, residual
3 minutes cold 1 minute hot
swelling and bruising
are still present

92
 contrast applications

contrast (alternating) heat and cold temperature

applications cause vascular flushing (circulatory
whip) because of alternating derivation and
retrostasis

generally the heat to cold ratio is 3:1; ideally repeat

6-8 times

must have a 10ºC (18ºF) difference between the

thermoagent and cryoagent

usually end with cold

other time frames may be employed depending on

the needs of the tissue

the vascular pumping effect can be increased when

paired with active muscle contractions

I t was once believed that the effects of passive contrast temperature

applications were similar to the vascular pumping action that results from a
muscle contraction squeezing and releasing blood vessels. Evidence now
suggests that an active contrast treatment is more effective than a passive
one (Shankar & Randall, 2002), so the alternating treatment is often best
coupled with active muscle contractions to enhance the vascular pumping.

93
Indications for Contrast Treatments

Conditions with a need for ‘flushing’ of the tissues, such as edema, are the
most common indications for contrast applications. However, many of the
(non-acute) soft tissue conditions that are addressed with cold or heat can
benefit from a contrast application, so it is an alternative that can be
considered in many cases, especially if the individual prefers it.
While heat is never applied to acute inflammation, alternating treatments
can be very effective in addressing sub-acute situations and chronic ones
involving unresolved edema collection or circulatory congestion. Always
determine the best heat:cold ratio for a contrast application based on careful
observation of the needs of the tissue.

Conditions with a need

for ‘flushing’ of the tissues,
such as edema, are the
most common indications
for contrast applications.
However, many of the
(non-acute) soft tissue
conditions that are
addressed with cold or
heat can benefit from a
contrast application, so it is
an alternative that can be
considered in many cases,
especially if the individual
prefers it.

94
 Caution with Contrast

Any of the conditions that require

caution using either cold or heat
must also be carefully monitored
when applying contrast treatments.
Peripheral vascular diseases are of
particular concern because the
increased circulation induced by
alternating applications may overstress
compromised vessels.
It is also especially important that there is
healthy neural control of blood vessel wall diameters when contrast
treatments are being used. Since the alternating thermotherapy and
cryotherapy relies on normal vasoconstriction and vasodilation responses,
nerve injuries or other causes of nerve impairment (for example, diabetes)
can make contrast treatment inadvisable. If there is vasodilation without
adequate vasoconstriction, the treatment may promote local congestion
rather than relieving it.

Now that we have examined the physiological effects that cold, hot, and
alternating applications have on the body, we will move next to look at how
to determine the best treatment plans for individual clients.

95
Bene lave! (Have a good bath!)
was a familiar greeting in the
times of the ancient Roman
balnea (baths). The giant baths,
or thermae, of Rome were a
significant part of Roman leisure
time. There was an average of
five bath houses per block and
one balneum per 35 apartment
buildings.

Roman baths were available in

both salt water and fresh water.
There were hot, warm, and cold
baths, and the temperature of the
rooms the baths were in reflected
the temperature of the baths. The
caldarium was the hot room, the
tepidarium was the warm room,
and the frigidarium was the cold
room.
 Chapter Five

Temperature
Therapy Guidelines
Learning Objectives
After learning the contents of this chapter, the reader should be able to:

∙ take a case history and perform an assessment focused on

temperature therapy issues and priorities
∙ explain and perform the skin discrimination test, the nail bed
test, and patch testing
∙ define dosimetry and show how to make decisions about
treatment components and variables
∙ explain how to determine a suitable treatment plan in
cooperation with the recipient
∙ describe the rationale for and elements of informed consent
∙ identify important factors in preparing for and performing the
treatment
∙ identify signs of discomfort or over-treatment and make
adjustments
∙ explain how to end treatments appropriately
∙ discuss negative reactions, their causes, and appropriate
responses to them
One of the oldest medical
documents is the Ayurveda,
which documents ancient
Indian healing. It appeared
in Sanskrit in 568 B.C. In
the Ayurveda, sweat was
considered vital to good
health, and sweating was
prescribed to give relief from
colds, arthritis, headaches,
and hangovers.

98
Chapter 5: Temperature Therapy Guidelines

Temperature therapy treatments can have powerful effects so it is essential

to follow careful guidelines. Before the treatment is given, it is necessary to
know what the presenting condition of the individual is, the treatment
objectives, and which application will be most effective and why.

Case History

s with any type of therapy, it is important to take a thorough case history

A
from the person receiving the treatment. All treatments must be adapted to
the client, so be sure to take note of the individual’s age, health status, and
general constitution in addition to the specific concern to be treated. Check
for the presence of conditions (discussed in the next chapter) that may
contraindicate or require adaptation of temperature therapy applications.
Discuss any such case findings, getting more details about the medical
diagnosis, medications, restrictions that have been placed on temperature
use at home, and so on.

All treatments must be adapted
to the client, so be sure to take
note of the individual’s age,
health status, and general
constitution in addition to the
specific concern to be treated.

In conjunction with the recipient, determine the treatment priorities and

which method(s) of addressing them best suits the particular needs of the
client. A clear plan must be determined regarding how to check that the
therapeutic goals are matched by the actual results, for example: Is range of
motion improved? Is inflammation reduced? Has pain decreased?

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Ensure that you understand the nature of the presenting symptom(s) and
wherever possible, their cause(s). Ask about how the condition affects
activities of daily living (ADL). If there is inflammation, it is important to
know which stage of the inflammatory process the tissue is in. If there is
pain, is the cause a primary or secondary concern? Is the pain local or
referred or both? Ask questions to ensure you have the information you
need that the client can provide, and so that you can proceed to conduct an
appropriate assessment.

Assessment

Taking into account medical diagnoses and evaluations from other health
care practitioners, it is still necessary to assess from your own professional
perspective which area or areas of the body need to be addressed by the
treatment and the status of the tissues relative to the treatment choices
available. As with any therapy, it is crucial to gain as much understanding
as you can of the presenting condition and the person’s general health before
deciding on a temperature therapy treatment.
Inspect and palpate the skin
of the proposed treatment Inspect and palpate
area(s), checking for tissue the skin of the proposed
health, colour, swelling, sores, treatment area(s),
scars, and any other finding checking for tissue
that might be relevant to your
health, colour, swelling,
treatment decisions. The
sores, scars, and any
presence of any of these may
alter the treatment plan. For other finding that might
example, edematous tissue be relevant to your
does not typically receive treatment decisions.
heat or may require an adapted
contrast protocol; open
wounds/sores must be treated
with caution to avoid wetting
them, spreading infection or

100
impairing healing; and scars may require their own specific treatment plan,
which will vary depending on how recent they are.
Keeping in mind the person’s age,
general health, and the presence of
specific conditions, assess the
tissues for specifics that arise from
the case history. For example, if the
individual has diabetes, you will
want to look at both sensation and
vascular sufficiency, especially if
the target tissue is in the limbs. If
the person is older, indications of
reduced tissue health and poor
circulation should be checked for.

• Skin Discrimination Test

I f you have reason to believe the person receiving the treatment may have
impaired sensation, especially for heat, perform a skin discrimination test.
When someone has impaired sensory function, she or he is less able to
accurately sense and report temperature, which increases the risk of burns
or frostbite.

I f you have reason

to believe the
person receiving the
treatment may have
impaired sensation,
especially for heat,
perform a skin
discrimination test.

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 here are five degrees of skin sensory heat and cold discrimination: very
T
cold, cold, room temperature, warm, and hot. They can be tested by using a
set of test tubes filled with water at the different temperatures.
ery cold requires a test tube of water stored in a freezer, with a temperature
V
of -5º to 0ºC (23º-32ºF). Cold is stored in the refrigerator and is 10º-13ºC
(50º-55ºF). The room temperature test tube is stored in a container of water
at room temperature and is 20º-22ºC (68º-71ºF). Warm is stored in a bucket
of water with a thermal element to keep the test tube water at 33º-35ºC (91º-
95ºF). Finally, a hot test tube is ideally stored on the wall of a paraffin wax
unit and heated to 51º-54ºC (124º-130ºF).

Figure 5.1.

-5°–0°C 10°–13°C 20°–22°C 33°–35°C 51°–54°C

(23°–32°F) (50°–55°F) (68°–71°F) (91°–95°F) (124°–130°F)
very cold cold room warm hot
temperature

Explain the test to the person and describe the five temperature possibilities.
Position the individual comfortably and uncover the skin area to be tested.
Ask the person to close her or his eyes or look away so the test tube choices

102
cannot be seen. Randomly apply the test tubes lightly to the potentially
impaired area for 10 seconds each. Ask the person what temperature she or
he perceives and determine if the response is accurate.
If the tissue sensation seems to be
impaired, you may need to modify the
treatment by shortening the duration or
choosing a more moderate temperature.
If you decide it is appropriate to proceed
without modifying the treatment, you
must be especially observant of the
tissue’s reactions to the temperature
therapy application. Where the sensory
experience of the client is not
dependable, your close observation of indicators such as tissue colour is the
key safety factor. When in doubt, you may want to perform a ‘patch test’ by
applying the intended temperature application to a very small part of the
tissue and observing how it responds.

skin discrimination test

intensity temperature storage
very cold -5 to 0ºC (23-32 ºF) freezer
cold 10-13ºC (50-55 ºF) refrigerator
room 20-22ºC (68-71 ºF) room temperature
temperature water
warm 33-35ºC (91-95 ºF) warm water
hot 51-54ºC (124-130 ºF) hot wax

have person close eyes or turn head so as not to see the test
randomly apply test tubes for 10 seconds each
assess responses

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• Nail Bed Test
Applying pressure to the bed of a fingernail or toenail compresses its blood
vessels, decreasing local blood flow and making the compressed section
turn white. Releasing the pressure allows blood flow to resume and the
tissue to return to its normal colour. If uncertain about a client’s tolerance
for temperature therapy because she or he has a mild to moderate peripheral
vascular disorder, or if you suspect vascular deficiency, you can get a sense
of how the extremity circulation is working by doing the nail bed test.

a b c

Figure 5.2: Performing the nail bed test involves compressing

the tissue under the nail, and then releasing the pressure and
observing how long it takes the tissue to return to normal.

Perform the nail bed test by itself and then during a ‘sample’ cold treatment
to assess the person’s normal recovery time. For example, you can place a
hand or foot in a cold bath of 5ºC (41ºF) for 3 minutes as a test application.
Remember to make sure that the person is not chilled to begin with.
When you apply pressure on the person’s nail bed, be sure to support the
palm of the hand or the sole of the foot well so you don’t pinch the finger or
toe. If the compressed tissue does not become pink within 2 seconds of
being released during the cold application, the person may have an abnormal
peripheral vascular response.

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 try this...
Apply pressure on your
fingernail for 3 seconds
and watch the results
when you’ve released it.
Soak your hand in warm
water for a minute and
repeat the exercise; soak
in cold and try again. See
the difference?

If cold treatments are indicated for the individual’s presenting complaint,

for example, with a diabetic with an acute ankle sprain, close observation of
tissue reactions is essential. If there has not already been a diagnosis of
peripheral vascular disease, medical investigation should be recommended
and should take place before you proceed with cryotherapy. The nail bed
test can also be used as a check during treatments when the client has
compromised circulation.

nail bed test

if indicated, perform the test before and during a
cold application
press on fingernail or toenail bed – don’t pinch
look for the colour to return to pink from white
within a few seconds of releasing pressure
refer for further assessment if indicated

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• Patch Testing
If, for any reason, you have doubts or concerns about how the individual’s
tissues may react to your proposed treatment, you can consider using a patch
test to elicit responses in a small tissue area. Apply a small sample application
of the temperature(s) or agent you are proposing to use and carefully observe
the responses. Depending on the circumstance, you may also choose to wait
until the next appointment to see how well the tissues returned to normal or
if there were any overly prolonged effects.

If, for any reason, you

have doubts or concerns
about how the individual’s
tissues may react to your
proposed treatment,
you can consider using
a patch test to elicit
responses in a small
tissue area.

106
case history and assessment summary

take a case history and review it with the client

ask questions to elicit information so that you can

understand the presenting complaint, including
symptoms and their causes, status of the tissues,
effect on ADL, etc.

identify and discuss any elements in the case that

could involve contraindications or treatment plan
adaptations

determine therapeutic goals and how to evaluate

success in achieving them

perform a physical assessment to obtain the next

stage of information and confirm/adapt treatment
goals and plan

do a careful examination of the area of the body that

you plan to treat

if there is known or suspected sensory impairment,

perform the skin discrimination test

if there is known or suspected vascular insufficiency,

perform the nail bed test

if further verification of tissue responses is desirable,

do a patch test

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Dosimetry

osimetry is the accurate determination of the appropriate ‘dosage’ of a

D
treatment. There are a number of variables to be considered when determining
a suitable temperature therapy application. Some of these factors can be
controlled while some cannot.

It is valuable to consider both quantitative and qualitative information when

deciding on a treatment. Quantitative data are measurable items such as the
temperature to be used, the duration of the application, and so on, while
qualitative considerations have to do with the recipient’s experiential
variables such as sensation. Some of the considerations over which you will
have no control relate to the individual receiving the treatment, such as her
or his age, health status, mental state, presenting condition, and general
constitution. It is particularly important to take care when treating someone
who is old, young, obese, ill, or sensorially impaired in some way. Regardless
of whether the person has
any impairment, however,
all treatments should be The larger the
adapted to the individual. treatment area
the more intense
The remaining dosimetry the effects and
factors to consider are the greater the
more under the control of likelihood of
the practitioner:
systemic effects.
1. Define the treatment
area: The first decision is
where you are going to
treat. Also, are you treating
the target tissue directly or
via a reflex area? You need
to decide on the size of the treatment. Generally speaking, the larger the
treatment area the more intense the effects and the greater the likelihood of
systemic effects. The overall resilience of the person must be considered
alongside considerations about pursuing the agreed-upon treatment goals.

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 Keep in mind, too, that bony sites are more sensitive
than fleshy ones, so the depth and volume of soft
tissue and fat in the target tissue will influence your
choice of application agent.
2. Application temperature (intensity): The next
decision is what temperature(s) the treatment needs
to be. Remember, what is significant in the intensity of a treatment is the
temperature difference between the agent being used and the skin – the
larger the difference the
stronger the treatment
What is significant in the
effects. Once you have
made a general temperature intensity of a treatment
therapy selection (is heat, is the temperature
cold or contrast appropriate difference between the
for this person and this agent being used and
condition?), you need to the skin – the larger the
determine specifics: should difference the stronger
the heat treatment be warm the treatment effects.
or hot, the cryotherapy
cold or very cold, or what
cycles and temperatures of
contrast application are
suitable?
3. Therapeutic medium and use of coupling agents: Complementing the
temperature selection is the decision whether or not to use moisture (water)
as a medium. A wet treatment penetrates deeper than a dry one, so this is a
key consideration. It may also determine whether a coupling agent will be
used with the application. If you choose to partner the heat or cold source
with something, the type of material used is important. For instance, towels
between a thermotherapy application and the skin will diminish the amount
of heat exchange that will happen. Plastic laid between a paraffin application
and a heat source like a hydrocollator pack, on the other hand, will keep
heat in the tissue by reducing evaporation and heat dissipation, thereby
creating a more intense and penetrating treatment.

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 A wet treatment penetrates
deeper than a dry one.

4. Static or dynamic treatment: A decision must also be made about

whether the treatment will be static or dynamic. A static application involves
either laying the thermo- or cryoagent on the body part or simply placing
the body part in the application (for example, an arm bath). A dynamic
treatment involves movement of the medium, as in a whirlpool, or use of
other techniques that enhance the effect of the application. Particularly with
cold treatments, stimulating techniques can make the treatment more
effective and more pleasant for people who don’t like cold. For example, an
ice massage is usually better tolerated than ice sitting immobile on the skin.
Similarly, ice packs can be
more easily tolerated when
preceded or followed by The speed with which
percussive manoeuvres on the the temperature agent
tissue being treated. produces its effects in
5. Speed of the temperature the tissue is an important
application: The speed of the element of the treatment
treatment must be considered. intensity.
Do you want to heat the
treatment area gradually? Are
you trying to cool the tissue
rapidly? If you are using
paraffin wax, are you going to
paint the skin or dip the body
part into the wax? The speed
with which the temperature agent produces its effects in the tissue is an
important element of the treatment intensity.

110
6. Treatment duration: Whether the treatment is long or short makes a
significant difference to the effects that will occur. Brief cold or heat
applications tend to be stimulating (brief cold creates an influx of fresh
blood and stimulates reflex effects; brief heat activates tissue metabolism),
while longer cold treatments will depress tissue activities and longer heat
will have sedative effects. As a rule, cold treatments should be no more than
20 minutes, with an interval of at least 30 minutes before another application.
Heat applications should not exceed 20 to 30 minutes as there is no
noteworthy increase in blood flow after 30 minutes and there is a risk
of tissue congestion.

As a rule, cold
treatments should be no
more than 20 minutes,
with an interval of at least
30 minutes before
another application.
Heat applications
should not exceed
20 to 30 minutes as there
is no noteworthy increase
in blood flow after 30
minutes and there is a risk
of tissue congestion.

111
7. Treatment frequency and time of day: The frequency and time of the
application are important treatment planning considerations. The more
easily fatigued or weaker the person is, the less frequent the applications
should be. As well, the time of day has an impact, especially for individuals
who are ill or debilitated. Treating at a time of day when the recipient feels
strong makes for more effective outcomes.

Time of day has an

impact, especially
for individuals who
are ill or debilitated.
Treating at a time
of day when the
person feels strong
makes for more
effective outcomes.

8. Use of additives: Another variable is whether you are going to use

additives to enhance the outcomes of your treatment. Do you want to use an
essential oil in a foot bath? Is it appropriate to use sea salts with a cold
treatment for this person? As with the temperature agent itself, you must
understand the effects that any additives will have on the condition you are
trying to address. (Additives are discussed in a later chapter.)
9. Post-treatment activities: Finally, you need to decide what activities
are suitable after the treatment is complete. Some people rest after
temperature therapy, some receive massage or other therapies, and some do

112
some form of exercise. The specific post-application activities are at the
discretion of the therapist and the individual when they decide upon the
treatment plan, but should follow these general guidelines:
• After a short cold treatment the person should
engage in active exercise suited to the
circumstance or passive exercise such as
massage, the purpose being to normalize
blood flow into the chilled tissue.
• After a long treatment, whether hot or cold,
the person should rest prior to exercise,
receiving other treatments, or resuming
routine activities. After cold treatments the
therapist should ensure that the recipient
does not become chilled while resting.

dosimetry
• perform dosimetry, deciding on:
~ treatment area
~ temperature
~ use of coupling medium
~ static vs. dynamic application
~ speed
~ duration
~ frequency
~ time of day
~ additives
~ post-treatment activities

113
Informed Consent

s with any treatment, nothing should be started until the therapist has
A
received informed consent from the client. Informed consent means that it
must be very clear that the recipient understands the treatment and why it
has been suggested, and then freely agrees to receive the treatment. Having
given consent, however, it is still the person’s right to end the treatment at
any time or not to follow through with an agreed upon treatment plan. If an
assessment protocol is part of the determination about the treatment plan,
informed consent must be received before the assessment starts, too.

Figure 5.3.

114
The therapist must thoroughly explain the treatment that is being proposed,
and why that particular treatment is considered most appropriate. The
temperature, therapeutic agent, and equipment being used should be
described and, if necessary, viewed or demonstrated. The time frame of the
application should be discussed as well. Explain specifics about positioning
and draping and modify if the person is not comfortable with them.
It is also important to go over the benefits of the proposed application, as
well as any potential risks or adverse effects. Once you have covered all the
aspects of the treatment, be sure to ask if the person has understood
everything and if she or he has any questions. Once these questions have
been answered, ask the individual for consent to proceed with treatment as
described. Only then is it appropriate to begin the treatment.

informed consent
• explain treatment
~ temperature
~ heating or cooling agent
~ method of application
~ time frame
~ positioning
~ draping
• describe benefits
• identify risks
• answer questions
• ensure the person knows she or he
can decline or end the treatment
• obtain consent

115
General Treatment Guidelines

Once informed consent has been obtained, the treatment can start. It is
usually best to have told the person ahead of time not to eat a large meal
before a treatment, especially with larger scale or more intense modalities.
There are several reasons for this:
• While digestion is occurring, substantial blood flow is directed to the
digestive organs. Temperature applications that alter this may produce
symptoms like nausea, and there is a risk of promoting abnormal local
blood flow patterns.
• Digesting a large meal usually results in a decreased energy level – not
ideal when the body is being asked to handle an intense therapeutic
modality.
• After a large meal, certain positions appropriate for a temperature
therapy treatment, such as lying face down, may be uncomfortable.
It is also best to have the person void her or his bladder before beginning the
treatment so there is less chance of interruption.

Tell the person

ahead of time not
to eat a large meal
before a treatment,
especially with
larger scale or more
intense modalities.

116
Always make sure that the treatment room is clean and calm. It should also
be free of drafts because it is important that the person receiving the treatment
not become chilled. If she or he arrives cold, use a warming application
before starting the treatment. While this may seem obvious when planning
to use cryotherapy, even with thermotherapy applications the person should
not be cold before beginning the treatment since the temperature difference
between the tissue and the heating agent will be greater than intended.

If the client arrives

cold, use a warming
application before
starting the treatment.
While this may seem
obvious when planning
to use cryotherapy, even
with thermotherapy
applications the person
should not be cold before
beginning the treatment
since the temperature
difference between the
tissue and the heating
agent will be greater
than intended.

117
Be sure to maintain your equipment well, and check any materials you will
need for an upcoming treatment to make sure that they are clean, working,
full, and ready to be used. Before starting, ensure that everything you will
need is readily available so there will be no need to leave the room. You
should never leave an individual during a temperature therapy treatment. If
you absolutely must leave, give the person an easy way to contact you (for
example, a bell). This is particularly important if you are doing any type of
full body treatment.

You should never leave

an individual during a
temperature therapy
treatment.

Before beginning, ensure that the person or the target tissue is clean, as is
appropriate to the size of the planned application. Have the individual
remove any jewellery, particularly with hot treatments. If jewellery takes on
the temperature of a thermotherapy or cryotherapy treatment, tissue damage
can result.
Once everything is ready, position and drape appropriately. The person
should be comfortable (anticipate the length of time to be spent in the
selected position) and appropriately draped to preserve privacy while still
uncovering the tissue(s) to be treated. The application can now begin.
During both local and full body treatments, watch the individual for signs of
discomfort such as a very flushed or pale face, shallow breathing, or sounding
weak or disoriented. Ask pertinent questions about the temperature, the
person’s overall comfort, any feelings of nausea or faintness, shortness of
breath, any pain or unusual sensations, and so on. If the person reports – or

118
you observe – any problems, make suitable adjustments. If you see any
negative reactions (discussed shortly), stop the treatment. Many people
believe in the adage ‘no pain, no gain’ and will not tell you if the application
becomes uncomfortable or painful. This saying has no place in temperature
therapy. Make sure your client understands the need to keep you informed.

Figure 5.4: It is important to do regular comfort checks,

especially when using intense large scale heat modalities,
and to make sure that the client stays hydrated.

At all costs, avoid over-treating. With temperature therapy, more is definitely

not better. A good rule to follow is as cold as possible, as hot as necessary.
If you want the target tissue to be cooled, choose as cold a temperature as
the individual can tolerate. The same is not true for heat, however. If the

119
person says that the temperature could be hotter, you still have an upper
limit of heat that you can apply (45ºC/113ºF); anything hotter will cause
tissue breakdown and burning.

remember this:
As cold as possible, as hot as necessary.

• Local Treatments
With local treatments, be sure to lay
the heating or cooling agent on the
person, never under. Placing a heat
source under the body part traps in heat,
impairs thermoregulation mechanisms,
and greatly increases the risk of burning.
As well, if the individual were to be
positioned on the application agent, you
would be unable to inspect the tissue during
the treatment, which you should do
periodically.

• Full Body Treatments

I f you are doing a full body treatment, make sure to check the person’s pulse
and blood pressure regularly during the treatment. Remember, too, that with
longer full body hot treatments metabolism increases but circulation slows.
The increased body heat from faster metabolism is not easily dissipated – it
is usually necessary to apply a cold compress to the person’s forehead or
neck to prevent overheating. It is also essential to provide water for sipping
during the treatment to avoid dehydration. People receiving full body
treatments should be monitored closely.

120
 With longer full body hot treatments
metabolism increases but
circulation slows. The increased
body heat from faster metabolism
is not easily dissipated – apply
a cold compress to the person’s
forehead or neck to prevent
overheating. It is also essential to
provide water for sipping during the
treatment to avoid dehydration.

Ending a Treatment

Once the treatment is complete, examine the treated area for any adverse
indicators. If there are any, inform the client and together decide upon an
appropriate response, such as resting for a while or seeking a medical
opinion. Make sure the person is dry and warm and follow up with the
appropriate post-treatment activities.
etermine the efficacy of the treatment in meeting the goals you and the
D
client have established, using the criteria you decided upon when you agreed
to the treatment plan. Detail any goals that have been met, such as
improvements in pain level, range of motion, swelling, and so forth, and
any that have not. Document the treatment thoroughly, including the type of
treatment, the treatment area, temperature(s), equipment used, duration, any
additives, and post-treatment activities. If you are documenting a full body
treatment, record the person’s pulse and blood pressure before, during, and
after the treatment. Note any responses from the individual, both during and
after the application. Also, carefully document any changes in the skin, any
unusual colour or swelling, for example, and any advice you may have
given the individual if there has been an adverse reaction. Record your home
care recommendations. You should also note any changes you and the
recipient agree upon regarding the treatment design or goals.

121
 general treatment guidelines summary
• pre-treatment
make sure the person hasn’t eaten a big meal
have the individual void before the treatment starts
ensure equipment is well maintained and ready
have a clean, calm, prepared treatment space
ensure the room is warm enough and draft-free

• during the treatment

do not leave the person unattended
lay the heating or cooling agent on the person
ask relevant questions, check the tissue
during a full body treatment, check the pulse and blood
pressure regularly
during a hot full body treatment, apply a cold compress
to the head/neck and provide water to drink
use the nail bed test as a check if the person has a
peripheral vascular disorder
stop the treatment if negative reactions occur

• post-treatment
when the treatment is finished, examine the tissue
follow up with appropriate post-treatment activities
determine what effects the treatment has had
document the treatment thoroughly, including both the
individual’s experience and your observations
record any home care recommendations
note any proposed changes to the treatment plan

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Negative Reactions

negative reaction is a response to the treatment that is unexpected and

A
undesirable. Negative reactions are most likely to occur during:
• a hot or contrast treatment
• a treatment of any temperature that is too long, including excessive
contrast applications
• a treatment of any temperature that is too short or incomplete
• a treatment where the person was chilled when the treatment began
• a type of treatment for which the person is too tired or too
weak/debilitated
• a treatment that is too intense for someone not used to temperature
therapy treatments

Common Signs and Symptoms of Negative Reactions

Symptoms of negative reactions in the skin and subcutaneous tissues most

commonly involve:
• tissue discolouration or any unusual colour indicating poor local
blood flow
• heightened sensitivity, paraesthesias (abnormal sensations), pain or
itchiness
In the skin and subcutaneous
tissues, negative reactions
most commonly involve:
• tissue discolouration
• increased sensitivity,
altered sensation or
pain

123
Generalized signs and symptoms most commonly include:
• shivering
• dizziness
• low or high blood pressure
• headache
• nausea
• hyperventilation
• disorientation
• feeling faint
• other feelings of illness

Types of Negative Reactions

The four main types of negative

reactions are:
In a normal reaction to
• Arterial thermotherapy, the skin
will redden to a consistent
In arterial negative reactions,
the skin appears marble-like, colour; in a normal
with red and white blotches. reaction to cryotherapy,
The blotchy colour is due to the the skin will be red initially,
inability of the arteries to handle
and then turn pale after a
the increased blood flow caused
by derivation. In a normal prolonged application.
reaction to thermotherapy, the
skin will redden to a consistent
colour; in a normal reaction to
cryotherapy, the skin will be red
initially, and then turn pale
after a prolonged application.

124
The arterial type of negative reaction is most common with contrast, intense
heat, or long cold treatments.

• Venous
In venous negative reactions the skin appears red and blue, the red being the
result of hyperemia and the blue caused by congestion. This response is due
to the inability of the veins to cope with the increased blood drainage from
the tissue. Venous negative reactions occur most often with long hot
treatments.

• Paradox
A negative reaction is called paradox when the body responds in a way that
is contrary to what should happen. For example, in response to a cryotherapy
application the skin becomes pale, then red, then white as the local blood
flow changes. In a paradox reaction, the skin may become pale then white
and never become red, indicating that active derivation is not occurring.

• Combined
A combined negative reaction is a combination of two or more arterial,
venous, or paradox reactions happening in response to a temperature therapy
treatment. This type of reaction usually only occurs in people who have
circulatory disorders.

How to Respond to a Negative Reaction

If a negative reaction occurs, stop the treatment.

Give the individual sips of water, and have her or
him rest comfortably and take relaxing breaths. If
the person is pale, raise the feet to help the blood
flow to the head; if she or he is flushed, raise the
head to allow the blood to drain to the heart.
Remember: If she’s red, raise her head; if he’s pale, raise his tail. If the
person is chilled or shivering, cover with a blanket.

125
 remember:
‘If she’s red,
raise her head;
if he’s pale,
raise his tail.’

Specifically:
• For arterial reactions, stop the application and initiate a treatment to
promote the gradual dilation of blood vessels, such as gentle massage.
• For venous reactions, stop the treatment and position the individual to
promote drainage of the affected tissue. Once the person feels better
and tissue colour begins to normalize, initiate gentle active exercise.
• For paradox reactions, stop the treatment and reassess the person’s
condition; possibly refer to a doctor.
• For combined reactions, stop the treatment and allow the individual to
rest. Talk over the reaction in relation to the person’s history with the
condition. Medical consultation may be needed.

126
I f the temperature therapy application was planned as a precursor to manual
therapy, re-assess before starting any manual techniques. It may not be
appropriate to proceed, or some techniques may be too stimulating for the
individual at this time. You will need to wait a minimum of several hours
before you can attempt another temperature therapy treatment.

When a negative
reaction occurs,
you will need to
wait a minimum
of several hours
before you
can attempt
another
temperature
therapy treatment.

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 negative reactions summary

• arterial
most common with contrast, intense hot, or long cold
treatments
skin appears marble-like (red and white)
person may experience cramping pain
due to arteries not being able to handle the increased
blood flow of derivation
⇒ stop the application and initiate a treatment to promote
the gentle, gradual dilation of blood vessels

• venous
most common with long hot treatments
skin appears red and blue; the red is hyperemia and the
blue is congestion
due to the veins not being able to handle the increased
venous drainage
⇒ stop the treatment and position the individual to promote
drainage of the area; eventually initiate active exercise

• paradox
the body responds in a way that is contrary to what should
happen
⇒ stop the treatment and reassess the person’s condition;
possibly refer to a doctor

• combined reaction
usually occurs in people with circulatory disorders
⇒ stop the treatment and determine an appropriate course
of action

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 if there’s a negative reaction…

stop the treatment

give the person sips of water

have the person rest comfortably

have the individual take several slow, deep breaths

evaluate the type of reaction

‘if she’s red, raise her head; if he’s pale, raise his tail’

avoid further temperature therapy treatments for

several hours, and proceed with caution about
other planned modalities

consider medical referral

Our next subject area is contraindications to temperature therapy. This

is closely related to topics covered in the present chapter, since the
practitioner’s goal is to provide effective and safe treatments. In some
cases, people should not be given temperature therapy treatments, or the
applications must be significantly modified. It is important for us to be able
to identify such cases.

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John Harvey Kellogg (1852-1943)
of the United States attempted to
show, in his graduate thesis, that
most diseases should be thought
of as helpful warnings rather than
enemies. He felt that symptoms of
diseases were the body’s attempts
to correct a natural function that
had become disturbed, and
that pain was a prompting to the
sufferer to stop violating the natural
laws of good health. Kellogg
used water at his sanatorium in
Battle Creek, Michigan, to treat
infections and manage pain.
 Chapter Six

Contraindications
and Cautions
Learning Objectives
After learning the contents of this chapter, the reader should be able to:

∙ define the terms contraindication and caution

∙ identify the types of dysfunctions and disorders that raise
concerns for temperature therapy treatment planning
∙ conduct effective discussions with clients to elicit information
about elements in their cases that may constitute temperature
therapy contraindications or require substantial treatment
modification
∙ explain the ways in which several commonly encountered
health conditions involve temperature therapy cautions or
contraindications
∙ show an understanding of how to make appropriate treatment
modifications
∙ explain some of the concerns regarding temperature therapy
and medications
∙ list some effects of common medications that may skew or
overlap with temperature therapy effects
“Anyone who believes that
anything can be suited
to everyone is a great
fool, because medicine is
practised not on humanity
in general, but on every
individual in particular.”

Henri de Mondeville
(1260-1320)
French pioneer surgeon

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Chapter 6: Contraindications and Cautions

In Chapters 2, 3 and 4 we looked at cautions for heat, cold and contrast

treatments respectively. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss conditions,
or categories of conditions, of which all therapists using temperature
therapy need to be aware. In some situations substantial adaptation is
necessary to modify the impacts of temperature therapy treatments on
vulnerable tissues or body systems. In other cases, there are tissue states,
diseases or disorders that make temperature therapy unsafe or inadvisable,
or which preclude the use of certain temperatures or types of treatment.
While heat and cold are very effective methods of treatment, neither is right
for everybody.

What are Contraindications and Cautions?

There are conditions for which temperature therapy is inappropriate or

potentially dangerous – these are known as contraindications. Certain
physical conditions should not be treated with temperature therapy at all.
Some contraindications are global to temperature therapy, while others are
specific to heat, cold or contrast, or to specific types of applications.
The term caution is used to suggest that the practitioner must give careful
consideration to how to design a treatment plan that is suited to the needs of
a specific case. It indicates that the client’s case history contains an injury or
disorder, combination of conditions, or other elements that make applying
temperature therapy more complex than usual. It means that significant
temperature therapy adaptation is needed to ensure safety and an appropriate
level of treatment intensity.
In addition to making good choices about temperature and type of application,
the therapist is now considering how altered tissues or vulnerable organ
systems will react to the treatment plan. This includes an understanding of
how the person’s condition(s) changes the way her or his body will react to
temperature therapy applications. In part, this requires the practitioner to
reflect on how the injury, condition, or disease has altered the affected

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tissues, and in part it requires a look at the person’s overall health status
and how the body is being affected by the stressors that are acting on it.
Another element is the potential impact of a client’s medications on
physiological responses to temperature stimuli, a subject we will also discuss
in this chapter.

There are conditions for which some or all

temperature therapy is inappropriate or
potentially dangerous – these are known
as contraindications. The term caution
is used to suggest that the practitioner
must give careful consideration to how
to design a treatment plan that is suited
to the needs of a specific case. It means
that significant temperature therapy
adaptation is needed to ensure safety and
an appropriate level of treatment intensity.

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Temperature Therapy Critical Thinking

The first consideration is knowledge of the components of the case. A

therapist should never do a temperature therapy treatment if she or he is
unsure of the presenting condition(s). Temperature therapy can have very
potent effects, especially if the body is not strong or resilient enough to
handle them. So, the practitioner must do research to ensure sufficient
understanding of what is occurring in the case. In some cases, this will
include the need to get an opinion from the person’s physician about
temperature therapy judgment calls. If there is an uncertain situation with
no diagnosis, the person should be encouraged to obtain the necessary
medical evaluation before receiving temperature therapy.

A therapist
should never do
a temperature
therapy treatment if
she or he is unsure
of the presenting
condition(s).
Temperature
therapy can have
very potent effects,
especially if the
body is not strong or
resilient enough to
handle them.

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Secondly, it is important to consider the status of the body systems that are
the primary mediators of temperature stimuli. These include:

• Cardiovascular System: The heart and blood vessels are centrally

involved in producing temperature therapy’s effects. When
cardiovascular structures are weakened or diseased, modification or
avoidance of temperature therapy must be considered because of the
changes in circulation that thermotherapy and cryotherapy induce, and
the demands that these changes place on the heart and blood vessels. If
an individual has cardiac or vascular insufficiency, there may be
overtaxing of the diseased structures, or there may be an undesired
increase or decrease in blood flow, edema or congestion, or stagnation
created in the treated tissues.

• Nervous System: The central and peripheral nervous systems (CNS

and PNS) are both key participants in the body’s responses to temperature
stimuli. The hypothalamus (see Chapter 1) is the central thermoregulator,
and if it is malfunctioning temperature therapy considerations become
much more complex. The autonomic nervous system controls functions
such as heart rate, blood pressure, vascular diameters, breathing rate,
kidney filtration, and so on, that are all involved in effective temperature
therapy. The nervous system is also the mediator for a whole class of
temperature therapy effects, reflex effects, and these cannot be employed
effectively if the conduction circuitry involved is not functioning
normally. Sensation is also a critical aspect of temperature therapy.
While treatments can be done when there is sensory impairment, they
require more cautious application and more careful monitoring because
of the increased possibility of tissue damage. Some CNS conditions
render the individual confused and unreliable, while others can change
the person’s perception of temperature and pain despite normal
peripheral nerve function.

• Respiratory System: Breathing plays a role in responses to temperature,

especially heat, since an increased breathing rate is one of the body’s
heat losing activities. Impaired gaseous exchange or breathing

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 mechanics reduce the body’s overall health, creating less resilient and
less than optimally functioning tissue structures. They also tend to
make the person intolerant of applications such as steams. As well, it is
important to keep in mind the close interrelationship between cardiac
and pulmonary functions. Chronic respiratory disorders tend to promote
hypertension and congestive heart failure.

• Kidneys and Liver: The kidneys and liver each filter large volumes of
blood every day. They are also key players in the body’s system for
eliminating toxins. If they are diseased or malfunctioning, they may be
stressed beyond capacity by treatments that mobilize large amounts of
blood flow. When these organs are diseased, there also tend to be a
number of broader effects, including generalized reduced tissue health,
and hypertension and overstress of the heart.

• Skin: Since the skin is the organ of direct contact for temperature
therapy, skin injuries and diseases are another important group of
conditions to be very aware of when choosing an appropriate treatment
plan. Some applications may overstress early stage healing. Skin
conditions may be aggravated by hot, cold, wet, or any sudden
temperature change. Hydrotherapy may help spread infectious skin
conditions. As well, the excess perspiration caused by a thermotherapy
application can irritate many skin pathologies.

Next, the case information must be put together in the broader picture of the
person’s age and overall health status. A young, active, generally healthy
person with diabetes, for example, is a very different client than an
elderly, fragile diabetic with an amputation and severe cardiac and renal
disease. The very young and very old should always be treated more
cautiously, irrespective of specific health conditions. General fitness level
and routine tolerance of temperature exposures are also important pieces of
the case picture.

137
Medications

An additional consideration when working with people with health

conditions is the medications they may be taking. Some medications will
contraindicate some or all temperature therapies, and others will introduce
a new set of cautions. They can substantially alter reactions to, or perceptions
of, temperature stimuli.
Medications can also introduce new symptoms. They may create effects
that can blur the known facts of a case. For example, is a specific new
symptom a development in the person’s presenting condition(s), a reaction
to a temperature therapy
application, or a medication
Some medications will side effect? Or is it perhaps a
contraindicate some or medication-induced abnormal
or excessive reaction to the
all temperature therapies,
temperature therapy? As well,
and others will introduce medications can make it more
a new set of cautions. difficult to perform an accurate
They can substantially tissue assessment since they
alter reactions to, can suppress tissue processes,
or perceptions of, like the inflammatory response,
or symptoms such as pain. It
temperature stimuli. is also important to note that
the long term use of many
medications may adversely
affect the kidneys and liver,
which are the primary organs
of filtration, and/or cause
additional health conditions to
develop in the body.
Sometimes medications cause effects that are not problematic, but that can
skew the results of a temperature therapy treatment. For instance, ibuprofen,
a commonly used anti-inflammatory, can cause an increase in perspiration,
regardless of a thermotherapy application.

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If the effects of a medication mimic common complaints such as headache,
swelling, or muscle soreness, a temperature application may not be as
effective as it otherwise would be in addressing such complaints. Be mindful,
too, that more than one medication may be prescribed for a condition. For
instance, muscle spasms may be treated with an anti-inflammatory and a
muscle relaxant, both of which have their own unique effects.
Since some of the effects of medications could appear to be reactions to
your temperature treatment, or could make planning an appropriate treatment
or evaluating its efficacy more difficult, it is important to familiarize yourself
with the mechanisms of action and common side effects of medications the
client is taking. This information can be researched in texts or on-line;
pharmacists are also very helpful and knowledgeable resources. When in
doubt, the person’s physician should be consulted.
When taking the health history, find out not only what medications the
person is using and for what condition(s), but also when she or he takes the
dosage. People can experience changes in mood, energy level, responsiveness,
and communicativeness, all of which must be taken into consideration with
a temperature therapy treatment.
The chart which follows is a list of common medication side effects.
Recognizing that symptoms such as these may be medication-induced is an
important first step in the process of differentiating medication-related
changes from effects of temperature therapy applications.

For a detailed description of classes of medications,

their effects and uses, common side effects, and
ways in which they can impact temperature therapy
applications, consult Massage Therapy & Medications
by Randal S. Persad, Dip. Pharm., RMT, published in 2001
by Curties-Overzet Publications, Toronto, Ontario.

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 common medication side effects
anxiety light headedness
bradycardia (slow heart rate) migraine
back pain mood changes
blurred vision muscle cramps
breathing difficulty muscle weakness
bronchospasm nausea
bruising nasal stuffiness
chest pain neck pain
chills nervousness
cold extremities neuritis (nerve inflammation)
confusion numbness
constipation palpitations (irregular heart beat)
convulsions paraesthesia
cough (abnormal sensation)
decreased sweating prolonged bleeding time
depression rash
diarrhea restlessness
dreams - vivid sedation
drowsiness seizures
dry mouth shortness of breath
dizziness slurred speech
dry airway passages sore throat
dysrhythmia sweating
(abnormal heart rhythm) thirst
edema tiredness
facial flushing tachycardia (fast heart rate)
fatigue thrombocytopenia
fever (low platelet count, often
hallucinations leading to hemorrhage)
headaches tinnitus
heat stroke (persistent noise in the ear)
hypertension tremor
(high blood pressure) urinary frequency changes
hypotension vomiting
(low blood pressure) weak pulse
insomnia weakness
joint pain wheezing

140
Contraindications and Cautions List

In this section you will find a list of conditions requiring serious consideration
in temperature therapy treatment planning. Some are contraindications to
thermotherapy and/or cryotherapy, while others require substantial
modification of temperature therapy applications. Please be aware that
although it is comprehensive, this is by no means an exhaustive list.
Note: When a condition appears in bold-face in the text,
it is defined at another point in the list.

• Allergies
Allergies are always a concern for practitioners and should be a routine part
of case history inquiry. In the temperature therapy context, allergies are
most frequently an issue with respect to additives (see Chapter 9). Some
individuals also have strong reactions to some types of cleaning supplies,
which might be relevant if the specific cleanser is being used on equipment
such as steam cabinets or whirlpools.

• Angina Pectoris
Angina pectoris is most commonly caused by atherosclerosis, which can
produce partial blockage of coronary arteries. Other possible causes are
vasospasm or the presence of restrictive scar tissue in the artery wall. If the
lumen (inner passageway) of an artery is adequate to allow sufficient blood
flow for the needs of its part of the heart wall, there will be no symptoms.
Sometimes what occurs is that the lumen is sufficient for some levels of
activity but not others. When the heart needs more blood during physical
exercise, emotional stress, and so on, inadequate perfusion creates cardiac
pain. This pain is experienced sub-sternally, across the chest, and often
down one or both arms or up into the jaw. The pain subsides when the
demand level goes back to normal. One potential trigger of an angina attack
that is especially relevant to temperature therapy is sudden changes in
the temperature of the individual’s body/environment, since this causes
large-scale shifts in blood flow and blood pressure to which the heart
must adapt.

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• Arterial Insufficiency
Arterial insufficiency is inadequate blood flow in the arteries that can be
caused by a variety of problems, several of which (for example,
atherosclerosis, diabetes, Buerger’s Disease), are discussed further on
in this list. The primary effect of arterial insufficiency is ischemia
(inadequate blood supply) and a resulting decline in tissue health. When the
insufficiency is the result of an arterial pathology, as opposed to an issue
like muscle tension impairing local blood flow, a thermotherapy application
could place too much demand on the affected artery(ies) and exacerbate
the condition.

• Arteritis/Phlebitis
Arteritis is an inflammatory condition of the arteries, which can occur
independently or in conjunction with another pathology. Phlebitis is the
inflammation of a vein, which is often accompanied by a thrombus (similar
to a clot), in which case the condition is called thrombophlebitis.
Temperature therapy, especially on-site heat, can aggravate these conditions
because of the inflammation. Temperature therapy effects that promote
increased blood flow through the affected vessels may also aggravate their
condition or lead to increased pain and tissue congestion, so modification is
required if thermotherapy or cryotherapy is indicated.

• Arteriosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis is the thickening, loss of elasticity, and calcification of
arterial walls resulting in reduced tissue perfusion (supply of fresh arterial
blood to match the tissue’s current need). Arteriosclerosis is a common
cause of arterial insufficiency, especially in the elderly. Care must be taken
with temperature therapy, particularly large scale heat or contrast applications,
because they require changes in blood vessel diameter that may not be
possible. A generalized reduction in arterial elasticity promotes hypertension
and stresses the heart, so modifications related to these systemic factors are
likely to be relevant to the case. Severe arteriosclerosis is a contraindication
for all but very mild local temperature therapy applications.

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• Asthma
Asthma is a respiratory condition characterized by episodes of bronchiolar
constriction, copious mucus production, and formation of mucus plugs in
the small respiratory passages. Sometimes the trigger is exposure to an
allergen or irritating substance, and in other cases it is not clear why the
attacks occur. During an attack the individual experiences severe, potentially
dangerous shortness of breath (dyspnea). Unless expressly recommended
by a physician, temperature therapy is contraindicated during an attack.
Sometimes people with asthma are also chronically short of breath, and in
general they tend to want to avoid situations that may challenge their
breathing capacity. In the temperature therapy context, these situations
would most commonly include larger hot applications, steams, applications
that involve significant pressure or weight on the chest (such as a whirlpool
or a large hydrocollator pack), or extreme temperature changes. Different
individuals will have different tolerance levels. Asthma is also stressful on
the heart, so cardiovascular concerns may be a factor in some cases.
Medications can also be an important consideration.

• Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is the most common type of arteriosclerosis and is a leading
cause of death from heart attack, stroke, and other complications. Plaques
of cholesterol and fats form in the inner layers of the arteries, leading to
calcification and a loss of elasticity. These plaques can be unstable, releasing
embolic debris, and are frequent sites of thrombus formation. A thrombus
can occlude (block) the artery, killing the tissue it supplies, or can break
away from the blood vessel wall and occlude a blood vessel in another
location such as a lung or the brain. Since atherosclerosis ends to be systemic,
and is so common in the client population, it is important to determine the
degree of risk associated with a specific case. Many individuals with mild
atherosclerosis (often undiagnosed) routinely take hot baths or showers, or
swim in cool swimming pools. On the other hand, people with severe
atherosclerosis have frequently been given a number of medical restrictions
regarding hot and cold exposures. It is important to assess each case, taking

143
into consideration condition severity, general health status, presence of
hypertension and/or heart failure, activities of daily living, and any
restrictions and/or medications prescribed by a doctor. Keep in mind that a
history of heart attack, angina pectoris, or stroke is almost always an
atherosclerosis diagnosis, and that diabetics are prone to more severe
atherosclerosis development.

• Athlete’s Foot
Athlete’s foot is tinea pedis, which is a fungal infection of the skin of the
foot. Heat tends to aggravate this condition.

• Bleeding/Hemorrhage
A hemorrhage is internal or external bleeding, and is a term usually reserved
for significant blood loss in a short period of time. Any tissue that is currently
bleeding, has recently hemorrhaged, or has a strong potential to bleed is
not a good candidate for temperature therapy, especially hot or contrast
treatments. Cold may be suitable in some cases, for example with recent
contusions, but when there is active bleeding the practitioner must assume
a general contraindication and take pains to verify that any temperature
therapy is in fact appropriate. The risk is of promoting more hemorrhage or
of impairing mechanisms that stop bleeding.
With bruises, which are the result of blood seepage into tissue after an injury,
temperature therapy should be appropriately geared to the stage of resolution
of the bruise.

• Bronchitis, Chronic
Chronic bronchitis, which is usually caused by smoking or other long-term
inhalation of damaging materials, involves loss of the respiratory tract cilia
that clear passageways. There may also be an increase in mucus production
by the glands in the trachea and bronchi, all of which results in chronic
cough. People with chronic bronchitis often experience dyspnea and
wheezing. While thermotherapy is often very helpful in reducing respiratory

144
muscle tension and mobilizing secretions, there may be an intolerance of
intense heat or steam environments due to the dyspnea. There may also be
some degree of congestive heart failure.

• Buerger’s Disease
Buerger’s Disease is also known as thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO). This
condition involves the inflammation of small and medium sized arteries
and veins (arteritis/phlebitis), usually in the leg/foot. The intense
inflammatory episodes lead to progressive destruction of blood vessel
lumina, infarctions (tissue death due to loss of blood supply) and gangrene.
There is also a high thrombosis risk. All local temperature therapy is
contraindicated with Buerger’s Disease unless specifically approved by the
person’s vascular specialist. With respect to treatment of other parts of the
body, temperature therapy may be appropriate; cardiovascular status and
medications must be taken into consideration.

• Burns, Blisters

A blister is a fluid-filled bubble in the skin. A burn is a heat injury which

results in redness and possible blistering of the skin and damage to underlying
tissues. Thermotherapy is a local contraindication to both blisters and
burns, as heat exacerbates them both, as well as any inflammation that may
be present.

• Cachexia
Cachexia is a condition of general malnutrition, including weakness and
emaciation, which is generally secondary to severe or end-stage diseases
such as terminal cancer or AIDS. Temperature therapy, if indicated, must be
greatly modified to avoid fatigue or further stress of the organ systems. It is
also important to remember that the individual has virtually no body fat
to act as a temperature insulator. Mild washings or compresses may be
soothing or appropriately energizing – most other types of applications may
be too intense.

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• Cardiovascular Disease
Many of the conditions discussed in this list involve cardiovascular disease
or dysfunction. Since the cardiovascular system and its individual structures
(heart, blood vessels) are primary mediators of temperature therapy stimuli,
and therefore have extra demands placed on them, it makes sense that
weakness or vulnerability of these structures will raise concerns about the use
of temperature therapy. In some cases there is an absolute contraindication
and in others caution must be exercised to achieve a safe degree of adaptation.
This is particularly true with respect to the larger, more intense types of
applications discussed in Chapter 8. In general, the concerns relate to:
• acute or recent conditions, for example heart attack, stroke, cardiac
or vascular surgeries, where the tissue, blood vessels and/or blood
flow may not yet be stabilized and the risk of bleeding/hemorrhage
and thrombosis may be high
• conditions (for example, congestive heart failure, angina pectoris,
hypertension) where overly intense temperature therapy stimuli
might exceed the capacity of the compromised heart muscle to safely
handle the additional workload
• high blood pressure (hypertension), especially if severe or unstable
• any inflammatory conditions of the heart or blood vessels
• any condition with a significant thrombosis risk

• Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is systemic cancer treatment involving the use of a range of
potent chemicals that usually have broadly generalized effects. In addition
to knowing information about the cancer patient’s case (e.g., stage, medical
treatment history, which body tissues are affected, other medications being
taken, current general health status), it is important to keep in mind that
chemotherapies have a number of specific effects relevant to temperature
therapy decision-making. These include: extreme fatigue/debility, toxicity,
low blood cell counts, pain and nerve irritation, altered clotting, some degree
of skin and small blood vessel fragility, and the potential for altered sensation.

146
There is also considerable stress on the vital organ systems, especially the
heart, liver, and kidneys. Different chemotherapy agents have different
effects, and individuals experience differing degrees of symptom severity.
While chemotherapy does not contraindicate temperature therapy in an
absolute sense, adaptations suited to the circumstances of the case must
always be implemented.

• Cold Hypersensitivity

Cold hypersensitivity is an unusual, extreme sensitivity to cold temperatures,

which can result in cold urticaria, erythema (redness, blotchiness), and
pain or itching.

• Cold Hemoglobinuria

Hemoglobin is the blood protein that carries oxygen. Hemoglobinuria is the

abnormal presence of hemoglobin in the urine and is associated with the
development of severe anemia (insufficient oxygen delivery to the body’s
tissues). In cold hemoglobinuria, red blood cells are broken down in cold
temperatures, resulting in a pathological release of hemoglobin. Cryotherapy
is therefore contraindicated when an individual has this condition.

• Cold Urticaria

Cold urticaria is sensitivity to cold that is characterized by the formation of

wheals (angry red skin lesions). Cryotherapy is contraindicated.

• Confused/Unreliable Feedback/Unable to Communicate

People who are confused or unable to communicate clearly cannot be relied

upon to properly report skin sensations, so the risk of tissue damage with
temperature therapy is increased. Temperature therapy is not inevitably
precluded, but the practitioner must assume additional responsibility for
closely observing tissue reactions and monitoring for signs of distress or
negative reactions. It is usually best to introduce temperature therapy in
smaller, milder formats and increase the intensity if it seems appropriate.

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• Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)
Congestive heart failure is weakness of the heart in its role as a muscular
pump. This is a chronic condition that may progress over many years;
sometimes there are acute episodes if the heart becomes very overstressed.
Chronic heart failure can be caused by any number of conditions inside and
outside the heart, for example: heart attack, valve disorders, hypertension,
diabetes, anemia, atherosclerosis, respiratory conditions such as
emphysema, kidney disease, some types of epilepsy, full body spasticity,
chemotherapy, and so on – the list would include any factor that damages
or chronically overworks the heart. The practitioner must always consider
the possibility or degree of CHF when the client’s case includes a history of
heart disease or potential extrinsic heart stressors.
CHF leads to inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues and reduced tissue
health, systemic and pulmonary hypertension, lung congestion, and
generalized edema. CHF can be mild, moderate or severe. Mild cases may
be fine for many temperature therapy treatments; a moderate case could
require substantial treatment adaptation; and a severe or unstable case
usually contraindicates most temperature therapy applications, especially
large scale or intense ones. It is helpful to consider the person’s everyday
temperature-related activities and tolerance level as well as any related
medical restrictions. It is also important to keep in mind that the skin and
other tissues may be significantly dystrophic (unhealthy).
• Cryoglobulinemia
Cryoglobulinemia involves the presence of cryoglobulins in the blood. A
cryoglobulin is an abnormal plasma protein that typically dissolves at
normal body temperatures, but separates and aggregates with exposure to
low temperatures. These cryoglobulins can impair circulation in small blood
vessels. Cryotherapy is contraindicated.

• Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is an endocrine disorder involving inadequate insulin
production, release, or utilization; physiological processes are extensively

148
affected by the resulting impairment of glucose use in the body, since
glucose is a primary cellular fuel. Diabetes, especially Type 1 (insulin
dependent) diabetes, raises a number of considerations for the temperature
therapist. Firstly, it is important to be concerned about diabetic stability. In
the insulin dependent diabetic, the person’s insulin intake must be matched
to the body’s anticipated need. Activities that require substantial metabolic
activity may increase that need beyond expected parameters. It is always a
good idea to schedule temperature therapy treatments closer to the beginning
of a new insulin injection period. The client should also be questioned
thoroughly about regular temperature practices and tolerances and any
history of destabilization with past temperature therapy or similar situations
that might be instructive.
Secondly, the client’s case needs to be assessed relative to the types of health
complications that tend to occur in diabetics. Atherosclerosis is common
and forms in various of parts of the arterial system, including the renal
arteries; the smaller blood vessels become substantially damaged and much
less responsive to temperature stimuli (peripheral vascular disease);
hypertension is common and some degree of congestive heart failure is
likely to develop; various types of kidney disease may occur; sensory
impairment in the extremities is common; circulation to the skin and other
surface tissues becomes compromised, making them less healthy and
resilient; and immunity is compromised. Such complications tend to develop
over time, and do not all always occur, so there are many variations in their
presence and severity in each case. Temperature therapy is contraindicated
for people with severe advanced or unstable diabetes mellitus.

• Dyspnea
The term dyspnea means shortness of breath, or difficulty with breathing
mechanics or with gaseous exchange in the lungs. Dyspnea is not a disease
in itself – it is a primary respiratory symptom and is present in a variety of
respiratory conditions. Individuals with dyspnea do not have good tolerance
of stimuli that increase breathing demand, such as large scale heat. Depending
on the cause of their symptoms, people with dyspnea are also often unable
to handle steam treatments.

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• Eczema
Eczema is a superficial dermatitis (skin inflammation), generally of unknown
cause. Sudden temperature changes, particularly heat, can exacerbate the
symptoms of eczema. Eczema is a local contraindication for thermotherapy,
and cryotherapy applications should be carefully monitored.

• Emphysema
Emphysema is a respiratory condition involving widespread destruction of
gaseous exchange surfaces in the lungs. It is most commonly caused by
long-term smoking. Emphysema is characterized by dyspnea – in more
severe cases individuals use prescribed oxygen. Emphysema also places a
great deal of stress on the heart and causes some degree of congestive heart
failure in all sufferers. With severe emphysema the corresponding CHF is
usually also severe. The long-term reduction in oxygen availability also
causes poor tissue health, especially in the extremities. Each of these aspects
of emphysema must be considered and matched with appropriate temperature
therapy adaptations – in severe cases many applications will be too intense.

• Epilepsy
Epilepsy is characterized by seizures, which are the result of abnormal
bursts of conduction in the brain. There are many causes and types of
epilepsy – it is not a distinct disease, but rather a generic term for seizure
disorder. Some seizure types are very mild and essentially harmless while
others are quite dangerous and very stressful on the body, particularly the
heart. People with epilepsy tend to have their specific individual seizure
triggers. While many common triggers are unrelated to temperature therapy,
some are directly applicable: hot or cold stimuli, sudden temperature change,
water immersion (a common trigger in children), and reactions to aromas.
It is important for the temperature therapist to take a thorough case history
that includes information about regular temperature practices and tolerances
and any history of seizure occurrences with past temperature therapy or
similar situations, for example, hot showers/baths at home or activities like
swimming. Epileptic clients are also often taking medications that have

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numerous side effects and that may affect their ability to provide optimal
feedback on how a treatment feels. Medication stability may also be a factor.
With severe or unstable epileptics, or those with directly applicable triggers,
some or all types of temperature therapy are likely to be contraindicated.

• Fasting
Fasting is abstention from eating. It is important to carefully monitor people
who are fasting, as they may become weak and easily fatigued, states that
can be aggravated by temperature therapy treatments.

• Fever
Fever is an abnormally high body temperature produced when the body
fights bacterial or viral invaders. Thermotherapy applications should
generally be avoided, as they may increase the fever beyond a healthy level.
Cryotherapy can be effective in helping reduce fever, but should be used
with caution since fever has an important purpose. When the body is fevered
there is a larger temperature difference between the cryoagent and the target
tissue, so cold applications should be modified toward cool.

• Frostbite
Frostbite is the result of extreme cold on the skin and subcutaneous tissues,
which causes a local lack of oxygen and ultimately tissue necrosis (cell
death). Cold is an absolute contraindication; heat may be used with care,
utilizing warm rather than hot temperatures, but only after the frostbite has
been evaluated and treated medically.

• Gangrene
Gangrene is a type of tissue death caused by loss of viable blood supply,
sometimes in association with factors such as infection or inability to heal
an injury. It is a serious potential complication of peripheral vascular
diseases such as Buerger’s Disease and diabetes. Pre-gangrenous states
require extreme caution (with medical consultation) in using temperature
therapy. Gangrene is an absolute local contraindication.

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• Headaches - Vascular
Local heat should be avoided with headaches caused by increased blood
flow to the head, as in a ‘pounding’ headache. Thermotherapy will increase
the circulation and aggravate the headache.

• Hemorrhage (see Bleeding/Hemorrhage)

• Hypertension
Hypertension is chronically elevated blood pressure. It has numerous known
causes (several mentioned in this list) and some that are not well understood.
High blood pressure stresses the heart and over time tends to produce
congestive heart failure – it is also implicated in kidney disease and stroke.
Hypertension levels vary a great deal on the mild-moderate-severe
continuum, and many individuals are well controlled by medication. It is
important to be clear about the specific case in order to make good
temperature therapy decisions.
High blood pressure is a major temperature therapy consideration, especially
with full body treatments. Although heat will tend to reduce blood pressure
over the course of a treatment, as discussed in Chapter 3, a full body heat
application will substantially increase blood flow and venous return before
the occurrence of the peripheral vasodilation that lowers pressure in the
core circulation. This means that the body with hypertension, particularly if
the heart is weakened, can be overtaxed in the initial response. With mild,
well-controlled hypertension this effect is usually well tolerated. Full body
heat treatments are not recommended for moderate hypertension, and
unstable or severe hypertension is a contraindication for all but the mildest
forms of temperature therapy. Be sure to check on whether the person’s
doctor has placed restrictions on temperature exposures.

• Hypotension
Low blood pressure raises fewer temperature therapy concerns than
hypertension, but it is important to note that individuals with hypotension
are more likely than normotensive clients to become light-headed or feel

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faint with intense temperature therapy applications such as steams, full body
treatments, or prolonged applications.

• Infection
Thermotherapy is not recommended in the vicinity of an active infection
because of the increase in circulation that results. This enhances the
possibility of spreading the infection, either locally or more broadly.

• Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)

Inflammatory bowel diseases include conditions such as ulcerative colitis
and Crohn’s Disease (ileitis). These are chronic, episodic, inflammatory
disorders of the intestines. The reflex effects of temperature therapy must be
well understood in order not to irritate or adversely affect the disordered
bowel function.

• Kidney Disease
The kidneys, as primary organs of filtration and elimination, are responsible
for continuously filtering the body’s circulating blood. This role is crucial to
controlling body fluid volume and toxicity levels. There are numerous
causes and types of kidney disease, but common characteristics of long term
conditions include progressive decline in tissue and organ system health,
generalized toxicity, hypertension and congestive heart failure, and severe
generalized edema. Diseased kidneys can be overstressed by treatments that
mobilize large amounts of blood flow and blood pressure may spike as a
result. It is important to assess the severity of each case and modify/avoid
temperature therapy applications accordingly – seek medical advice as
needed and proceed cautiously. Severe kidney disease is an absolute
temperature therapy contraindication. Individuals receiving dialysis treatments
should have medical approval before receiving temperature therapy.

• Liver Disease
The liver, like the kidneys, is a primary filtering and eliminatory organ,
processing blood from the spleen and digestive organs before returning it to

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the core circulation. The concerns about temperature therapy and liver
disease are essentially the same as those outlined above for kidney
disease.

• Malignancy
Malignancy is the term used to describe cancerous growths. On-site
thermotherapy is strongly discouraged because of the resulting local increase
in tissue metabolism, which is thought to potentially enhance the growth
and metastasis of the tumour.

• Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disorder that affects the central nervous
system in a random and widespread fashion. Each individual case is different,
but there are a number of more common symptoms that influence temperature
therapy treatment planning. For instance, most (not all) people with MS are
very intolerant of heat and are adversely affected by heat exposures. As
well, many have sensory impairment, abnormal sensory and reflex
responses, severe fatigue, spasticity and other motor disorders, autonomic
nervous system control problems, and vertigo. Vertigo, which is similar to
dizziness, can be exacerbated by large scale or more intense forms of
temperature therapy. Cold can be used beneficially with multiple sclerosis
to reduce symptom intensity and improve energy. It is important to take
careful note of the specific impairments in each client’s case, but as a general
rule thermotherapy is avoided and cryotherapy is used in more brief
applications to avoid overstimulation. Cold may also aggravate spasticity.

• Neuritis
Neuritis is the inflammation of a nerve. It is very painful, and may create
either reduced sensation or heightened sensitivity in the tissue the nerve
supplies. Similarly, muscle tone may be low or quite spasmodic, and reflexes
can be either sluggish or overly reactive. Heat is never used with inflammation.
Extreme cold may also not be well tolerated, but moderated cold applications
are often beneficial in helping control pain and inflammation.

154
• Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD)
Peripheral vascular disease is a general term for any condition that adversely
affects the function of the blood and/or lymphatic vessels, especially in the
extremities. Blood flow is generally abnormal in the affected tissues,
resulting in ischemia (inadequate blood supply) and paleness/cyanosis, or
alternatively, congestion and edema. Signs and symptoms may also include
numbness, pain, and elevated blood pressure. There may be inflammation
or other symptoms specific to the cause of the condition. There can be a
variety of origins of PVD, so it is important to understand the client’s
underlying cause(s) in order to appropriately assess which, if any, temperature
therapy treatments are indicated, contraindicated, or in need of modification.
Generally, circulation should not be increased through affected tissue areas,
necessitating the contraindication of local and distal heat applications.

• Phlebitis (see Arteritis/Phlebitis)

• Pitted Edema
Pitted, or pitting, edema is stagnant swelling that has become less liquid and
more gel-like. A depression caused by pressing the tissue with a finger
remains for a time rather than rebounding immediately when released. Mild
cases may respond well to moderated heat or contrast applications, assuming
liquification and drainage are fairly readily achievable; otherwise local
temperature therapy is not indicated because of the underlying vascular
impairment.

• Pregnancy
Pregnancy is not a pathology and should not be over-pathologized. However,
there are risks to the fetus associated with prolonged overheating of the
mother’s body, and temperature therapy exposures should be adjusted
accordingly. In cases of high risk pregnancy, the therapist should exercise
caution and take note of any restrictions placed on temperature exposures
by the woman’s physician.

155
• Radiation Therapy
Radiation therapy is the use of ionizing radiation in cancer treatment. The
effect of the radiation is to kill cells or make them unable to reproduce.
Since radiation therapy cannot be targeted to the cancer cells only, it has
effects on the local normal tissues as well. Similar to sunburn, radiation
treatments create burn injuries in the skin and underlying tissues that develop
over a 24-48 hour period. During this time on-site water exposures are often
forbidden because they can exacerbate the burn process. On-site heat would
also be contraindicated. If blisters develop, it is best not to wet them or risk
infection of the affected skin.
Any history of radiation therapy should be looked at carefully by the
temperature therapist. The affected skin may remain sensitive to temperature
extremes for some time. There may also be sensory impairment that is
permanent, or that improves very slowly over time.

• Raynaud’s Disease
Raynaud’s Disease is an idiopathic condition characterized by intermittent
attacks of ischemia in the extremities, particularly in the hands and fingers.
This condition’s symptoms can include blanching, cyanosis (blue colouring),
numbness, tingling, burning, and pain. Cold is one of the common attack
triggers and is contraindicated for use on the affected tissues. In general, the
person should also avoid becoming overchilled.

• Raynaud’s Phenomenon
Raynaud’s Phenomenon involves the same signs and symptoms as Raynaud’s
Disease, but it is typically more severe and can include thrombosis risk.
Raynaud’s Phenomenon is so-called when it occurs secondary to another
condition such as lupus.

• Sensory Impairment
The term sensory impairment is a generic one referring to altered sensation.
The problem could originate in the CNS or PNS. While instances of

156
heightened/excessive sensation, or abnormal sensations such as paresthesias,
are included in the concept of sensory impairment, the term is typically used
to mean sensation that is less than normal (hypaesthesia) or lost (anaesthesia).
Sensation is an important aspect of temperature therapy treatment, since
there is a greater risk of tissue damage when the person cannot discriminate
temperature perception. Reduced or lost tissue sensation does not preclude
temperature therapy use, assuming no vasomotor impairment, but the
practitioner must be especially observant of the tissue responses. It is best
to proceed with great care, using patch testing (see Chapter 5) and introducing
more intense applications slowly and cautiously.

• Spasticity
Spasticity is a motor dysfunction that results from CNS injuries and
disorders. It is characterized by reflex control problems, including poor
modulation of basic protective reflexes like the muscle spindle and
withdrawal reflexes, which tend to be highly reactive. Extremes of
temperature are likely to precipitate spastic reactions, especially if applied
suddenly. Warm applications are usually well tolerated and beneficial, but
even modified cryotherapy is often problematic.

• Superficial Pins, Wires, Rods

Metal pins, wires, and rods are used to mend and stabilize bony structures
in the body. If these appliances are exposed to extremes of heat or cold,
especially heat, the metal (which is an excellent temperature conductor) can
cause damage to neighbouring tissues.

• Thrombus, Thrombosis, Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT),

Thrombophlebitis
A thrombus is similar to a blood clot. Thrombosis refers to the process of
thrombus development, which occurs as a result of platelet activation.
Thrombosis risk is high in any situation where a blood vessel is damaged,
irritated/inflamed, or has a narrowed section (stenosis). Extensive thrombus
formation may occlude the vessel, as often happens in heart attacks. Thrombi

157
tend to be attached to the blood vessel wall, but often loosely, so they may
also break away and occlude a downstream vessel. In either case, tissue
death will result. Deep vein thrombosis is the presence of a thrombus in a
deep vein, most frequently in the leg; thrombophlebitis refers to an inflamed
vein with thrombosis. The temperature therapist must be concerned about
situations where there is an identifiable risk of exacerbating thrombosis or
causing a thrombus to dislodge. Any temperature therapy applications are
contraindicated that would result in increased blood flow through the
affected vessel. Medical consultation is often necessary to assess safety.

• Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)

Similar to what occurs in angina pectoris, transient ischemic attacks are the
result of partially occluded arteries in the brain, usually caused by
atherosclerosis. In circumstances where the tissue supplied by the affected
artery requires more blood than the compromised blood vessel can deliver,
symptoms appear. These symptoms could be any number of neurological
indicators depending on the function of the affected part of the brain, for
example, weakness or sensory loss on one side of the body, slurred speech,
altered vision, and so on. Since these symptoms come and go, they can be
overlooked, but TIAs are often stroke precursors and should be investigated
and treated medically as soon as possible. When a client has diagnosed
TIAs, temperature therapy is inadvisable except for mild local applications
that do not generate increased systemic blood flow.

• Unwilling Client
Regardless of how strongly indicated or potentially beneficial you believe a
temperature therapy treatment to be, if the individual is unwilling because
of the temperature, the nature of the application, or any other reason, consent
is not present and the treatment cannot be done.

• Varicose Veins - Severe

A varicose vein is a vein in which the valves that prevent backflow are
incompetent – it becomes progressively more blocked, tortuous and dilated.

158
The most commonly affected veins are the superficial saphenous veins of
the legs. Hemorrhoids are also varicosities. Older varicose veins may
become weak, so in advanced cases local temperature therapy should be
avoided or substantially modified.

• Vasomotor Impairment (Paralysis or Paresis)

The autonomic nervous system (sympathetic division) is responsible for
vasoconstriction of blood vessels in the body, and for vasodilation, which is
a relative absence of constriction. When there is vasomotor impairment, it
can stem from problems in the control areas in the CNS, or from damage to
peripheral nerves carrying the sympathetic fibres for this function. Vasomotor
paresis is poor tone in the blood vessels due to reduced transmission;
vasomotor paralysis, which tends to occur only from complete loss of a
peripheral nerve’s transmission, is full loss of vasoconstriction. When
vasoconstriction is impaired blood pools in affected capillary beds – the
result is a large volume of edema. When there is sluggish vasomotor
function, temperature therapy must be modified in intensity to suit the
available function. When there is vasomotor paralysis, local temperature
therapy is to be avoided because the expected vascular reactions will not
occur, eliminating the effectiveness of the applications and risking increased
congestion and edema.

Now that we have discussed contraindications and cautions associated with

temperature therapy decision-making, we will proceed in the next two
chapters to look at what is involved in preparing for and implementing a
number of specific thermotherapy, cryotherapy and contrast applications in
clinical practice.

159
Sister Elizabeth Kenny (1886-
1952) of Australia treated polio
with strips of wool soaked in
hot water to relieve muscle
pain and to increase range of
motion. Elsewhere in the world
people were using braces
and casts to immobilize limbs,
but Kenny’s treatment helped
mobilize polio sufferers.
 Chapter Seven

Commonly
Used
Treatments

Learning Objectives
After learning the contents of this chapter, the reader should be able to:

∙ demonstrate an understanding of appropriate uses for the

treatments
∙ list the necessary equipment for each application
∙ explain the appropriate procedure for each treatment
∙ incorporate these treatments into clinical practice and home
care recommendations
Treatments Page

Gel Packs and Ice Bags 164

Ice Massage 166
Ice Bandage 168
Compresses and Fomentations 170
Cold Compresses 171
Fomentations 173
Hot Towel Roll 176
Contrast Towels 178
Contrast Head Compresses 179
Contrast Chest Compresses 180
Heating Compress 181
Foot Baths 184
Warm Foot Bath 184
Cold Foot Bath 186
Contrast Foot Bath 186
Tonic Friction Applications 188
Cold Mitten Friction 189
Dry Brushing 192
Salt Glow 196
Washings 198
Full Body Washing 199
Abdominal Washing 201
Thermophore 202
Hydrocollator 204
Paraffin Wax Bath 207
Hot Stone Massage 212

162
Chapter 7: Commonly Used Treatments

The specific temperature therapy treatments described in this book are

divided into two groups. The first group includes commonly used applications
that are accessible to most therapists for use in clinical practice and as self
care, and to most clients as home care. This group also includes treatments
that tend to be partial body applications or that would be considered less
intense and more universally applicable, given compliance with individual
contraindications. The second group involves larger scale, more intense
hydrotherapy treatments. The first group is presented in this chapter and the
second in Chapter 8. Some of the treatments in both chapters mention the
option of incorporating additives – additives are discussed in Chapter 9.

keep in mind:
The sensations
caused by very
cold applications
are generally
‘C-BAN’ – cold,
burning, aching
numbness.

163
Gel Packs and Ice Bags
Gel packs and ice bags are simple to use, mould well to most target areas,
and are easy applications for people to use at home. These cryotherapy
treatments are helpful for acutely inflamed soft tissue conditions (e.g.,
bursitis, flare-up of a condition such as rheumatoid arthritis) and recent
injuries (e.g., muscle strains, joint sprains).

Equipment:
• gel packs
• towels to cover gel pack or ice
• ice chips/cubes and plastic bag
Note:
Keep gel packs in the freezer
ready for use – they need to
be frozen for a minimum of
1 hour to be effective.

Procedure:
• Make the client comfortable and relaxed, with the target area elevated
if swelling is present. Make sure the part to be treated is well supported.
• Prepare the client for what sensations to expect during the treatment:
cold often burns for a short time, then aches, then feels numb (C-BAN).
• Cover the target area with a terry cloth towel. To increase the effects of
the cryotherapy, wet the towel with cold water (wring out well).
• Prepare the ice cubes, ice chips, or gel pack, or use a bag with one part
water and three parts chipped ice with its opening securely closed and
any extra air removed. Fold the chosen application in the wet towel and
place on the target tissue.
• Gently mould the pack around the contour of the body part so there is
firm and even contact with the skin. Cover with a dry towel.
• Leave the pack on for no more than 10-20 minutes at a time.
• For repetitions, allow the tissue to warm to normal on its own before
repeating the application.
• Feel the treated tissue area for coldness and watch for signs of
frostnip.

164
 Figure 7.1: Gel packs.

a: Contour the gel pack to b: Cover the application

the target tissue. with a towel.

Figure 7.2: Ice bags.

165
Ice Massage
These cryotherapy applications are more aggressive than gel packs and ice
bags. They are particularly useful for treating very localized pain and
inflammation (e.g., acute ligament or tendon injuries), and after friction
therapy to control any inflammation caused in the treated tissues.

Equipment:
• ice cube with popsicle stick handle or a small paper cup filled with water
and frozen – the paper of the cup is peeled away to expose the ice
• towels

Procedure:
• Make the client comfortable and relaxed, with the target area elevated if
swelling is present. Make sure the part to be treated is well supported.
• Test for a negative reaction to ice by putting a small piece on pre-oiled
skin in a similar or adjacent tissue location to the one to be treated.
After 5 minutes examine the skin for any abnormal reactions.
• Apply a small amount of oil or lotion to the tissue to be iced so the ice
does not stick to and damage the skin.
• Tell the client how the ice treatment will feel: after the initial sensation
of cold, there is usually a burning sensation, then an ache, and then
numbness (C-BAN).
• If needed for your own comfort, wrap a small cloth or paper towel
around the application so that the ice is exposed at one end.
• Make rapid movements with the ice over the target tissue, wiping drips
as they develop.
• Continue the application until the treatment area feels numb to the
client and cold to your touch and until the skin turns red – these results
usually take several minutes.
• Be watchful for any negative reactions, such as blotching of the skin.

166
• Cover the treated skin when finished so it will warm up on its own.
• With deep specific techniques such as frictions, ice is used to control
the inflammatory response and is standard procedure following deep
tissue work.
• Brief icing can be used intermittently during some types of deeper
treatments as well.

Figure 7.3: Ice massage options.

a: Ice in a paper or b: Ice cube held in a cloth

styrofoam cup. or paper towel.

c: Popsicle stick.

167
Ice Bandage
By combining compression with cold, an ice bandage helps to effectively
address acute inflammation at the time of an injury. These bandages should
not be relied on to provide adequate immobilization, but they do serve as an
effective reminder not to overuse an injured area. The wrapping should be
snug, but not overly tight.

Equipment:
• dry towel or elastic bandage
• ice water
• sealed bag containing ice (ice is most effective because ice stays cold
longest), or a cold gel pack.

Procedure:
• Wet an elastic bandage or
long, thin towel in ice water.
• Start wrapping inferior to the
injury site, and work up
towards it.
• Place the ice bag over the
injured tissue.
• Continue wrapping over the
ice bag, holding it in place
with the towel/bandage.
Figure 7.4: Wet the
• Keep the ice on until swelling bandage in ice water.
has noticeably diminished.
• If continuing to use an ice bandage as a cryotherapy treatment in the
days following the injury, rather than one continuous application it is
now better to apply cold for 10-20 minutes, remove and let the tissue
warm naturally, then re-apply.

168
 Figure 7.5: Ice bandage.

a: Wrap the wet bandage, b: Once partially wrapped,

starting inferior to the injury. apply cold gel pack.

c: Continue wrapping d: Finish wrapping and

around gel pack. secure bandage clips.

169
Compresses and Fomentations
Compresses are folded layers of natural fibre cloths (cotton, linen, flannel)
used with cold or hot water. When using hot water, compresses are called
fomentations. Compresses mould easily to the body part being treated and
are simple, effective treatments for clinic and self-care use. They have
milder local effects than many other cryo- or thermoagents and can usually
be tolerated for longer time periods – they are good choices for any condition
where moderated heating or cooling is desired, including as a preliminary to
other therapies. Compresses are a good means of modifying treatment
intensity for older or more debilitated individuals, or where there is
dystrophic tissue.

Compresses are
good choices
for any condition
where moderated
heating or cooling
is desired, and as
a preliminary to
other therapies.

170
• Cold Compresses
Cold compresses are effective as a headache treatment when used on the
back of the neck or on the forehead (ideally in conjunction with a hot foot
bath). They can be used with any other heat modality, e.g. sauna, steam,
thermophore to help avoid overheating or vasodilation-induced headache.
They are helpful after a heat treatment, such as a hydrocollator pack, to
restore tone to the skin and help reduce any excessive local fluid accumulation.
They are also easily adapted for home use.

Cold compresses are made of natural fibre cloth that is well wrung out in
cold water and applied directly to the skin. For greater intensity, ice water
can be used. They are not covered with a dry towel. The cloth is changed
regularly either by being re-folded to expose inner layers that are still cold,
or by being replaced with another well wrung out cloth. The compress has
to be kept cold to maintain the vasoconstrictive (retrostatic) effect on the
skin – otherwise it will function as a heating compress (discussed below).
Cold compresses are best used in a series, so have on hand 1 or 2 additional
towels that can be applied when the one on the body warms up.

Cold compresses are also often chosen in situations where the goal is to
achieve reflex effects in organs. They can be placed directly onto the skin
reflex area (see Figure 1.10 in Chapter 1) for the structure to be treated
(e.g., the liver, intestines).

Remember to avoid chilling the client, particularly when cold compresses

are used after a hot treatment.

Equipment:
• cold water (1°C/34°F)
• small bucket
• 2-3 small towels

171
Procedure:
• Make sure that the room is not cool or drafty.
• Wring out the cloth well.
• Place the compress over the body part to be treated – do not cover the
cloth.
• Re-apply a fresh cold compress or re-fold the cloth as soon as the
application no longer feels cold to the client (avoid the vasodilation of
derivation).
• Remove the compress and cover the skin or dry it off.

Figure 7.6: Cold compress.

a: Wet the towel in ice water b: Apply to the target tissue

and wring out well. with no covering.

172
• Fomentations
The application of a series of hot, moist towels is helpful for chronic soft
tissues conditions, particularly when the weight of a hydrocollator cannot
be tolerated. Fomentations are sometimes called alternating hot towels.
Sore muscles and stiff joints are often helped by the moist heat of hot towels.
This application is also easily employed for home care. Fomentations are
covered with a dry cloth or towel to help sustain the heat.

Fomentations, also
called alternating
hot towels, are hot
compresses covered
with a dry cloth or
towel to help sustain
the heat.

173
Equipment:

• 2-3 towels (thicker towels retain heat better)

• 1 dry towel for covering the application area
• rubber gloves (optional)
• bucket
• kettle or other heat source
• hot water (approximately 40°C/104°F); can be modified for a warm
versus hot fomentation

Procedure:

• Have the hot water ready.

• Fold the towels to fit the tissue area being treated.
• Dip the towel in the water, leaving the ends out to facilitate wringing.
• Place the hot towel on the skin. Initially, you should quickly lift the
towel off a few times to allow the skin to adjust to the heat and to
prevent burning with hotter applications.
• Cover the treated area with a dry towel.
• If necessary, apply a cold compress to the neck or forehead to prevent
overheating.
• When the towel begins to cool (after 3-5 minutes), place a second hot,
wrung out towel on top, then flip the whole set of towels over and
remove the old towel. This procedure keeps the skin from chilling
between towels.
• Repeat as required. The treatment usually lasts for 10-30 minutes, but
may be shorter if it is being used as a preliminary to other therapies.
• You can wipe the treated part with a cool cloth afterwards.

174
 Figure 7.7: Fomentations.

a: Apply hot compress covered

by thinner dry towel.

b: To replace first hot c: Flip over entire

towel, cover fomentation application, then remove
with new hot towel. old towel from the top.

175
• Hot Towel Roll
A hot towel roll uses hot towels that do not need replenishing because the
entire roll is heated and the cooled outer layers of towel are gradually
removed. Hot towel rolls are helpful for chronic soft tissue conditions such
as a sprain or strain that is nearly resolved. They can also be employed,
adding more light friction with the towel roll, to help desquamate and
stimulate the skin (for instance, after cast removal).

Equipment:
• 3-4 towels (not too thick);
inner layer can be linen
• kettle
• water

Procedure:
• Lay the first towel down and
begin rolling it up very tightly:
the length depends on the size
Figure 7.8: Roll the towels in a
of the tissue being covered,
staggered formation to create
but the towel should be small
a funnel at the roll’s centre.
enough to roll easily.
• Leave 15 cm (6”) at the end and add the second towel; if the towels are
folded, leave the folded edge approximately 5 cm (2”) over the other
folded edge so that it will protrude when the roll is done.
• Continue in the same manner with the third and fourth towels.
• You should ultimately have a manageable roll with 1 end indented and
the folded edges protruding in a funnel-like arrangement.
• Slowly pour approximately 1 litre (1/4 gallon) of boiling water into the
centre of the roll until you feel the warmth reach the outside towel.
• Massage the body part with the towel roll, then roll the towels one at a
time onto the skin and roll off the cooling outer towels.

176
 Figure 7.9: Hot towel roll treatment.

a: Pour boiling water into the b: Massage the target area

centre of the towel roll. with the hot roll.

c: As the outer towel cools, d: Remove outer towel

unroll it onto the body part. and resume.

177
• Contrast Towels
This treatment is the application of a series of hot and cold towels to a
specific tissue to induce vascular flushing.
Contrast towels are helpful for stimulating local circulation and drainage.
They are especially effective for tissues that are healing and cannot
yet handle heavy applications, such as joint sprains, muscle strains and
post-surgical conditions that have started to resolve and are in the sub-acute
or early chronic stage of inflammation. Any contraindications to heat are
applicable to contrast towels.

Procedure:
• Use the same method as for fomentations (above), beginning with hot
towels and following with cold towels.
• The usual duration of the applications is 1-3 minutes for the hot (these
towels tend to lose their heat fairly quickly, especially as they are
applied to cooled skin) and 30-60 seconds for the cold.
• Repeat the process at least 3 times.
• Alternative heat:cold patterns may be used, as discussed in Chapter 4.

Figure 7.10: Contrast towels.

178
• Contrast Head Compresses
This treatment involves the use of contrast temperature compresses on the
head, face, or neck. Contrast head treatments are very helpful in addressing
congestion from colds, sinus problems, and from tension due to stress. They
can also be helpful for skin conditions such as acne. The effects of contrast
head compresses can be enhanced with a simultaneous warm foot bath.

Equipment:
• two basins, or a gel pack and a thermophore (hydrocollator pack may
be too heavy)
• hot water (about 40°C/104°F)
• cold water (1°C/34°F)
• several small towels

Procedure: The effects of

• Apply a hot compress contrast head
to the head for 3-5 compresses
minutes.
can be
• Place a cold compress
(a gel pack can be
enhanced with
included) to the head a simultaneous
for no longer than 1 warm foot
minute.
bath.
• Repeat the procedure
3-5 times.
• It is generally best
to finish with a cold
application.

179
• Contrast Chest Compresses
These treatments involve the use of contrast temperature compresses to the
chest. Contrast chest treatments are helpful with respiratory congestion,
lactation problems, and tender, congested breasts.

Equipment:
• two basins, or a gel pack and a thermophore (hydrocollator pack may
be too heavy)
• hot water (about 40°C/104°F)
• cold water (1°C/34°F)
• several small towels

Procedure:
• Place a fomentation over the chest for 3-5 minutes.
• Apply a cold compress for less than 1 minute.
• Repeat the applications 4-6 times.
• Generally end the treatment with cold.
• Dry the chest immediately, and make sure the person warms up
completely (under a blanket if necessary).

Figure 7.11: Contrast chest compresses.

180
• Heating Compress
Heating compresses use cold water. They are left on until the secondary
action of derivation occurs and blood flows back to the treated surface tissue
to warm it up. Remember that blood flow will always come from a congested
area first before coming from other parts of the body. It is in utilizing this
principle that heating compresses are so successful.

Heating compresses
use cold water.
Initially they have the
effects of cold, but
they are left on until
the secondary action
of derivation occurs.

These treatments help to relieve deep congestion by mobilizing circulation

towards the skin surface, and help to detoxify by promoting mild local
perspiration. This detoxification effect can be enhanced by adding cider
vinegar to the water.
A heating compress can be described as a cold double compress because the
cold cloth is covered with a dry one to preserve the heat that is being drawn
from the body into the underlying cloth. The dry cloth keeps the warmed air
trapped inside.
Heating compresses are best applied around the throat, around joints, to calf
muscles, and on the abdomen (where they can be used to address insomnia
and constipation). The primary goal is to relieve congestion, although there
is often a sedative/relaxation effect in the treated tissues. On the neck,

181
 Figure 7.12: Abdominal heating compress.

heating compresses are helpful for treating sore throats and laryngitis. For
earaches, a similar process can be followed, wrapping a cloth under the chin
to cover the ears and securing it with a pin or knot on the top of the head.

The compress is left on until it feels warm (up to 30 minutes). To achieve a

stronger effect you may decide to re-apply cold; after it warms again the
compress is left on for half an hour or removed for additional treatment
modalities. When employed for home care, the warmed compress can be
left on for up to 2 hours or overnight.

Equipment:
• linen or cotton cloth
• pail of cold water
• 1 large towel to cover the wet compress
• vinegar to enhance the stimulus (optional)

182
Procedure:
• Add any additives to the water, as desired.
• Fold 1 cloth (size of folds to match the target area) and wring it out well
in cold water. If the cloth is too wet the body may have to work too
hard to heat it up, possibly leading to a negative reaction.
• Apply the cloth quickly to the body part and cover snugly with a dry
towel.
• Leave the compress on until it feels warm. Another compress can be
applied (more stimulating), or the compress can be left on for a suitable
time period.
• Check with the client to make sure she or he feels the compress warming
up within 10 minutes from the initial, or any repeated, application.
• If the treated tissue does not warm up, this is considered a paradox
reaction and should be responded to accordingly (see Chapter 5).

With a heating
compress treatment, if
the treated tissue does
not warm up, this is
considered a
negative reaction
(paradox reaction).

183
Foot Baths

Foot baths involve submersion of the feet and legs up to the mid-calf using
warm, cold, or contrast temperatures.

• Warm Foot Bath

Warm foot baths can be used to help combat congestive headaches, to
enhance the drawing of blood away from congested body areas during
applications such as cold compresses or steams, and to warm up a chilled
body.

Equipment:
• basin/bucket large enough for feet and deep enough for the water
level to reach mid-calf
• water at 36°-38°C (96°-100°F)

Procedure:
• Have the client sit comfortably with her or his legs exposed to the knees
(or the lower body undressed for better sweating).
• Add selected additive(s) to the water, e.g. Epsom salts, mustard flour
(optional).
• Have the individual put her or his feet in the water.
• Cover the person with a cotton sheet or blanket for warmth or to enhance
perspiration, if desired.
• Apply a cold compress to the neck if needed to prevent overheating.
• You can do a massage in the water if specifically addressing a foot
concern.
• Leave the feet in for 5-20 minutes, adding hot water as needed to
maintain warmth; have the client move her or his feet to the edge of the
basin during the re-fill to avoid contact with the hot water.

184
 Figure 7.13: Foot bath treatment.

a: Fill bucket so water level is at client’s mid-calf.

b: When adding hot water to a warm foot bath,

make sure client’s legs are out of the way.

185
• You can finish with a cold rinse if the purpose is to increase
circulation.
• Thoroughly dry the feet and put on wool or cotton socks to avoid
chilling.

• Cold Foot Bath

Cold foot baths can be used to energize tired, achy feet and legs. A cold foot
bath can also be used unilaterally to address a specific problem requiring a
cold foot application, for example if there are sprains to intrinsic foot joints,
or to achieve contralateral effects in a casted foot/leg.

Equipment:
• large basin
• cold water: 4°-20°C (39°-68°F) – as cold as tolerable

Procedure:
• Fill the bucket with cold water.
• Submerge the client’s legs and feet in the water to mid-calf depth.
• Keep in the water for 10-120 seconds or until aching is felt.
• Remove from the water and dry thoroughly.
• Put on warm socks.
• Follow up with light exercise such as walking.

• Contrast Foot Bath

A contrast foot bath uses warm and cold temperatures to cause a flushing
effect and increase in local circulation. Contrast foot baths are helpful when
the person has sluggish metabolism or the fatigue/lethargy associated with
mild anemia or low blood pressure. These applications are commonly used
for late sub-acute or chronic injuries, chronically edematous feet, mild lower
limb circulation problems, and ‘tired legs.’

186
 Clients should be monitored well during contrast
foot baths, especially individuals who are
unused to hydrotherapy treatments, since nausea
can result from large temperature changes.

Equipment:
• 2 large basins
• warm (36°-38°C/97°-100°F) and cold (4°-20°C/39°-68°F) water
• cold compress
• kettle
• sheet and blanket

Procedure:
• Have the person disrobe from the knees or waist down.
• Check the pulse.
• The duration of the treatment is 3-5 minutes for warm, and 10-30
seconds for cold (or until aching is felt).
• Repeat the cycle at least 3 times beginning with warm and ending with
cold.
• Alternative heat:cold patterns may be used, as discussed in Chapter 4.
• Check the person’s pulse every 5 minutes, or more frequently if the
person has a vascular condition or diabetes.
• After the treatment, wipe off the feet, dry thoroughly, and put on warm
socks.
• People often need to rest afterward.

187
Tonic Friction Applications
Friction is mainly used as a stimulant and to prepare the body for cryotherapy
In this context the word friction is being used differently than in manual
therapy. The effects achieved depend on the intensity of the treatment. A
light scratching application causes slight contraction of small surface blood
vessels. A more energetic friction will cause surface vessels to contract
initially, and then dilate as blood flow returns to the skin. A strong vigorous
treatment will result in hyperemia of the skin and increased heat elimination.
Friction also exfoliates the skin. The term tonic refers to the stimulation of
a strengthening reaction – there is a resultant improvement in the skin’s
tone and its ability to withstand cold temperatures.
Cold mitten friction, dry brushing, and salt glows all employ friction. The
therapist can use these techniques to increase the client’s tolerance of more
intense cold treatments. They also improve the efficiency of the skin’s
elimination function.

The term tonic

refers to the
stimulation of a
strengthening
reaction.

188
• Cold Mitten Friction
A cold mitten friction is an application of cold water to the skin with friction,
using a wash mitt or small towel, to increase circulation to the skin. Such a
treatment stimulates skin circulation while being much milder on the heart
than other full body cold applications. This type of application is an excellent
means of training the vascular system to react positively to cold, of addressing
fatigue and lethargy, and of stimulating the skin after cast removal. Since
cold mitten friction enhances heat escape from the skin, it can be good for
reducing fevers. It can also be used to achieve visceral reflex effects
associated with brief cold applications.
This sort of treatment should never be used over
skin lesions or an open sore – the wound must be
carefully avoided. It is also important to ensure
that recent scar tissue is not damaged.

Equipment:
• natural fibre mitten or small towel folded around the hand
• bucket of cold water

Procedure:
• Ensure the client is warm and comfortable. This application is usually
done with the person lying down.
• Dip the mitt or towel in water and wring out well.
• Uncover the target tissue and rub vigorously, using moderate pressure.
• Cover the part immediately after it receives the application to avoid
chilling, but do not dry off. A film of water adhering to the skin induces
the skin temperature to rise gradually to re-warm the area. If the person
is debilitated, each body part can be friction-dried with a clean, dry
towel before the next is treated.

189
 Figure 7.14: Cold mitten friction.

Application Pattern:

Supine:
• Start with the foot, then move up the shin, then treat the thigh from
lateral to medial. The calf and posterior thigh can be treated in supine
position with the knee bent if desired.
• Treat the other leg in the same way.
• Friction the hand and up the arm, going from lateral to medial and
addressing both anterior and posterior surfaces.
• Treat the chest and abdomen, being sure to friction the abdomen in a
clockwise direction.
Prone:
• Do the posterior legs if not already done.
• Treat the upper back and the lower back, including the gluteals and
over the sacrum.

190
 4

8
1 2

7 6

Figure 7.15: Cold mitten friction full body treatment pattern.

191
• Dry Brushing
Dry brushing is the use of a dry, natural fibre brush to massage the body,
partially or completely, to directly stimulate the circulation of the skin.
This is a friction-based treatment that is done with brisk, circular, long
movements with more obvious pressure towards the heart than cold mitten
friction. Dry brushing is a stimulating treatment that is well suited to being
done in the morning as an overall tonic to the body. It helps to slough off
dead skin cells, making it a good choice after cast removal or for someone
who is bedridden, provided that the skin is not too fragile. It is also a good
treatment to help tone the skin in preparation for full body treatments, for
instance prior to or during a sauna to enhance perspiration. It is important
not to work on broken skin such as acne, inflamed or open lesions, or skin
that has been freshly shaven. Body areas with a lot of hair may be excessively
irritated by this type of treatment.

Dry brushing is a
stimulating treatment
that is well suited to
being done in the
morning as an overall
tonic to the body. Areas
of treatment should be
changed daily to avoid
acclimatizing, i.e., do
upper, lower, or full body
on alternating days.

192
 Figure 7.16: Dry brushing.

Equipment:
• natural fibre brush, bath mitten, or rough towel

Procedure:
• This treatment can be done with the client lying down or standing up.
• The brush is always used dry, not moistened.
• The direction of pressure is toward the heart.
• Areas of treatment should be changed daily to avoid acclimatizing,
i.e., do upper, lower, or full body on alternating days.
• The full body treatment should last 5 minutes maximum, or until
hyperemia results. Hyperemia is produced more quickly in the torso,

193
 while the limbs (especially lower) might not show much redness. Stop
brushing before irritation results, keeping in mind that the torso is more
easily irritated than the extremities. Hyperemia appears more readily
with repeated use as circulation improves.
• Brush the limbs from lateral to medial to acclimatize the tissue – the
inner surfaces are more sensitive.
• If the brushing feels irritating to the person, you can follow with a
soothing stroke with your other hand.

Application Pattern:

Supine:
• Use long, circular, arc-like movements.
• Start with the right foot and sole, then move to the shin, then the thigh
from exterior to interior. Use less pressure in the inner thigh region.
Repeat on the left leg. You can include the posterior leg or wait until the
client is prone.
• Brush up the right hand and arm (exterior to interior), then the left hand
and arm.
• Brush the chest toward the sternum.
• Brush the abdomen in a clockwise direction (mirror the direction of
peristaltic flow).

Prone:
• Do the posterior legs if not already done.
• Brush the upper and lower back, including the gluteals and over the
sacrum.

194
 5

3 4

9
1 2

10

8 7

Figure 7.17: Dry brushing full body treatment pattern.

195
• Salt Glow
A salt glow involves the application of slightly moistened salt to the body
using friction. Salt glows are excellent for increasing skin circulation and
stimulating cutaneous nerves. They are very effective for removing dead
cells and softening rough skin. These treatments help to gradually increase
people’s responsiveness to and tolerance of cold applications. If perspiration
is reduced or sluggish, a salt glow is a good method of stimulating the sweat
glands in preparation for a full body treatment like a sauna.
Salt glows should not be done on open wounds, including acne, or recent
scar tissue. Warn clients that a salt rub on recently shaven skin will sting, so
they should avoid shaving the target area(s) just prior to a treatment.

Equipment:
• small bowl and small amount of water
• salt: coarse, pickling, Epsom, or sea salt (some people find Epsom salt
less irritating); amount depends on the size of the person; 1-2 cups
• may use a massage table covered in a sheet or large towel, or a bath
tub – as a home care option, the person can do a salt glow while
standing in the tub, then run hot water for a salt bath
• wash cloth and small bucket, or shower stall (for washing off after
the treatment)

Procedure:
• Salt glows can be done with the client lying down, standing, or seated.
• Put in a bowl the amount of salt required to treat the target tissue(s).
• Moisten the salt in the bowl so that the salt sticks together slightly.
• Have the person standing comfortably on a towel or mat, or sitting on
a stool in the tub, or lying on the table.
• Place moistened salt between your hands and apply it to the body with
friction in a saw-like motion.

196
• Modify the pressure as indicated, e.g., use deeper pressure on fleshy
regions and less pressure on bony areas.
• Have the person rinse or shower with cool/cold water.
• If the treated skin shows signs of irritation, apply a mild moisturizer.

Application Pattern:

Supine:
• Begin with the legs, working from the feet to the hips.
• Treat the arms, beginning with the hands and working up to the
shoulders.
• Next do the chest and abdomen, applying pressure in a clockwise
direction on the abdomen.
Prone:
• Treat the back and gluteal area.
• Treat the posterior legs, working from the feet to the hips.

Figure 7.18a & b: Salt glows are applied with friction

in a saw-like motion.

197
Washings
A washing involves applying, and leaving, a thin film of water on the skin.
Leaving the water to evaporate from the skin surface intensifies the treatment
effect. Washings can be full body, partial, or done in a series.
The temperature of the water should be cold; however, cool temperatures
should be utilized when treating older people, young children, and clients
who are unable or unwilling to tolerate cold temperature. Warm or tepid
water can be used when fevers are accompanied by chills and aches.
Full body washings are considered the mildest form of all the hydrotherapy
treatments. Assuming temperature modifications are made if needed, there
are very few contraindications. These treatments can help to increase energy
levels (especially when done first thing in the morning) and to stimulate
temperature regulation. They can also be soothing, and, when used before
bed, can help with insomnia or restless sleep. Full body washings can be
helpful for poor circulation. Washings can also be used to help people
become more tolerant of cryotherapy treatments.

Figure 7.19:
Washing.

198
• Full Body Washing

Equipment:
• linen or rough cotton cloth, approximately 30 cm x 30 cm
• bucket of cold water
• for increased stimulation, add vinegar or salt

Procedure:

The following procedure describes the full body washing routine. Partial
applications would use the sections of this procedure that describe washing
of the body part(s) chosen for the treatment.
• The entire full body treatment is done very quickly to avoid excessively
chilling the client. It should take less than 2 minutes.
• Wring out the cloth well prior to the application.
Note: Wipe twice in the creases, e.g. inguinal crease, gluteal crease, axilla.

Application Pattern:
• Fold the cloth in four, securing it well in your hand.
• This treatment is often done with the client standing, but lying down is
easily accommodated.
• Beginning with the client’s right hand, quickly wash up the posterior
aspect of the arm to the right shoulder, then return to the hand via the
anterior surface, then medially up to the axilla – wipe twice.
• Turn the cloth and repeat with the client’s left arm.
• Rinse the cloth.
• Wipe the right then the left side of the neck.
• Wipe in a W form on the chest (avoid nipple contact).
• Turn the cloth and wipe under the breasts if appropriate.

199
 3 4

1 2

6
7

8 10 9

Figure 7.20: Full body washing treatment pattern.

200
• Rinse the cloth.
• Wipe clockwise around the abdomen.
• Rinse the cloth.
• Wipe the back and gluteals with brisk vertical movements.
• Rinse the cloth.
• Wipe one leg at a time: Wipe up the posterior aspect, down the lateral
side, up the anterior aspect, wipe twice in the inguinal crease, then wipe
down the medial side.
• Be sure the client rests for a while after the washing and is comfortably
warm to avoid post-treatment chilling.

• Abdominal Washing
Abdominal washings are a gentle method of reflexively stimulating the
intestines to ease constipation. They are also generally relaxing. Abdominal
washings done in bed just before sleep as self care can help address
insomnia.

Equipment:
• as for Full Body Washing

Procedure:
• Position the client supine with her or his knees flexed and supported to
relax the abdominal muscles.
• Beginning on the skin above the ileocecal valve in the lower right
abdominal quadrant, make clockwise motions 20-40 times.
• Refold and rinse the cloth often to keep it cool.
• Allow the client to rest and warm up afterward, using a blanket if
needed.

201
Thermophore
Thermophores are electrical fomentation devices that create moist heat.
They are available in various sizes. The thermophore’s flannel cover traps
moisture from the air and body surface, which creates a different, more
intense effect than a dry heating pad.
Thermophores are helpful for chronic soft tissue conditions such as achy,
tight muscles and for warming a chilled client by placing it on her or his
back or feet. A thermophore application on the back is very relaxing. For
many types of bodywork that involve treatment on a table with sheets, the
thermophore is ideal for warming the sheets prior to the client’s arrival. It is
also commonly used to cover a paraffin-waxed area to maintain the heat of
the wax treatment.
This treatment must be monitored in order to avoid burning as this type of
pack produces an intense heat. Never lay the thermophore under the client.

Equipment:
• electric thermophore
• keep flannel clean for hygienic reasons
• thin towel

Procedure:
• Place the warmed thermophore on the thin towel over the target tissue.
For more fragile clients, allow the fomentation to warm up on the
client.
• Do not let the client lie on the thermophore.
• Check for hyperemia and heat sensitivity by looking at and feeling the
skin under the thermophore from time to time during the treatment.
• Make sure the heat level is within the client’s tolerance.
• Remove the thermophore after 20-30 minutes maximum.
• You can wipe the skin with a cool cloth afterwards.

202
 Figure 7.21: Thermophore.

a: Always place a towel between the thermophore

and the skin.

b: Check the skin under the thermophore periodicallly.

203
Hydrocollator
A hydrocollator pack is a silica gel filled pack that is soaked in hot water to
provide prolonged moist heat. A hydrocollator pack is good in any situation
that requires penetrating heat, and is an especially good choice for conditions
such as hyperkyphosis that benefit from weight in addition to the heat – the
larger packs are somewhat heavy when wet. For the same reason, a
hydrocollator pack should not be used if the weight of the pack is excessive
for the person’s constitution or the tissue being treated.
New packs are dry, so soak them for one hour in tepid water, then heat them
in the hydrocollator unit. For home use they can be heated in a large pot.
The packs should not be allowed to dry out after use, as they tend to crack
and do not re-hydrate well. Between treatments, keep hydrocollator packs
covered in water in a heated hydrocollator unit, or frozen in a plastic bag.
They do not keep well at room temperature.

A hydrocollator
pack is good in any
situation that requires
penetrating heat,
and is an especially
good choice for
conditions such as
hyperkyphosis that
benefit from weight in
addition to the heat.

204
Equipment:
• professional hydrocollator heating unit or deep pot
• hydrocollator moist heat pack (they are available in various shapes
and sizes)
• keep water in unit refreshed and clean the unit regularly
• towels or commercial pack cover

Procedure:
• Let the pre-soaked pack warm up
in hot water for a minimum of 20
minutes.
• For applying this treatment at
home, bring a large pot of water
to boil, then turn the element off
and put the pack in, letting it heat
for 20 minutes.
• Fold a towel on the tissue to be
treated, making two layers.
• Wrap the gel pack in towels – 3-5
layers underneath and 1 on top, Figure 7.22: Always
or use a commercial pack cover. handle hydrocollator
packs with tongs.
• Lay the pack on client.
• If the client reports the application feels too hot, add layers of towels;
if the body part does not feel warm enough, remove a layer or two.
• Heat is given off for about 30 minutes, and the effects in the tissue can
continue for as much as an hour after the treatment.
• The treatment can last 10-30 minutes depending on the needs of the
tissue. Check the tissue frequently.
• The skin can be wiped with a cool cloth or compress afterwards.

205
 Figure 7.23: Hydrocollator packs.

a & b: Cervical hydrocollator pack treatment.

c & d: Lumbar hydrocollator pack treatment.

206
Paraffin Wax Bath
A paraffin wax bath involves the therapeutic application of melted paraffin
wax to the target tissue to create a deep, moist heat. The paraffin creates a
seal that prevents release of heated air from the skin surface. A fine layer of
perspiration forms under the wax that continues to conduct heat into the
tissue below the application, especially if there is thin plastic wrap and
another heat source (e.g., a thermophore or hydrocollator pack) on top of
the wax application.
Paraffin wax treatments are effective in addressing scar tissue and adhesions,
as well as trophic changes in skin. They are also effective in addressing stiff
joints when used in combination with exercise and/or massage. The heat
penetrates well into connective tissue structures. Never apply paraffin wax
directly over severe varicose veins.
Note: Paraffin preparations for
therapeutic use can be purchased
pre-mixed at a medical supply store
or plain paraffin can be found in
grocery and hardware stores. If you
get plain paraffin, it must be mixed
with mineral oil at an 8-9:1 ratio
(8 or 9 parts paraffin, 1 part mineral
oil). The mineral oil helps to prevent
cracking of the application, lowers
the melting temperature of the wax,
and prevents the wax from pulling
out hair. Paraffin wax alone has a
melting temperature of 55°C (130°F),
Figure 7.24:
but the therapeutic applications
Commercial paraffin
are applied at a temperature a few
wax bath unit.
degrees lower. Wax has low thermal
conductivity, which prevents burning
of the skin because it emits heat
more slowly than other agents.

207
Equipment:
• paraffin wax mixture
• commercial wax bath unit
• for home use, have a crock pot or double boiler (caution the client
about possible burning from touching the edges or bottom when
dipping the hands or feet into the pot)
• silicone brush
• plastic wrap
• towels
• additional heating source, e.g. thermophore (optional)

Procedure:
• Prepare the client for a possible tingling and drawing sensation
initially.
• With hands, elbows, and feet, the body part is dipped. Ensure cleanliness
of the treated part(s) to decrease the risk of bacterial build-up in the
wax pot, particularly if not using a commercial wax bath.
• For scars, or for shoulders and other areas of the body, the wax is
painted on.
• When dipping the hands, keep the fingers splayed to coat all surfaces
evenly and to avoid cracking.
• Dip or paint up to 10 layers.
• The initial layer should be the highest or widest to create the initial seal
with the skin.
• Wrap the area in plastic then in towels and leave for 20 minutes.
• A heat source can be added over or wrapped around the treated part to
intensify the effect of the application.

208
• The treatment is self-insulating because the first layer traps the air:
ideally you should not dip/paint the subsequent layers beyond the edge
of the first layer.
• The tissue will cool quickly after wax removal. It is helpful to exercise
and/or massage afterwards to prevent stiffening and to make use of the
increased mobility.
• The used wax can be used as an exercise tool for the hands by
manipulating it shaped as a ball.
• Never return used wax to the wax bath.

Note: A commercial
wax bath unit is
self-sterilizing. When it
is plugged in, it heats
up to 65°C (150°F)
and then cools down.
Exercise caution
whenever you
plug in a unit as
the temperature
will temporarily
increase to sterilizing
temperature.

209
 Figure 7.25: Paraffin wax bath dipping.

a: For dipping treatments, b: When dipping the hand,

assist the client to ensure no client’s fingers should be
contact with the unit’s sides. splayed for even coverage.

c: The used wax is a good exercise

tool for the hand.

210
 Figure 7.26: Paraffin wax painting.

a: Paraffin painting is ideal b: The initial layer is the

for scar treatments. largest.

c: Paint about 10 layers, then d: Cover the wax treatment

cover with thin plastic. with a hydrocollator pack.

211
Hot Stone Massage
Hot stone massage helps enhance the effects of deep or relaxing massage by
coupling heat with the massage techniques. Massaging with hot stones can
also reduce strain on the therapist’s hands, as not as much pressure is needed
to attain tissue depth. Therapists should choose the size of the stones based
on their own hand comfort and on the size of the body part being massaged.
The stones should be marble or basalt (lava rock) as these are non-porous
stones that retain heat especially well.
Hot stone massages are effective for inducing relaxation and for addressing
muscle pain and tension. This application requires that plenty of oil be used
to diminish friction on the skin. Essential oils can be added to the massage
oil to increase the relaxing effect. Many therapists also place crystals or
heated stones on the chakra, or energy, points to help balance the body.
Rest, definitely not strenuous activity, is recommended after a hot stone
massage, as is rehydration by drinking plenty of water.
Cold stones can be used as an energizer or when there is inflammation in the
soft tissue being massaged.

For hot stone

massage, the stones
should be marble
or basalt (lava
rock) as these are
non-porous
and retain heat
especially well.

212
 Figure 7.27: The hot stones heater can
be a commercial unit or a
suitable size electric cooker.

Equipment:
• massage table
• appropriate sheets or towels for draping
• hot stones unit
• tongs
• non-porous stones of various sizes
• oil
• additives (optional)
• chakra crystals (optional)

Procedure:
• Pre-heat the heating unit.
• Have the client lie on the table.
• Undrape the client.

213
• Remove suitable stones from the water unit with tongs.
• Always ensure the stones are not too hot for the individual.
• Place heated stones or crystals on the appropriate chakra positions
(optional). Some therapists place heated stones along the length of the
spine at the beginning of the treatment to generate warmth and
relaxation. Either type of pre-treatment use helps acclimatize the client
to the heat of the stones.
• Pour massage oil into your hands and carefully pick up stones, oiling
them as well.
• Perform the massage, turning the stones often to maintain the heat level
applied to the tissue.
• Change stones depending on the size of the body part being massaged.
• After every treatment, wash the stones with soap and then boil them for
a few minutes. Tea tree oil can be added to the water as a disinfectant.

Figure 7.28: Pre-treatment hot stones placement options.

a: Chakra placement. b: Spinal row placement.

214
 Figure 7.29: Hot stone massage.

a: Select smaller stones for

a treatment area like the face.

b & c: Hot stone massage of the back.

215
‘Sauna’ is the only Finnish word
found in the English language.
It is believed that there is one
sauna for every three citizens of
Finland. When in a sauna, Finns
have traditionally been swatted
with a vihta, a bunch of birch
twigs that is about 40 cm long.
Slapping the skin in the sauna
promotes blood circulation
and cleanses the skin. People
strike the skin not to the point of
pain, but just to make the skin
tingle. The vihta is used in the
summer so the birch boughs are
fresh. People should shower or
swim after a sauna. Many Finns
traditionally cut a hole in the
ice of a lake and jumped into
the water, or rolled in the snow if
there was no lake nearby.
 Chapter Eight
Large, Intense
Hydrotherapy
Treatments
Learning Objectives
After learning the contents of this chapter, the reader should be able to:

∙ demonstrate an understanding of suitable uses for the

treatments
∙ demonstrate awareness of the intensity level of the
treatments and when a client may need a medical opinion
∙ list the necessary equipment for each application
∙ explain the appropriate procedure for each treatment
∙ incorporate these treatments into clinical practice or
workplace use as appropriate
∙ make suitable recommendations for use as home care, or
in other locations where a client may have access to the
necessary equipment, for example at a spa or fitness club
Russian Jews who moved to the United
States developed their own type of
bathhouse, called the shvitz bawd or sweat
bath (shvitz = sweat). The mikhvah were
Jewish ritual baths used for various religious
and physical purposes. In the shvitz,
cupping was used to relieve many physical
ailments; bahnkes were glass cups applied
to the skin by suction. A rubdown often
followed the shvitz. The rubdown was called
the plaitza, and used soap-covered oak
leaves. People would finish up with a steam
room or a dip in a pool.

Treatments Page

Steam Treatments 223

Sauna 223
Steam Cabinet 226
Facial Steam 229
Baths 232
Sitz Baths 235
Whirlpool 240
Spray 242
Chapter 8: Large, Intense Hydrotherapy Treatments

The treatments in this chapter involve larger scale, more intense hydrotherapy
applications. Some of the treatments mention the option of incorporating
additives – additives are discussed in Chapter 9.

Introduction: Large Scale Hydrotherapy Treatments

Large treatments elicit a variety of responses that involve a composite of

local, reflex and systemic effects. Factors like full body temperature
exposure, water immersion, and steam environments mean that these
applications are more intense, have stronger effects than local applications,
and are usually more aggressive in therapeutic intent. They are widely used
to detoxify the body and improve the skin’s ability to eliminate through
perspiration. In some cultures saunas, steams or sweats are integral to the
concept of physical and spiritual cleansing.

Factors like full body

temperature exposure,
water immersion, and
steam environments mean
that these applications
are more intense, have
stronger effects than local
applications, and are
usually more aggressive
in therapeutic intent.

219
The intensity of such large scale treatments dictates that they should never
be rushed. The time spent in and out of these applications must be kept at a
quiet, calm, even pace. Each individual will react differently, so there are no
absolutes as to how much time should be spent or what temperatures must
be used – consider the information provided in this chapter as guidelines,
but modifications to reduce treatment intensity are often appropriate.
In using these treatments in clinical practice and as home care
recommendations, it is important to recognize that they are not suitable for
everyone. The more intense or aggressive a treatment protocol is, the larger
the number of individuals for whom it may be too intense or aggressive. As
we have discussed in Chapter 6, there are conditions that contraindicate
temperature therapy, especially large scale applications, and those that
require substantial adaptation of the chosen treatment. Sometimes
medications significantly change physiological reactions to temperature
therapies. It is important to recognize such situations, including those that
require a medical opinion.
The conditions that most commonly raise concerns related to temperature
therapy are:
• cardiovascular conditions
• respiratory conditions
• renal disorders
• diabetes
• pregnancy
• epilepsy
In addition to these, there are numerous other conditions that involve
considerations about temperature tolerances, sensory impairment, stages of
healing, and so on. There is also the question of where the person’s condition
falls along the mild-moderate-severe continuum. Mild hypertension, for
example, may be fine for many treatments, whereas a moderate case could
require substantial treatment adaptation, and a severe or unstable case may
contraindicate most temperature therapy applications, especially those

220
covered in this chapter. When in doubt it is important to seek an expert
opinion about whether a particular treatment plan is safe or appropriate for
the individual case.

General Procedures for Large Scale or Full Body Applications

• Monitor the pulse: The pulse is taken before, during, and after the
treatment.
Before treatment:
The client should be at rest. The maximum
Allow the client to relax first to acceptable
get an accurate reading; she or
he may have rushed to the heart rate
appointment or feel anxious increase from
about the treatment, etc.
the resting
During treatment: pulse is 170
The pulse is usually taken minus the age
every 5 minutes. of the client.
During a full body treatment
take the carotid pulse because
the neck is most easily accessed.
The maximum acceptable heart
rate increase from the resting
pulse is 170 minus the age of
the client.
After treatment:
The pulse will usually be slightly higher than the starting rate, but
should be lower than during the treatment.
• Monitor the blood pressure, especially with more vulnerable clients or
those whose capacity to tolerate the treatment being given is uncertain.

221
• As discussed in detail in Chapter 5, observe the person closely for
signs of discomfort or adverse reactions. Do not leave her or him
unattended.
• Replenish cooling elements such as cold neck or forehead compresses
frequently during heat treatments.
• Give the client frequent sips of water to avoid dehydration.
• Always remember to have the client dry well afterward so she or he
does not become chilled. Cover with a blanket if needed.
• Large scale treatments, especially hot ones, should be followed by a
rest period before activity or manual therapy.

Monitor:
• pulse
• blood pressure
• any signs of
discomfort
• adverse reaction
indicators

Replenish:
• cold compresses
• water

222
Steam Treatments
Full body steams use hot water in its gaseous form to increase the core
temperature of the body, promoting detoxification by encouraging profuse
perspiration. They also promote skin health through increased blood flow to
the body surface. Steams are effective at loosening mucus, so are helpful
for colds and sinus conditions. Steam treatments are also used to induce
physical relaxation, particularly after work-outs, athletics and other types of
vigorous exertion.
Caution must be exercised with individuals who have cardiovascular or
lung disease – it depends on the severity of the condition but a steam
application is frequently too intense. People with diabetes may also need to
avoid steams or have the treatment modified because of peripheral vascular
impairment. Steam treatments are often inadvisable for pregnant clients
because of the increased internal body temperature.

• Sauna
Sauna rooms are built of wood to absorb moisture from the air. This moisture
absorption creates a dryer atmosphere than in other types of steams, allowing
for easier sweating. Water is poured over heated stones 1-2 times during the
treatment to increase the air temperature (or sprayed on electrically heated
stones). The most intense heat is found at the top bench level of the sauna.
Sitting up also creates a more powerful heat experience, so it is better for the
person who is a beginner, is not comfortable with intense heat, or wants to
gradually increase the stimulus, to begin lying down or sitting on the bottom
levels. A cold compress around the neck also helps moderate the heat.
A sauna is not a rushed affair. The method is to go through repeated periods
of heating up, cooling down, and resting (to stabilize the heart rate and
blood pressure). As the body heats up, the intensity of the corresponding
cold application is increased. By the third heat period, the body is very hot
and can possibly withstand a roll in snow or a plunge in a lake. Ideally, the
full treatment occurs over 2 hours with a half hour in total actually spent in
the sauna.

223
Equipment:
• towels: one to sit on, one to dry off with, and one for a neck compress
(optional)
• buckets, ladle
• drinking water
• loofah to exfoliate the skin (optional)

Procedure:
• Do not rush the treatment; each person goes at her or his own pace.
• Quiet is encouraged.
• Have the person take a cleansing shower and pat dry before entering
the sauna.
• Check the person’s pulse before the sauna begins and at regular
intervals during the treatment.
• Give sips of water throughout the treatment.
• The first heat period lasts 5-15 minutes or until intense sweating
begins.
• The next step is a cool/cold shower.
• The shower is followed by a 10 minute rest period.
• Have the client return to the sauna; she or he can sit/lie higher if
desired.
• Repeat the process twice, having the person exfoliate with a loofah
during the final sauna if desired.
• The final heat period is followed by a final cold shower.
• It is important to complete the treatment with a rest period.

224
 Figure 8.1: In the sauna, it is important to drink water to
avoid dehydration. Cold neck compresses can help prevent
overheating. Sitting on a lower bench, or lying down,
reduces the treatment intensity.

225
• Steam Cabinet
A steam cabinet is an individual steam treatment unit. It seats one person
with her or his head remaining outside the cabinet. Its benefits are similar to
those of a sauna, but as an individualized treatment its effects can be more
easily controlled and customized.

Equipment:
• steam cabinet
• additives (optional)
• water to fill the steam unit
• towels: to cover the sitting area and the neck opening, for neck or
forehead compresses, and for draping and drying the client
• drinking water
• non-glass cup and straw

Procedure:
• Take the client’s resting pulse.
• Have the cabinet ready (pre-heated, seat height checked, water level
checked).
• Add ingredient(s) to the water if desired.
• Place towels on and over the front of the seat to protect the backs of the
legs.
• Have a mat or towel on the floor for the client’s feet.
• Assist the person into the cabinet.
• Apply a cold compress to the neck and/or forehead as needed.
• Cover the neck opening with dry towels to prevent leakage of steam.
• Give sips of water every 5-10 minutes or when requested.
• Change the compress(es) when no longer cold, and wipe the face.

226
• Check the client’s carotid pulse since it is accessible.
• Assist the client out after 10-30 minutes, or sooner should the client
feel uncomfortable or dizzy. The average treatment time is 20 minutes;
5-10 minutes is stimulating, 15-20 minutes is sedating.
• Give a washing or have the person take a cool/cold shower.
• Post-treatment rest is recommended.

Figure 8.2: When setting up the steam cabinet, use a

thick towel to cover the seat and protect the client’s legs
from the heating unit located under the seat. Place another
towel or a mat on the floor for the client’s feet.

227
 Figure 8.3: Steam cabinet treatment.

a: Start by seating the client b: Use a large towel to make

comfortably and applying a a seal between the cabinet
cold neck compress. opening and the compress.

c: Provide sips of
water to maintain
hydration.

228
• Facial Steam
A facial steam involves the use of water in gaseous form on the face and
upper torso, with the steam being breathed in through the nose and mouth.
Facial steams are useful for easing respiratory congestion by helping to
loosen mucus in sinuses, bronchial passages, and lungs. They are often
combined with essential oils such as eucalyptus to achieve these effects.
They also help facilitate expectoration, especially when combined with
tapotement. Facial steams are inappropriate for serious respiratory diseases
involving reduced gaseous exchange in the lungs, such as emphysema.

Equipment:
• pot
• large sheet and blanket
• wooden grid (improvise with wooden spoons or something similar,
if necessary)
• additives (optional)
• stool and table
• boiling water
• towels (to cover pot; as a compress for back of neck)

Procedure:
• Have the individual disrobe down to the waist to facilitate sweating,
then cover her or him with a sheet or towel.
• Have a pot of hot water ready and add any appropriate ingredients.
• It is best to have a grid over the top of the pot: sometimes people feel
faint, and the grid prevents any possibility of burning from inadvertent
contact with the pot.
• Place a towel over the whole pot: This towel can be rolled back and
forth by the client to adjust the intensity of the steam being released.

229
• It is best if the client is seated on a stool and the pot is placed close in
front of the client on a low table.
• Have the client lean over the pot, and drape a large sheet and blanket
over the client’s head and upper body as well as the pot.
• Have the person stay in the steam for up to 20 minutes, allowing for ‘air
breaks’ if necessary.
• Apply a cold compress to the back of the neck if the client desires, or if
there is a history of headaches.
• Wash off the face and torso with cool water and encourage rest.
• Avoid chilling.
• If massaging after, it is good to focus on the sinuses and chest, using
vibration, shakings, and tapotement.

Figure 8.4: Preparing the pot.

a: For safety, use a wooden b: A folded towel allows

grate or spoons. adjustment of steam intensity.

230
 Figure 8.5: Facial steam treatment.

a: Make sure the client b: With the client’s face over

understands the treatment. the pot, cover with a towel.

c: The client’s upper body is d: Check on the client’s

‘tented’ over the pot. comfort regularly.

231
Baths
In a bath, the entire body is immersed in water except for the head. A bath
is good for inducing relaxation, and is an ideal medium for using therapeutic
additives. Epsom salts and essential oils are among the many types of
substances that can be added to bath water. Additives are discussed in
Chapter 9.

• Hot Baths
Hot bath temperatures should be between 36° and 38°C (97°-101°F).
Although cooler than the usual heat range, this temperature has the effects
of hot when used for a full body immersion. Prolonged submersion in water
that is too hot can be debilitating. An exception is the Epsom salts bath,
where the temperature can be as high as 39°-44°C (102°-111°F). Careful
monitoring of the pulse rate and intake of liquids during hot baths is
important, particularly with individuals who are weak, old, or very young,
or who have cardiovascular problems. With cardiovascular conditions where
use of baths is appropriate, adjustments can be made by modifying the
temperature and/or lowering the water level to below the level of the heart,
and by allowing the water to drain at the end of the treatment so that pressure
on blood vessels normalizes before the person gets out of the tub.

Careful monitoring of
the pulse rate and intake
of liquids during hot baths
is important, particularly
with individuals who
are weak, old, or very
young, or who have
cardiovascular problems.

232
 With cardiovascular conditions where use
of baths is appropriate, adjustments can be
made by modifying the temperature and/or
lowering the water level to below the level of
the heart, and by allowing the water to drain
at the end of the treatment so that pressure
on blood vessels normalizes before the
person gets out of the tub.

• Contrast Baths
Contrast baths are helpful for addressing sluggish circulation, fatigue,
lethargy and depression. Large scale contrast baths require careful
monitoring, particularly if there are any cardiovascular concerns, because
of the increase in vascular activity. The hot application should be 38°-43°C
(100°-110°F) and the cold 5°-13°C (40°-55°F).

General Equipment:
• deep bath tub
• contrast baths require two baths or pools
• bath pillow
• towels

233
General Procedure:
• Prepare the tub(s) with the appropriate temperature water.
• Add any additives.
• For a hot bath, have the person sit in the tub for 15-20 minutes. A cold
compress around the neck can be used if needed.
• Hot baths are best followed by a cool/cold wash or shower unless
further sweating is required.
• For a contrast bath, the person generally sits in the hot water for 3-5
minutes and in the cold plunge for less than 1 minute – this cycle is
repeated twice or more. Variations of this cycle, as outlined in Chapter
4, may be appropriate.
• Be sure the client is dry after the treatment to avoid chilling.
• Rest should generally follow any intense heat treatment.

Figure 8.6: Client care during the bath treatment.

a: Ensure comfort and b: Monitor the radial

hydration. pulse.

234
Sitz Baths
A sitz bath immerses the body from navel to mid-thigh with the upper body
and limbs left out of the water. Sitz baths can be warm/hot, cold, or contrast
treatments. They are mainly used to treat the abdominopelvic area including
the urinary, reproductive, and lower digestive organs. There is an inexpensive
home care version that sits on the
toilet seat and is commonly used to
treat the perineum after childbirth.
Note: A warm foot bath can be
given in conjunction with a
hot sitz bath to minimize pelvic
congestion.

General Equipment:
Figure 8.7: Home care
• sitz bath/large bucket/bathtub perineal sitz bath.
• towels: for compress, if
required; for drying off
• large blanket or sheet
• footstool/foot bath

General Procedure:
• The client can keep the upper body clothed to prevent chilling or can be
wrapped in a large towel or a blanket.
• Check the resting pulse before the treatment and at intervals as needed
for good monitoring.
• Check the water temperature – see Baths above.
• Using a bathtub: the person’s legs can be above the water level on a
plastic stool in the tub with the arms along the tub rim, or the legs and
arms can rest on the edges of the tub or the individual can sit sideways
in the tub with the arms out and the legs dangling or on a stool.

235
• Explain the procedure, particularly the positioning.
• Assist the client into the sitz bath if needed.
• Leave the client in for the time specified – see Baths above.
• The person may need to rest afterward.

• Warm Sitz Baths

Warm sitz baths promote circulation, help to decongest the abdominal
viscera, relax muscle tension, and increase circulation to the skin. They are
helpful for conditions such as hemorrhoids, dysmenorrhea (painful
menstruation), and for postpartum perineal care.

Figure 8.8: Commercial sitz bath.

236
Equipment:
• warm water at 36°-38°C (97°-100°F)
• Epsom salts or cider vinegar can be added to the bath for
detoxification

Procedure:
• Apply a cold compress to the neck if necessary.
• Cover the client’s upper body with a sheet/blanket.
• A warm foot bath can be done in conjunction with the sitz bath.
• The treatment lasts approximately 10-20 minutes (shorter duration for
a tonic effect; longer for a sedative effect).
• The treatment can be finished with a cool/cold wash by pouring water
over the bathed area, or with a quick cool shower.

• Cold Sitz Baths

Cold sitz baths are brief. They are helpful for increasing blood flow into the
abdominopelvic contents for conditions such as constipation and
hemorrhoids. They are also used for menorrhagia (abnormally heavy
menstrual bleeding) and following childbirth. Cold sitz baths should be
avoided during active bladder or kidney infections.

Equipment:
• cold water at 12°-21°C (53°-70°F)

Procedure:
• Ensure the client is warm before the treatment begins.
• Cover the upper body with a blanket during the treatment.
• Leave the person in the bath for 10-60 seconds.
• Follow with rest or massage.

237
 Figure 8.9: Sitz bath options in a regular tub.

a: Seated sideways.

b: Feet on tub rim. c: Feet on plastic stool.

238
• Contrast Sitz Baths

Contrast sitz baths promote circulation in the abdominopelvic area. They

are particularly helpful with constipation, hemorrhoids, and postpartum
care. They can be used post-surgically to promote internal healing once the
incision is healed and any vaginal bleeding, if present, has stopped.

Equipment:
• 2 sitz baths or big buckets
• water at 36°-38°C (97°-100°F) and 12°-13°C (54°-56°F)
• foot bath (optional)
• sheet and blanket

Procedure:
• If the person is chilled, do a warm foot bath first.
• Assist the client into the tubs each time.
• The duration of the application is warm for 3 minutes, then cold for 30
seconds.
• Repeat the process 3-5 times.
• You may not need to cover the person when she or he is in the cold sitz
bath because of its short duration.
• Generally this treatment should be followed by rest.

239
Whirlpool

A whirlpool uses air or water jets in a tub to agitate warm/hot water against
the submerged body part(s). It can be a full body or partial treatment.
Whirlpools are helpful for increasing overall circulation. They are commonly
used as a sedative to relax the individual and for warming up or soothing
tissues before or after stretching, exercise, or massage. Arthritic joints, muscle
stiffness, and overall tension can be addressed by a whirlpool treatment.
Whirlpools can also use cold and contrast temperatures, comparable to those
given above for sitz baths. Adjustments to the heat:cold ratio can be made
(discussed in Chapter 4). Individuals with multiple sclerosis can benefit from
cool submersion applications and a whirlpool can be used in milder cases.
The use of whirlpools should be carefully considered for anyone who has
cardiovascular conditions, including high or low blood pressure. The
temperature may need to be adjusted, the size of the application modified,
and for clients with mild/moderate cardiac problems, a suitable treatment
may require adjusting the water level to below the heart.

Equipment:
• whirlpool
• drinking water, non-glass cup
• cold water and bucket for compresses
• large towel to drape and dry client; small towel for compress
• bath pillow
• additives (optional)
Procedure:
• Take the client’s resting pulse.
• Prefill the tub to the desired level and temperature. This is generally
40°-43°C (104°-109°F), but with cardiac or vascular concerns 32°-35°C
(90°-95°F) may be more appropriate.
• Add any ingredients.

240
• Place the seat in the appropriate position.
• Adjust the jets to the desired height and intensity.
• Assist the client into the whirlpool and position comfortably.
• Place cold compresses around the neck.
• Turn on the jets after the client is in the water.
• The treatment generally lasts 10-25 minutes – this amount of time is
relaxing; less time is stimulating.
• Check the pulse regularly.
• Change the compress as needed.
• With hot applications give sips of water frequently.
• After the appropriate time, turn off the jets and assist the client out. For
clients with cardiovascular or motor impairments, let the water out of
the tub before helping the client out.
• Prepare a cool/cold shower or full body washing.
• Disinfect the tub after each use.

Figure 8.10a & b: With whirlpool treatments, keep a close

check on water temperature and client comfort.

241
Spray
A spray is similar to a shower, but the spray of water is administered by the
therapist. Sprays are more aggressive treatments than showers because the
therapist fans or jets the water to increase the percussion aspect of the water
pressure. The pressure is not as forceful as a high power jet and should not
be uncomfortable or painful. Sprays can be full body applications or directed
at a specific body part or tissue area. They can be used to help prepare the
body for more aggressive treatments, or to improve an individual’s tolerance
of cryotherapy.
Cold and contrast sprays increase blood flow to the body surface, stimulating
the skin. They also act as an overall tonic, increasing energy and alertness.
The cold water should be 10°-15°C (50°-60°F). For people who are unused
to or dislike cold, the temperature can start at 15°-25°C (60°-80°F) and then
be reduced.

Figure 8.11: Spray treatment.

242
For contrast sprays you must have two showers, or nozzles with separate
temperature controls, or know exactly how to go back and forth between the
two desired temperatures. The hot component is 36°-38°C (97°-100°F) and
the cold is 12°-15°C (54°-59°F).
Tepid and hot sprays are relaxing and help address muscle fatigue. Tepid
water is between 25°-33°C (80°-92°F), while hot is 38°-41°C (100°-105°F).

Equipment:
• shower (two for contrast treatments) with a shower head or nozzle in
the control of the therapist
• stool, if required
• towels for drying

Procedure:
• Adjust the water to the appropriate temperature.
• Have the client seated or standing depending on which body part is
being treated, e.g., seated for the back, standing for legs.
• Spray the water on the target tissue, gradually increasing the flow
pressure to the desired volume.
• A cold spray lasts 30 seconds to 3 minutes.
• Tepid sprays last 4-6 minutes.
• Hot spray treatments last between 1 and 6 minutes.
• Contrast spray treatments generally have a heat:cold ratio of 3 minutes
hot to 1 minute cold, although this can be modified as discussed in
Chapter 4.
• Monitor the client for headache or dizziness, especially with full body
applications.

243
 “ The cure for
anything is salt
water – sweat,
tears, or the sea.”

Isak
Dinesen
 Chapter Nine

Additives

Learning Objectives
After learning the contents of this chapter, the reader should be able to:

∙ explain different methods by which aromatherapy oils can

be used
∙ describe the effects of some commonly used essential oils
∙ list some conditions with which the use of essential oils is
appropriate
∙ describe how and when to use mustard, ginger, oatmeal
and baking soda as temperature therapy additives
∙ explain some of the key functions of magnesium in the
human body
∙ explain the primary methods by which Epsom salts and
apple cider vinegar are used therapeutically
∙ list some uses for castor oil
∙ describe how to apply castor oil compresses and castor
oil paste
Hippocrates (460-375 B.C),
the Greek father of modern
medicine, is also the father
of thalassotherapy, therapy
by bathing in sea water. He
discovered the reduced risk
of infection and the relief of
pain after using sea water
on wounds. He taught that
water could be used both
as a tonic and as a sedative.
Chapter 9: Additives

Herbs, salts and plant extracts have been used in baths and other water
treatment practices for centuries. Adding a substance to a hydrotherapy
application can enhance its effects. In this chapter we will consider common
additives that are readily available: essential oils, mustard, Epsom salts,
and apple cider vinegar. We will also look briefly at castor oil, which is not
technically an additive but is a commonly used temperature therapy
substance. In choosing to incorporate any of these substances in clinical
practice or home care, it is important that only high quality products be
used to ensure their therapeutic value.

Essential Oils

During the Great Plague of the Middle Ages,

medical practitioners carried walking sticks with
a cassolette (perforated container) filled with
aromatics. These plant materials acted as personal
antiseptics, and would be held up to the nose when
visiting any contagious cases. Whether true or not,
it has been widely reported that these medical
practitioners were virtually immune to the Plague.

Essential oils are the volatile oils distilled from plants. A variety of plant
parts, such as the flower, leaves, fruit or roots, can be used for extracting the
oil. Essential oils enter the body through the skin and the respiratory tract
and can produce a number of different effects. Many also have antiseptic
properties. In their pure form they can be very potent and should always be
well diluted when applied to the body, never neat.

247
Essential oils can be employed in temperature therapy in a variety of ways.
They can be used individually, or two or three oils can be blended together
to enhance their therapeutic properties. Baths, inhalations, and compresses
are the temperature therapy applications that lend themselves best to using
essential oils as additives. In a full body bath, only 5-7 drops are necessary
for the oil to have a therapeutic effect. Foot or hand baths require only 2-3
drops. For a shower, the usage is a little different. Run the shower a little
hotter than normal to heat up the bathtub and create steam. After the water
has run for a couple of minutes, reduce the heat, cover the drain, and put 7
or 8 drops of the essential oil(s) into the shower stream as the water descends.
Enter the shower and inhale deeply for several minutes, then allow the water
to drain. Alternatively, this procedure can be done at the end of the shower.

Essential oils are the volatile oils

distilled from plants. They enter
the body through the skin and
the respiratory tract and can
produce a number of different
effects. Baths, inhalations, and
compresses are the temperature
therapy applications that lend
themselves best to using essential
oils as additives.

For an inhalation, 2-3 drops of an essential oil can be put on a tissue and
inhaled during a treatment. For a more aggressive inhalation, the oil(s) can
be coupled with steam. Bring 2 cups of water to a boil, allow it to cool
slightly, then add 2-5 drops of oil. Have the person inhale the vapours for
5-10 minutes. Putting a towel over the individual’s head envelops the steam
and increases the concentration of the oil.

248
 Figure 9.1:
To prepare a steam
inhalation, add 2-3
drops of an essential oil
such as eucalyptus to
boiling water.

To prepare a compress, mix ½ litre (2 cups) of water and 5-7 drops of

essential oil. The water can be hot or cold depending on the purpose of the
treatment. Soak a piece of linen or cotton in the mixture, wring it out, and
place it on the target area. Remove when the hot compress is cooled or the
cold compress is heated to body temperature.

Essential oils can have powerful

effects, so it is important to be cautious
when using or recommending them.
Unless you are trained as an
aromatherapist, you should avoid utilizing
these oils in more complex prescriptions or
case scenarios. When in doubt, err on the
side of caution and refer the client for more
expert advice. Without additional expertise,

249
practitioners should avoid using essential oils altogether if the individual is
undergoing chemotherapy, is pregnant, has high or low blood pressure, or
experiences epileptic seizures.

It is also important to realize that, regardless of the general usage of an oil,

scents will have individual emotional effects – aromatherapy must be chosen
for the person receiving the treatment. For instance, clary sage is a commonly
used oil for mood elevation, but if the person doesn’t like the smell of clary
sage it will not have a soothing effect. Similarly, an oil could have a negative
association. A former client once told me she didn’t like the smell of
lemongrass because it reminded her of lemon-scented cleaning products
and therefore housework. People can also have atypical physical reactions
to essential oils.

It is important to realize
that, regardless of the
general usage of an
oil, scents will have
individual physical
and emotional effects.

There is a list of commonly used essential oils in the box below. Peppermint,
rosemary, tea tree, and the citrus oils (orange, lemon, lemongrass, lime,
grapefruit, etc.) are all refreshing and stimulating oils. Tea tree is a wonderful
antifungal oil. Eucalyptus is invigorating and is also an effective decongestant
and expectorant that is widely used to relieve cold symptoms. Black pepper,
cinnamon, and ginger are examples of warming oils, which are helpful for
joint and muscle aches. Clary sage, as mentioned above, is widely used for

250
depression. Lavender is a special oil, as it can be blended with most other
oils and works to enhance their qualities. On its own, lavender is calming,
as is chamomile. Ylang-ylang and sandalwood are also soothing oils, but
they have pungent aromas and can cause headaches if overused. Two very
good oils for female concerns, such as menstrual cramps and premenstrual
syndrome, are rose and geranium. True rose essential oil is very expensive;
geranium is a more affordable substitute.

common essential oils and their effects

oil effect

black pepper warming

chamomile soothing
cinnamon warming
citrus oils refreshing, stimulating
clary sage mood elevating
eucalyptus invigorating, decongestant
geranium female hormone balancing
ginger warming
lavender calming; enhancing other
oils’ effects
peppermint refreshing, stimulating
rose female hormone balancing
rosemary refreshing, stimulating
sandalwood sedating
tea tree stimulating, anti-fungal
ylang-ylang soothing

251
Epsom Salts

Epsom salts is a preparation of magnesium

sulphate, named in the 18th century for the town
of Epsom in southern England where the salts were
originally obtained from a local mineral spring.

Epsom salts is widely used to ease stress, reduce headaches, improve sleep,
decrease muscle tension and soreness, and detoxify the body. A large
functional component of Epsom salts is magnesium, an element that is vital
to many of the body’s physiological functions.

Modern farming methods do not emphasize crop rotation, a practice that

helps maintain mineral balance in the soil. As a result, the foods we eat
often contain less magnesium than is required for optimal body health.

Magnesium helps regulate electrolyte levels and is necessary for good

cardiovascular and nervous system function. Its role in calcium regulation
is not well publicized but magnesium is vital in skeletal and heart muscle
contraction and in healthy blood clotting. It also plays a role in stress
management and mental health, since it is important in the production and
maintenance of serotonin (a neurochemical involved in balancing moods).

Diffusion through the skin is often a more efficient method for magnesium
absorption (www.epsomsaltcouncil.org) because some foods and medications
inhibit optimal assimilation of magnesium through the digestive tract.
Epsom salts baths, then, are a good option for increasing the body’s
magnesium level.

Epsom salts can be used in a variety of temperature therapy applications.

For a compress, mix 250 ml (1 cup) of Epsom salts with 2 litres (½ gallon)

252
 Diffusion through the skin is
often a more efficient method
for magnesium absorption
because some foods and
medications inhibit optimal
assimilation of magnesium
through the digestive tract.

of warm water and place on or wrap around the sore area. Add 250 ml
(1 cup) of Epsom salts to a foot bath or 500 ml (2 cups) to a hot full body
bath, and soak for 15-20 minutes to help detoxify and soothe. The person
should shower or rinse off afterward. Epsom salts baths are often
recommended following exercise or manual treatments like massage therapy.

Figure 9.2a & b: The classic Epsom salts application is a hot

bath, to which is added 2 cups of Epsom salts.

253
Apple Cider Vinegar

Apple cider vinegar is another popular additive. It detoxifies, purifies,

promotes digestion, and decreases arthritic pain. Instead of using Epsom
salts, use 250-500 ml (1-2 cups) of apple cider vinegar in a warm tub. It can
also be added to heating compresses, hot towel rolls and fomentations.

Ginger

Ginger is a warming substance that can be applied by using its essential oil,
or its root grated fresh or in dried powder form. Ginger water is widely used
to address the symptoms of colds and bronchitis through increasing sweating
and reducing phlegm production. It also helps to increase circulation and
detoxify the body, and is used to address pain, stiffness and cramps. Ginger
also decreases injury healing time and helps to boost the immune system.

To make ginger water you will need a large heat maintaining pot – an
enamelled pot is ideal. Have ginger powder (or grated ginger), small cotton
towels, a large thick towel, and a cotton or cheese cloth bag available. Boil
about 4 litres (1 gallon) of water. Place 15 ml
(1 tbsp) of ginger for every litre of water into the
cotton bag or cheese cloth. Tie it closed snugly but
not so tightly that water cannot run through the
ginger. After the water boils, reduce it to a simmer
and place the ginger bag into the water. It should
simmer for about 5 minutes – do not let the water
re-boil once the ginger has been added.

For the easy creation of a compress, take a small towel and fold it into thirds
lengthwise, placing the middle in the hot ginger water and leaving the ends
dry so it can be easily wrung out. Once you have done so, refold the towel
to the desired width to fit the target tissue. Apply to the skin, being careful
that it is not too hot. Cover with the large, dry towel to maintain

254
the heat, and replace the compress as needed. The compress will likely need
to be replaced every 3-4 minutes to maintain therapeutic warmth. The entire
treatment should take 20-30 minutes. Expect the skin to become very
reddened, or to darken substantially depending on the skin colour of the
individual.

Ginger water is only very potent for about 2-3 hours, but can be used for up
to 24 hours. Instead of throwing out the remaining water, you can add it to
a bath or a footbath.

Figure 9.3: It is easier to wring out the hot ginger water

compress if you leave some of the towel dry at each end.

255
Mustard

The ancient Greeks believed that mustard was

created by Asklepios, the god of healing, as a
gift to humankind.

Mustard is widely used in poultices or foot baths to treat cold symptoms.

For a poultice for an adult, mix 45 ml (3 tablespoons) of flour with 15 ml
(1 tbsp) of dry mustard and add enough water to create a paste. Apply to
the target tissue and cover, being sure to keep the area moist. For children,
change the recipe to 5 ml (1 teaspoon) soda, 5 ml (1 tsp) dry mustard, and
5 ml (1 tsp) flour. Avoid using this application on very young children.

Some people experience skin irritation from direct contact with the
mustard paste and may benefit from an alternative method of preparation:
place the mustard mixture inside a thin cloth (e.g., a dish towel).
This application can be placed in a microwave for pre-heating if desired.
Position the compress on the
target tissue and leave on for
15-30 minutes.

For use in a foot bath, add 15-45

ml (1-3 tbsp) of mustard flour
(3:1 flour to mustard proportion)
in a deep foot bath and soak for
10-15 minutes. For a full body
bath, mix 125-250 ml (½ to 1 cup)
with cold water to make a paste.
Press the mixture through a cloth
into warm bath water and soak in Figure 9.4:
the bath for 10-15 minutes. Mustard paste preparation.

256
 Figure 9.5: Mustard poultice treatment.

a: Spread a layer of mustard b: Cover immediately with

paste on the target tissue. a small dry towel.

c: Add a hot compress d: Cover the application

(optional). with a thin dry towel.

257
Baking Soda

Baking soda, also known as sodium bicarbonate or bicarbonate of sodium,

is found in mineral deposits throughout the world. Baking soda is a common
household product with many uses related to cleaning, deodorizing,
beautifying, and cooking. It is also used in baths and as a paste to address a
number of conditions, especially ones that involve skin itch such as insect
bites and hives.

In addition to itchy skin conditions, baking soda baths and pastes can help
relieve sunburn, fever, foot fatigue and foot odour, cold sores, acne, and
rough skin. A strong baking soda solution also helps to clean a wound and
decrease local swelling around a lesion.

To prepare a baking soda paste, add water to an adequate amount of baking

soda to make a thick paste. Apply it directly to the affected tissue area. For
baths, use 2 cups of baking soda in a full body bath and 45 ml (3 tablespoons)
in a foot bath.

Oatmeal

Oatmeal is used as a mild exfoliator to soften the skin, and to provide relief
from itchy skin conditions. It is also reported to soothe and improve diaper
rash when used in a baby’s bath.

To employ oatmeal therapeutically, use a muslin bag of about 5 cm x 5 cm

(2” x 2”), either purchased or sewn. The bag is filled with raw oatmeal,
leaving enough room for expansion of the oatmeal when wet. Tie the bag
closed with string or an elastic band. Hold it under the bath water stream as
the tub is filling so the oatmeal can soften the water. The person then soaks
in the tub for 20-30 minutes, using the bag as a scrubber to provide mild
exfoliation if desired.

258
Castor Oil

The first documented use of castor oil is from about

1550 B.C., in Ebers’ Papyrus, which is one of the
oldest preserved medical documents.

Castor oil, also known as Palma Christi (‘the hand of Christ’), has been
used in healing for centuries. Taken orally as recommended by practitioners
such as naturopaths, castor oil is used for general detoxification, increasing
lymphatic drainage, and decreasing the burden on the kidneys. It is also
employed in compress form to address gall bladder concerns, constipation,
headaches, menstrual cramps, arthritic pain, and skin disorders.

As a paste, castor oil can effectively address such concerns as calluses and
ingrown toenails. Take ½ ml (1/8 tsp) of baking soda and mix with 3-4
drops of castor oil in your palm, then massage the mixture into the target
tissue. For a longer treatment, wrap a towel around the tissue and leave for
several hours.

A heated castor oil compress is particularly helpful as part of a treatment

protocol to reduce the visibility and restriction of scars. 75-125 ml (5-8
tablespoons) of castor oil absorbed into 3 or 4 layers of a natural fibre are
placed on the target area, covered with plastic, and overlaid with heat. For
home care it may be more convenient for the person to warm a castor oil
infused cotton facecloth or small towel in the microwave – it should be
warmer than skin temperature but not hot. The compress can be kept on for
½ to1 hour, or as long as overnight. If used in a clinical setting as a preliminary
to friction therapy, 10-15 minutes will suffice. The home care poultice can
be re-used if stored in the freezer. Castor oil will stain, so an old T-shirt or
towel should be recommended to cover the compress. (As a tip, soda water
works well for cleaning up castor oil spills.)

259
 Cas Figure 9.6:
Oil
A heated castor oil
compress is particularly
helpful as part of a
treatment protocol to
reduce the visibility and
restriction of scars.

Figure 9.7: Heated castor oil compress.

a: Apply the castor oil b: Place a thin towel over

liberally to the skin surface. the oil (optional).

260
 c: Apply a thin sheet of d: Place a hot compress
plastic wrap. on top of the application.

e: Cover with a small dry towel.

In the next chapter, we will complement the temperature therapy and

additives information covered in recent chapters with a discussion of
recommending temperature therapy as home care.

261
Dr. Vincent Preissnitz
(1799-1851) of Silesia
(part of what is now
Germany) mangled his
hand and healed it with
cold compresses. He
was a strong advocate
of the healing powers
of water.
 Chapter Ten

Home Care
Temperature
Therapy

Learning Objectives
After learning the contents of this chapter, the reader should be able to:

∙ use lay language to make a temperature therapy

recommendation for home care
∙ recommend appropriate home care treatments that are
suitable to the client and use readily available items
∙ advise clients what to notice and what to report back about
their home care applications
 “ When in doubt,
take a bath.”

Mae
West

264
Chapter 10: Home Care Temperature Therapy

Home care is a very important part of most treatment plans. One of the
benefits of temperature therapy is that it lends itself readily to home use
applications. People can enhance their comfort and their healing processes
by incorporating home treatment recommendations from their therapists
into their daily routines.

Client Education

As therapists we must educate our clients about the appropriate uses of heat
and cold and provide them with accessible, affordable suggestions about
how to perform their own treatments at home. When they consistently do
the home care component of their treatment plans, clients see faster, better
results. We can also give them a good general understanding of how to
make self-treatment decisions in everyday life.

When they
consistently do
the home care
component of their
treatment plans,
clients see faster,
better results.

265
 While a cold treatment
will rarely aggravate
a condition, heat most
certainly can.

The most common concern about home use of temperature therapies is

people’s inclination to always choose heat. Heat tends to feel comforting,
while cold usually does not. However, while a cold treatment will rarely
aggravate a condition, heat most certainly can. For instance, if applied to a
recent injury that is sore and swollen, heat will intensify the inflammatory
process and make the pain and swelling worse. It is often the case that it is
better to use nothing than to use heat. It is essential, then, to explain the
risks and benefits of temperature therapy use at home in an easily
understandable way. Education about the beneficial uses of cold is often
quite eye-opening for the lay person.
Most clients do not have a strong background in human physiology. It is
therefore important to describe what temperature agent to use, and why, in
clear and simple language. Discussing ‘retrostasis’ or ‘vasoconstriction’ is
not suitable with most people – unless you are both up for a lengthy
explanation – and will keep them from gaining the knowledge they need in
order to understand the treatments and their effects. The terms that relate to
temperature therapy can usually be simplified for easy accessibility.

266
 common temperature therapy terms
in everyday language
technical term becomes…
thermotherapy heat treatment
cryotherapy cold treatment
core temperature inner temperature of the body
shell temperature skin surface temperature
vasodilation widening (opening) of blood
vessels
vasoconstriction narrowing of blood vessels
derivation movement of blood toward the
location of the heat application
retrostasis movement of blood from the
skin surface deeper into the
body’s organs
hyperemia redness that occurs when a lot
of blood moves into a tissue

Recommending Home Treatments

When recommending a home care regimen, the first thing to do is to make

sure that it is clear what is being treated. If the chief concern is pain, what is
the cause? Some pain is better treated with cold, some with heat. The best
compliance occurs when the client understands what the temperature
treatment is designed to address.
Explain how the application will help address your mutually agreed goals.
Remember to use understandable language based on the individual’s level
of knowledge. A simple explanation will suffice, for example, “Your sprained

267
ankle is inflamed, causing swelling around the injury and into your foot.
Adding heat will just increase the inflammation, so you need to use cold.
The cold will help to reduce your pain, and will narrow the blood vessels to
bring the swelling down.” Or, “Because of the way you sit at work, your
neck and shoulder muscles have tightened up in this tense position. When
muscles are tight for long periods of time, they don’t get the blood supply
they need to work properly, and they become sore. Heat on your shoulders
will encourage the muscles’ blood vessels to open and bring in more blood.”
Double check that the person understands the explanation you have given.
Because not all home care will be an exact reproduction of temperature
therapy done in the therapist’s clinic, it is essential to describe (and sometimes
demonstrate) the recommended treatment thoroughly and plainly. The type
of heat or cold source, the specific temperature, the duration and frequency
of treatments, the time of day, and the use of any coupling agents need to be
explained. As with a clinical treatment, include appropriate post-treatment
activities in your recommendation.
As an example of what
It is a good idea to
can happen with poorly
understood instructions, have brief, clearly
here is an anecdote from a written hand-outs
colleague: a client was describing home
instructed to do contrast
care treatments
bathing at home by another
health professional who you recommend
was treating his hand routinely.
injury. What he did as
contrast bathing was 30
minutes of hot followed
by 10 minutes of cold,
after which his hand was
incredibly swollen! It is
not difficult to see how this might have happened with an instruction that
was too quickly given. It is often a good idea to have brief, clearly written
hand-outs describing home care treatments you recommend routinely.

268
Figure 10.1: A self-administered cold abdominal washing
before sleep can help address insomnia or constipation.

269
Many people do not have ‘proper’ temperature therapy tools, and will not
take the time to set up complex or time-consuming treatments, so your
suggested applications need to incorporate straightforward purchases or be
modified to what is in the home. You should also be prepared to make
suggestions about where to purchase items like Epsom salts or paraffin wax
preparations.
Gel packs are now readily available in a variety of sizes in common retail
outlets, so they are excellent home temperature therapy tools. If the person
has a few hot/cold gel packs, magic bags, or temperature beanbags, these
can be used for most purposes. Wherever possible, accommodate to the
heating and cooling agent(s) that the person will commit to using, and be
realistic given where on the body the application must go. What follows are
some additional examples of easy, inexpensive options, most of which are
applied wrapped or covered by a thin hand towel or dish towel.

Figure 10.2: Gel packs are readily accessible, easily used,

and come in several shapes and sizes.

270
 Figure 10.3:
Frozen towels are very
inexpensive and easy
to prepare at home.

For cold applications:

• plastic bag filled with popcorn (unpopped) kept in the freezer
• bag of frozen vegetables such as peas
• frozen juice tin (a good fit for some surfaces, e.g., palmar surfaces
of hands or for rolling under feet)
• frozen towels
• ice cubes in a plastic bag
For heat applications:
• hot water bottle
• wet towels heated in a microwave
• castor oil on a cotton facecloth warmed in the microwave (especially
good for scars, contractures, tight iliotibial bands)
For contrast applications:
• examples from the hot and cold lists above used in combination
• double sinks can be filled with different temperature water for hand
or arm baths

271
Be sure to make the recommended treatments realistic for the individual’s
lifestyle and schedule in order to increase the opportunity for compliance.
Advising the average person to rub ice on a sore knee for 15 minutes every
3 hours is probably unrealistic. Recommending applying a cold pack for a
minimum of 10 minutes while the individual eats daily meals, watches an
evening television program, and reads before going to sleep will sound
much more practical and achievable. Remember to include the person in the
process of determining a suitable home treatment plan. As they see good
results, people often become willing to try more complex types of home
care applications.
Finally, advise the individual about how the skin should look and feel during
and after the treatment. Discuss common symptoms of negative reactions
and what to do if one occurs. Review the treatment plan with the person at
each appointment, particularly when she or he is just starting home
temperature therapy.

Ask the person to note any

changes resulting from the
temperature therapy and to tell
you about them at your next
session. When you regularly
request information about home
care treatments and consider it
with due seriousness, you gain a
more rounded view of the case.

272
Monitoring Outcomes

Make sure you have a method for evaluating the results of the home treatment
plan. Did the pain and swelling in her ankle lessen? Did the muscle soreness
ease in his neck? Ask the person to note any changes resulting from the
temperature therapy and to tell you about them at your next session. When
you regularly request information about home care treatments and consider
it with due seriousness, you gain a more rounded view of the case. This
dialogue also helps emphasize the importance of the client’s role and
encourages compliance. As with applications you would do as a therapist,
if there are no improvements, make changes in the treatment plan.

home care guidelines

choose appropriate language to explain the home care

treatment
make sure the treatment description is understood,
including what the application is treating
explain (if needed, demonstrate) the treatment you are
recommending
make sure the home care agent is easy, accessible,
and realistic
let the person know how the treatment area should
look and feel during and after the treatment
have the person note any changes due to the
treatment; change the treatment plan if there is no
improvement

273
The earliest known Mayan
community sweat house
is believed to date back
to 900 B.C. in Belize. The
Mayan sweat houses’
purposes are thought
to have been threefold:
physical cleansing, bodily
purging, and spiritual
preparation.
 Appendix

A: Celsius/Fahrenheit Conversion 276

B: Temperature Range Chart 277

C Key Words and Terms 278

 Appendix A.

celsius/fahrenheit conversion

It is important to be able convert Celsius to Fahrenheit

and vice versa. There are formulas for changing one
temperature system to the other.

• To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, the formula is

[x(1.8)+32], where x = ºC. Every 1ºC is about 1.8ºF.

• To convert Fahrenheit to Celsius, the formula is

(x-32)(0.56), where x = ºF. Every 5ºC is about 9ºF.

conversion table

ºC ºF ºC ºF

-273 -459 (absolute zero) 41 105.8

-40 -40 42 107.6
-5 23 43 109.4
0 32 (water freezes) 44 111.2
5 41 45 113
10 50 50 122
15 59 55 131
20 68 60 140
25 77 65 149
30 86 70 158
35 95 75 167
36 96.8 80 176
37 98.6 85 185
38 100.4 90 194
39 102.2 95 203
40 104 100 212 (water boils)

276
 Appendix B.

Temperature Range Chart

The temperatures used in cryotherapy and thermotherapy

vary depending on the types of applications being
administered. The following examples demonstrate
the ranges of cold and heat that we use commonly in
temperature therapy treatments.

temperature range application examples

very cold -5° to 0°C (23°-32°F) ice cubes, ice bags

cold 1°-10°C (33°-50°F) cold gel pack

4°-27°C (40°-80°F) bath:

limbs: 4°-15°C (40°-60°F)
body: 18°-27°C (65°-80°F)

warm 36°-44°C (50°-80°F) bath:

hand: 36°-44°C (98°-111°F)
limbs: 37°-40°C (98°-104°F)
body: 37°-39°C (98°-102°F)

hot 52°-57°C (125°-135°F) paraffin wax

74°-77°C (165°-170°F) hot pack

contrast bath total range 5°-42°C (40°-107°F)

cold 5°-15°C (40°- 60°F)
hot 40°-42°C (104°-107°F)

277
 Appendix C.

Key Words and Terms

• Activities of Daily Living (ADL)

everyday activities and routines in the client’s life; a useful reference for the
temperature therapist to help determine her or his tolerance of hot and cold
modalities
• Additives
substances of various types that can be added to temperature therapy
applications to enhance their effects
• Anaesthetic Effect
numbing effect, or relief of pain
• Analgesic Effect (Analgesia)
painkilling effect
• Arterial Trunk Reflex
increase or decrease of blood flow through an arterial trunk will produce the
same effect in its smaller distal branches
• Cardiac Output
the amount of blood pumped out of the heart each minute, a factor of heart rate
and venous return volume
• Caution
an element in an individual’s case that causes the therapist to be more cautious
and observant when using temperature therapy and to implement treatment
adaptations suited to the case
• Contracture
results when connective tissue conforms to a continuously held position;
collagen fibre cross-linkages create a stiffer and less pliable fascial structure

278
• Contraindication
a condition, disease, or other element in an individual’s case that prevents the
use of some or all types of temperature therapy
• Contrast Temperature Therapy
the use of alternating applications of hot and cold temperature therapy in order
to create a cycle of vasodilation and vasoconstriction to ‘flush’ the tissues
• Core Temperature
the temperature of the body’s internal structures; 37°C (98.6°F) is the norm for
the human body
• Coupling Agent/Medium
a medium or material used with a temperature therapy agent to increase or
modify the treatment effects
• Cryoagent
a type or form of cold application
• Cryotherapy
the therapeutic use of cold applications
• Dehydrated/Dehydration
a drop in the body’s fluid content below optimally required levels
• Depressive Reaction/Effect
when a response to a stimulus involves slowing, reducing or suppressing tissue
activities
• Derivation
drawing of fluid, in this context blood, from its main pathway toward a tissue
area with a lower blood volume; active derivation requires expenditure of
energy and passive derivation does not
• Detoxify/Detoxification
promoting the removal or elimination of toxic elements and waste products
from the body, though increasing filtering activity in organs of elimination such
as the liver and kidneys and/or via increased perspiration
• Dyspnea
a primary symptom of respiratory disorders, meaning shortness of breath or
breathing difficulty; can be exacerbated by steam environments or intense heat

279
• Edema
extra accumulation of fluid in the interstitium (spaces between cells); often
called swelling
• Essential Oil
a volatile oil distilled from a plant; can be used therapeutically to achieve
specific effects
• Exfoliator
a physical stimulus that removes the top layer of dead cells from the skin
• Frostbite
damage to the skin and underlying tissues from excessive cold
• Frostnip
initial indication of excessive cold in a tissue, manifesting as paleness,
numbness and/or tingling of the skin; first stage in the development of frostbite
• Home Care
the adaptation of various therapeutic modalities, including temperature therapy,
for home use as part of a treatment plan
• Homeostasis
the results of numerous inter-related physiological activities that keep the
body’s systems and processes operating within healthy parameters
• Hunting Response
cyclic vasodilation and vasoconstriction that occurs in issue that has been
cooled below 10°C (50°F)
• Hydrostatic Pressure
the pressure a fluid exerts in all direction on the walls of its container, for
example, blood on blood vessel walls
• Hydrotherapy
the use of water in any of its three forms (liquid, solid, gas) as a temperature
medium to achieve therapeutic effects
• Hyperemia
the tissue is holding a higher than usual volume of blood; in the skin and
subcutaneous tissue this results in visible redness

280
• Hypothalamus
the part of the brain that plays the central role in thermoregulation; it receives
temperature information from the body tissues and monitors the temperature
of its own blood flow and initiates heat conserving and heat losing activities as
needed to maintain homeostasis
• Hypoxia
inadequate oxygen supply for a tissue’s needs; leads to damage, especially if
sustained
• Inflammatory Response
the body’s general response to injury and other types of tissue disruption; the
response is geared to support immune defense, protect the site and prepare for
repair, and moves through acute, sub-acute and chronic stages
• Insulator (insulation)
a substance, like fat, that conducts temperature poorly and consequently can
prevent heat or cold from entering or leaving a tissue area
• Ischemia
delivery of oxygenated arterial blood to a tissue is less than its current need
• Local Effect
an effect that is created in the specific tissue area to which a stimulus like
temperature therapy is applied
• Metabolism
the cumulative result of chemical processes and activities occurring in a body
tissue, system, or the body as a whole
• Muscle Guarding
protective muscle contraction in the vicinity of an injury or a site of pain
• Muscle Spindle Reflex
a reflex that responds to stretch on a muscle by protectively increasing the
muscle’s contraction level; the muscle spindle is the embedded stretch receptor
that monitors stretch on the muscle belly
• Negative Reaction
a response to a temperature therapy treatment that is unexpected and
undesirable

281
• Patch Testing
applying a sample version of a proposed temperature therapy application to a
small area of the target tissue to evaluate the response
• Poultice
an application that is a variation of a compress, in which a moist paste, often
heated, is applied to the target tissue using towel or other fabric as a coupling
medium; also called a plaster
• Reflex Effect
an effect that is created when the nervous system mediates a tissue response
to a stimulus, for example, when a temperature therapy application applied on
the body surface produces a response in a muscle or organ because of nervous
signals transmitted as a result of the stimulus
• Retrostasis
fluid is being mobilized from the body surface into organs and other deeper
structures
• Sedative Effect
a calming, soothing or relaxing effect; can also be synonymous with
Depressive Effect
• Shell Temperature
the temperature of the body’s surface structures, which is typically 1-6°C less
than the core temperature
• Specific Heat
the capacity of a substance to hold or store heat
• Stimulating Effect
when a response to a stimulus involves activating, increasing, or speeding up
tissue activities
• Strengthening Reactions
stressors such as temperature therapy, as long as they are applied within
healthy parameters, stimulate the body to improve its capacity to tolerate or
withstand the stressor
• Systemic Effect
an effect that is produced broadly in a body system or in the whole body

282
• Temperature Therapy
utilization of a range of temperature applications to achieve therapeutic effects
• Thermal Conductivity
the capacity of a substance to transfer or conduct heat to another substance
• Thermoagent
a type or form of heat application
• Thermoregulation
the body’s system for maintaining its temperature within normal healthy
parameters; includes heat losing and heat conserving activities
• Thermotherapy
the therapeutic use of heat applications
• Tonic Application
treatments, often incorporating cold or friction or both, that are used to
stimulate a strengthening reaction, making the body more resilient
• Treatment Intensity
the range and strength of an application’s effects, resulting from such factors
as temperature differential between the application and the body, size of
application, temperatures used, speed and duration of application, and so on
• Vascular Flush
the primary effect of contrast temperature therapy, which creates alternating
derivation and retrostasis (vasodilation and vasoconstriction) that mobilizes
blood through the treated tissue and enhances delivery of nutrients and removal
of wastes; also called circulatory whip
• Vasoconstriction
contraction of smooth muscle in a blood vessel wall resulting in narrowing of
its internal passageway; this decreases the volume of blood permitted to flow
through it
• Vasodilation
relaxation of smooth muscle in a blood vessel wall resulting in expansion of its
internal passageway; this increases the volume of blood able to flow through it
• Viscous/Viscosity
the lower the fluid content of a substance such as blood, the more viscous, or
thick, it is; the more fluidity in the substance, the lower its viscosity

283
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287
 Index

abdominal heating compress, 182 application temperature, 109

abdominal washing, 201, 269 aromatherapy, 240
activities of daily living (ADL), 100, arterial blood, 47, 48
278 arterial insufficiency, 142
acute inflammation, 43 arterial negative reactions, 124–26, 129
acute injury, treatment, 44, 46 arterial trunk reflex, 32, 278
additives, 24, 112, 247–61, 278 arteriosclerosis, 142
apple cider vinegar, 254 arteritis, 142, 145
baking soda, 258 assessment (of client), 100–107
castor oil, 259–61 asthma, 143
Epsom salts, 196, 232, 252–53 atherosclerosis, 141, 142, 143–44, 148,
essential oils, 212, 247–51, 280 149, 158
ginger, 254–55 athlete’s foot, 144
mustard, 255–56 Ayurveda, 98
oatmeal, 258
adipose tissue, 50 baking soda, 258
afferent (sensory) activity, 80 Baruch, Simon, 10
allergies, 141 baths, 232–41
altered function (with inflammation), 42 contrast, 233–34
alternating hot towels (fomentations), Epsom salts, 232, 253
173–75 essential oils in, 248
anaesthetic effect, 278 foot, 184–87, 255–56
analgesic effect, 278 hot, 232
of cold, 46 Roman, 96
of heat, 79–80 sitz, 235–39
angina pectoris, 141, 144, 146, 158 vinegar in, 254
apoptosis, 13 whirlpool, 240–41
apple cider vinegar, 254 bleeding, 144, 146

288
blisters, 145, 156
blood capillaries, 14
blood dilution, 74
blood pressure, 152–53, 250
effects of heat on, 70, 72–73
high (hypertension), 59, 146,
148, 149, 152, 153, 250
low (hypotension), 152–53, 250
breasts, compresses for, 180
bronchitis, chronic, 144
Buerger’s Disease, 142, 145, 151
burns, 145
bursitis, 164
cachexia, 145
cardiac disorders, 59. See also specific
disorders
cardiac output, 70–71, 278
cardiovascular disease, 146
cardiovascular system, 136
case history, 99–100, 107
castor oil, 259–61
casts, 59
cautions, 141–59
with contrast applications, 95
with cryotherapy, 58–59
definition, 133, 278
with essential oils, 249–59
with full body treatments,
120–21
with heat and thermotherapies,
63–64, 84–85
with local applications, 120
with medications, 138
with nervous system disorders,
59, 95
with steam treatments, 223
vs. contraindications, 133
central nervous system, 136
chakra, 212, 214
289
chemical effects (of water), 24
chemotherapy, 146–47, 148, 250
chronic inflammation, 43
circulatory whip, 89
client
assessment of, 100–107
communication with, 118–19,
122
confusion in, 147
education and explanations for,
91, 265–68
individual reactions to scents,
250
informed consent, 114–15
unwilling, 158
cold and cryotherapy, 8, 26, 267, 279
cautions with, 58–59
compresses, 171–72, 225, 230
direct effects of, 51–54
double compress (heating
compress), 181–83
duration of effects, 47–48
duration of treatment, 49, 51,
56, 111
foot bath, 186
home equipment for, 271
hypersensitivity to, 147
indications for, 57–58
influences on effects, 49–50
local application of, 55
mitten friction, 188, 189–91
physiological effects, 37
post-treatment activities, 113
reflex effects, 56–57
sitz baths, 237, 238
sprays, 242
to prevent overheating, 271
cold hemoglobinuaria, 147
cold hypersensitivity, 147
cold urticaria, 147
collagen, 13, 14
combined negative reactions, 125–26
comfort checks, 118–19, 122
compresses, 170–83
with castor oil, 259–61
cold, 171–72, 225, 230
cold double (heating), 181–83
cold, to prevent overheating,
271
contrast chest, 180
contrast head, 179
contrast towels, 178
with Epsom salts, 252–53
with essential oils, 249
with ginger water, 254–55
home equipment for, 271
hot (fomentations), 170, 173–75
hot towel roll, 176–77
pre-treatment role of, 170
conduction, 26, 27
congestive heart failure (CHF), 145,
146, 148, 150, 152, 153
contracture, 278
contraindications, 133, 138, 141–59, 279
contrast therapies and applications,
89–95, 279
active vs. passive, 93
baths, 233–34, 240
cautions with, 95
chest compresses, 180
foot baths, 186–87
head compresses, 179
home equipment for, 271
indications for, 94
physiological effect of, 89
ratios and temperature
differentials for, 90–93
sitz baths, 239
sprays, 242
towels, 178
290
convection, 26, 27
conversion, 27, 28
core temperature, 18, 19, 267, 279
countercurrent heat exchange, 48
coupling agent or medium, 68, 109, 279
Crohn’s Disease (ileitis), 153
cryoagent, 279
cryoglobulinemia, 148
cryotherapy. See cold and cryotherapy
cupping, 218
cyanosis, 155, 156
deep vein thrombosis (DVT), 157–58
dehydration, 84, 120, 221, 279
depressive reaction or effect, 279
derivation, 38, 64–65, 89, 267, 279
dermatitis, 150
dermis, 13–15, 14
detoxification, 74–75, 279
diabetes mellitus, 84, 148–49, 151, 220
diagnosis, 135–37
dialysis, 153
diaphoresis, 74
digestion, effects of hydrotherapy on,
116
Dinesen, Isak, 244
direct effects
of cryotherapies, 51–54
of thermotherapies, 69–75
dosimetry, 108–13
duration of treatment, 49, 51, 56, 78, 111
dynamic treatment, 110
dyspnea, 143, 144, 149, 150, 279
eczema, 150
edema (swelling), 41, 42, 47, 55, 57, 280
pitted, 155
efferent (motor) activity, 80
elastin, 13, 14
emphysema, 148, 150
epidermis, 13, 14 baths, 232
epilepsy, 148, 150–51, 220 cardiovascular dynamics with,
Epsom salts, 196–97, 232, 252–53 70–73
essential oils, 212, 247–51, 280 cautions with, 63–64, 84–85
cautions with, 249–50 clients’ preference for, 266
commonly used, 250–51 deep vs. superficial, 64
evaporation, 26, 27 direct effects, 69–77
exfoliate, exfoliator, 188, 280 duration of treatment, 78, 111
foot baths, 184–86
facial steam, 229–31 heat rub, 84
essential oils with, 248 home equipment for, 271
fascia, 75, 76 hot stone massage, 212–15
fasting, 151 indications for, 83
fever, 46–47, 151, 189 influences on effects, 67–69
fibroblasts, 45, 47 local application of, 82
fomentations, 170, 173–75 and metabolism, 69–70
foot baths, 184–87 reflex effects, 75, 78–81
with mustard, 255–56 sitz baths, 236–37
frequency (of treatment), 112 sprays, 242–43
friction, 188 temperature differential with,
cold mitten, 188, 189–91 63–64
tonic friction applications, towel rolls, 176–77
188–97 warm vs. hot, 63
frostnip and frostbite, 58–59, 151, 280 heat conserving and heat losing
full body treatments. See also specific activities, 20–23, 37–38, 55
treatments heat transfer, 26–28
cautions with, 120–21 heating (cold double) compress, 181–83
large scale, 221–22 hemoglobinuaria, 147
hemophilia, 84
gangrene, 151 hemorrhage, 144, 146
gel packs, 164–65, 270 Hippocrates, 244
ginger water, 254–55 home care therapies, 265–73, 280
glandular effects, 32 client education, 265–67
goose bumps (piloerection), 21, 23 equipment for, 270–71
hand-outs for, 268
hair follicle, 14 monitoring outcomes, 273
headaches, vascular, 152 treatment recommendations,
heat, specific, 24, 282 267–72
heat and thermotherapy, 8, 267, 283 homeostasis, 19, 280
as analgesic, 79 hunting response, 38–39, 49, 55, 280

291
hydrocollator, 204–6 Kellogg, John Harvey, 130
with paraffin treatments, 207, Kenny, Sister Elizabeth, 160
217 keratin, 14, 15
hydrostatic pressure, 65, 280 keratinocyte, 14
hydrotherapy (definition), 7–8, 280 kidney disease, 137, 148, 149, 152, 153,
large intense treatments, 219–43 220
hyperemia, 42, 267, 280 Kneipp, Sebastian, 34
hypersensitivity to cold, 147
hypertension (high blood pressure), 59, large scale treatments, 219–43. See also
146, 148, 149, 152, 153, 250 specific treatments
hypodermis, 13, 14, 15–17 procedures for, 221–22
hypotension (low blood pressure), liver disease, 137, 153–54
152–53, 250 local applications
hypothalmus, 19, 20, 281 cautions with, 120
role in temperature regulation, of cold, 55
20–23, 136 of heat, 82
hypothermic coma, 36 local effects, 29, 281
hypoxia, 45–46, 55, 281 lumen, 39, 141

ice bags, 164, 165 magnesium, 252–53

ice bandage, 168–69 malignancy, 154
ice massage, 166–67 manual therapies, 28–29
iced towels, 165 massage, 28–29
ileitis (Crohn’s disease), 153 hot stone, 212–15
infection, 153 ice, 166–67
inflammation mechancial effects (of water), 24
events during, 41, 47 medical conditions. See specific
signs and symptoms of, 42 conditions
stages of, 43 medications, 138–40
treatment with cold, 53 effects of, 140
inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), 153 melanin, 14, 15
inflammatory response, 39, 55, 281 melanocyte, 14
informed consent, 114–15 menstruation, 78
unwilling client, 158 metabolism, 69–70, 78, 120, 281
inhalation with essential oils, 248–49 metal implants, pins, wires, 157
insulator, 50, 68, 281 Mondonville, Henri de, 132
ischemia, 53, 57, 155, 281 multiple sclerosis (MS), 154
muscle guarding, 281
jewellery, 118 muscle spasm
joint pain, cryotherapy for, 53 cryotherapy for, 51–53, 58

292
 thermotherapy for, 79–80
muscle spindle reflex, 52, 79–80, 281
muscular pain, 57
mustard paste, 256–57, 257
nail bed test, 104–5
negative reactions, 123–29, 183, 281
combined, 125
re-assessment following,
126–27
response to, 125–29
signs, 123–24
types of, 124–25, 129
nerve inflammation, 154
nervous system, 136
nervous system disorders
cautions with, 59, 95
neuritis, 154
neuromuscular junctions, 51–52
neurons, 51–52
oatmeal, 258
oil glands, 14
oils, essential, 212, 247–51, 280
pain
cycles of, 80
joints, 53
muscular, 57
as sign of inflammation, 42
pain relief (analgesic effects), 278
cryotherapy as, 46
thermotherapy as, 79–80
paradox reactions, 125, 126, 183
paraffin wax bath, 207–11
paraffin wax dipping, 208, 210
paraffin wax painting, 208, 211
passive derivation, 64–65
patch testing, 103, 106, 282
peripheral nervous system, 136
293
peripheral vascular disease (PVD), 84,
104, 149, 151, 155
permeability (of blood vessels), 39, 40,
41, 47
phlebitis, 142, 145
piloerection, 21, 23
pitted edema, 155
pituitary gland, 21
post-treatment activities, 112–13,
121–22, 221–22
poultices, 256–57, 282
pre-treatment guidelines, 122
pregnancy, 85, 155, 220, 250
presenting conditions, 135
Pressnitz, Vincent, 262
radiation, 27, 28
radiation therapy, 156
Raynaud’s Disease and Phenomenon,
156
reactions
depressive, 279
negative, 123–29, 183, 281
paradox, 125, 126, 183
strengthening, 18, 282
redness, 42, 47
reflex effects, 30–32, 282
of cryotherapies, 56–57
of thermotherapies, 75, 78–81
reflex patterns, 30
reflex referral zones, visceral, 30, 31
respiration rate, 74–75
respiratory difficulties, 33, 220
asthma, 143
chronic bronchitis, 144–45
congestion, 78, 180
dyspnea, 143, 144, 149, 150,
279
respiratory system, 136–37
retrostasis, 37, 55, 267, 282
rheumatoid arthritis, 164 superficial pins, wires, rods, 157
Roman baths, 96 sweat baths, lodges, or houses, 60, 88,
218, 274
salt glow, 188, 196–97 sweat glands, 14
salts, Epsom, 196–97, 232, 252–53 swelling. See edema
saunas, 212, 223–25 systemic effects, 33, 282
scar tissue, 45, 47, 75, 76, 211
sedative effect, 282 temperature conversion, 276
seizures, 150 temperature differential
sensory impairment, 101, 149, 154, and application intensity, 109
156–57 with contrast applications,
skin discrimination test, 101–3 90–93
shell temperature, 18, 19, 267, 282 pre-treatment, 117
shvitz bawd, 218 with thermotherapies, 63–64
sitz baths, 235–39 temperature ranges
skin for baths, 232, 233
functions of, 15–17 chart, 277
presenting condition of, 137 for contrast applications, 90–93
properties and structure of, guidelines for, 119–20
13–14 for skin discrimination tests,
temperature of, 18 102–3
skin discrimination test, 101–3 for sprays, 242–43
spasticity, 148, 154, 157 tolerated by body, 18
specific heat, 24, 282 warm vs. hot, 63
sprays, 24, 242–43 for washings, 198
static treatment, 110 temperature regulation (of body), 18–23
steam treatments, 223–31 temperature therapy, 7–8, 283
baths, 86 temperature tolerance, testing for, 106
facial steam, 229–31 terms in everyday language, 267
inhalation, 248, 249 therapeutic medium, 109
sauna, 223–25 thermal conductivity, 24, 25, 283
steam cabinet, 226–28 thermoagent, 283
stimulating effect, 282 thermophores, 202–3, 207
strengthening reactions, 18, 282 thermoregulation, 15–16, 283
stress (body’s reaction to), 18 thermoregulatory disorders, 59
stroke, 158 thermotherapy. See heat and
sub-acute inflammation, 43, 92 thermotherapy
subcutaneous fatty tissue, 50, 68 thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), 145
subcutaneous layer (of skin), 13, 14, thrombophlebitis, 142, 157
15–17 thrombosis, 145, 146, 156, 157–58

294
thrombus, 142, 143, 157 vertigo, 154
thyroid gland, 21 vinegar, apple cider, 254
tonic applications, 188, 242, 283 visceral reflex referral zones, 31
tonic friction applications, 188–97 visceromotor effects, 32
cold mitten friction, 189–91 viscosity, 283
dry brushing, 192–95
salt glow, 196–97 warm therapies. See heat and
towels thermotherapy
alternating, 173–75 warm vs. hot, 63
contrast, 178 washings, 198–201
frozen, 271 abdominal, 201, 269
hot, 173 water, properties of, 24–25
hot towel roll, 176–77 West, Mae, 262
transient ischemic attack (TIA), 158 whirlpool, 240–41
treatment area (of body), 108–9 wounds, 59, 189, 196
treatment guidelines, 116–22
treatment intensity, 283
treatment priorities, 99
treatment room and equipment, 117
Turkish baths, 88

ulcerative colitis, 153

unable to communicate, 147
unreliable feedback, 147

varicose veins, 158–59, 207

vascular disorders, peripheral, 84, 104,
149, 151, 155
vascular flush, 89, 283
vasoconstriction, 15–16, 20, 22–23,
37–38, 55, 267, 283
vasodilation, 15–16, 21–23, 30, 267, 283
contralateral, 78
derivation, 38, 64–65
during inflammation, 47
and permeability, 39, 40, 41
vasomotor effects, 32
vasomotor impairment, 157, 159
venous blood, 47, 48
venous negative reactions, 125–26, 129

295
296