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    national geographic

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    7 views84 pages

    1890-Vol 2 No 1

    Uploaded by

    canadutchy
    national geographic

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 84
    Voll ilicg TUE UN ATIONAL cuogRarntc MAGAZINE. FOMELAUED wate NATIONAL GEOGRAPINIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D0. Reina po Sy Prine te conti | = CONTENTS. nthe Teleyrxplile Deterrainatinds of Bonigtiyile hy he Theres ot Mavigudiiiie Tleae. JA, Naerte, 5. 3. “Hbopports Git thie Whee Preal deat Googripihy, of thi'Land) Mertiatt G. Option Geduranby of the Air: A” Af, Greely, Che eat vie, OSA... i u Anutial Rpt Of thi Trenaitede | fo oport Wt: Auditing Oonitarws oa Antioal Region’ of the Gworetizy— i hg er PETE, meEpEE A Tack Sw EN ma Shee <2 z THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, Vol. IL LROO, No. 1. ON THE TELE GITUDE BY RAPHIC DETERMINATIONS OF LON- e BUREAU OF NAVIGATION BY Lievr. J. A, Nomis, 0.5. 8, ‘Tux following definitions wre ical and Praotical Astronomy. The longitude of a point on the the Pole included between the weridian Of that. point and some assumed first meridian, ‘The difference of longitude between any two points ik thy angle included between their meridians" To. describe the practical methods of obtaining this diffe angle, by means of the electrie telegraph both everland and sub marine, and especially those employed hy the expeditions sent out hy the Navy department, is the object of this paper, iven by Chauvenet ia his Spher- earth's surface is the angle at new or Before the invention of the telegraph varions methods more or less acoutate in their results were employed, and are still in ape where the telegraph is not available, The one most used and giving the best results was that in whieh a number of ehronom- eters were transported back and forth between two phices the difference of whose longitudes was required. “For,” as the author quoted above says, “the determination of an absolute longitude from the first meridian or of & differenee of longitude in general, resolve itself into the determination of the difference vou. 1, 1 2 National Geagouphia Majazine, fof the time reckousd at the two. me at the same absolute want? Tf a chronometer be regulated 1 the time at any place A, and thon tramported (9 aavcond place B, and the local time at #, be determind at any instant, and at that instant the time at A, as shown by the chronometer iy noted, the difference af the times ix at once known, iid that is the difference of longitude required. ‘The principal objection to this plan is that the best ehronometers vary, Hf the variations were constant and regular, and the chronometer alway's jrained or lest a fixed amount for the same interval of time, this objection would disappear, But the variation ix not constant, thy rate of gain or loss, even in the best instruments, changes from time to time from various caures, Some of these cansex may he discovered and allowed for in a meamre, other ar aecitental and iinknown, OF the former class ave vathations die to changes of tamperature, At the Naval Observatory, chronemewee ary rated at different temperatures, aiid the changes due thereto arv noted, atid serve to a great extint in their ust, But the transportation of a chronometer, dione with great care is fiable to eanse sudden changes im its indications, and of course in carrying it long distances, numerous shocks of greater or less violence are unavoidabh Still, chronometrie meaxuryments, when well carried out with a number of chronometer: and +killed observers have been very successful, Among notable expeditions of this sort was that undertaken in 1445, by Struve betwen Palkova and Altona, in which eighty-one chimometery were employed and nine voyages made from Pulkova to Altea and eight the other way. The sults frum thirteen of the chronumeters were rejected ax being, xcordant, und che deduced longitude was made to dypend ow the remaining 48. ‘The rvsalt thus obtained differs from tho Latewt determination by 0*t. ‘The U.S. Coast, Survey instituted ehronometrie expeditions between Cambridge, Mass, and Liverpool, England, in the years 1849, "50,51 and "3. ‘Tho probable error of the reshlts of voyages, three in each (liteetion, in 1855 was 01.19, fifty ehro- -neineters being: carried, Among other methods of determining differences of time may be montioned the olservation of certain celestial phenomona, which are visible at the same absclate instant by obsorvers in various parts of the globe, auch sis the instant of the begitming or ead of an colipae of the moon, the eclipses of Jupiter's natel- Thtegraphio Peterminations of Langituite, 8 lites by tlie shadew of dhe planet, the bursting of a meteor, and the appearance or disappearance of a shooting star, ‘The dif culty of Mentifying these last mentioned objects und the impos sibility Of foretelling theirdccurrence prevents the extended tse af this method. ‘Terrestrial signals may be among these: can be included those sent thy: the: a telegraph, But when two stations are near together a signal may be mute at either or at an intermediate: stating, whieh ean be observed at both, the time may be noted at each of the stations and the difference found dirvetly, The als may be made by flashes of gunpowder, or the appearance and disappearance of a strong light, or a pre- concerted movement of any object easily seen, The heliotrope reflecting the imaie of the sun from one station to the other with an arrangement for suddenly eclipsing it, ia useful and efficient apparatus, Various truly astronomical meth good results, of thes may be mentioned moon-culminutions, azimuths of the moon, Innur distances, ote, Coming now to the thie of the elect yooe the following is 4 rough outhne of the methods employed. Suppose two stations A.and B eonnveted by wire, and provided with clicks, chronograpls and transit instruments A list of suitable fixed stare is compiled and ench rnished with 4 copy. The observer at A the eastern station, aeleets a star from his list and sets bis transit instrament: upen it, He is fue- nichyd with a key by which he can send telegraphic sigualy over ‘the Tinw und also mark the time on his own chronograph. The instant he observes the star efosing the spider line which reprex sents the meridian, he taps his key, this registering the his own ehrmosraph and an that at station Band this « y. BB his his lis meridian, Ine taps bis ring the time on bis own eliranograph and also on A's, ds have been employed with elegraph for this pur- perver ime on eration sot for the first star, and when, St eros key ‘Then, disregarding instrumental and personal errors and the mate of the clock, A hax a record of the times at which the star passed both meridians: The nf these times is the difference of longitds sought, exeept for an error due to the time ocenpied in the transmission of the signal over the wire between the sta- tious, also has a record of the sine differoner of time with the saine error allecting it in the opposite way, A mean-of these 4 National Geographic Magnzine. renoes, will be the trae differenes with the orroraf trans Himinated. ‘Thie method has the: advantage of net depending upon the computed position of thy star, ‘The instrn- miebtal error may be allowed for, as well as the rate of the clocks, and the personal error may bé ¢litninated by the exchange af stations, ‘There are disadvantages inseparuble from this method, how- ever, especially when the meridian distance ix great. A. star observed at the first station, may he obseursd by clouds at the thu af its meridian passage at the second. And the weather generally, at the two statious may be clondy, so that while stars ean be observed at intervals, yet it may be impossible to note the meridian passage of the sume star at bath places on the same hight. ‘Then the telegraph lines are usually the property af some ecommiercial com and while their use for a short time might be freely granted, yet a protracted ogcupation of them ax néoes- sary when the meridiansare distant from cach other, would prove nil to their regalar business, Lat this time most generally employed, is to observe mission other. Fi © stare ai dediced the clock errors and rates pon the respoetive loeal times, ‘Then at some prearrgmged period, communieation ic oponed hetween the stations, amit a eon parison Of the cloe! ns their exnet difference at a given instant, By applying the erfor to the time as shown hy the clock at this instant, the exaet oval tind af, each station is the result, and applying the difference between the clocks as shown by the comparison, the requited diiference of longitude ix madly obtained. ‘These methods originate, as did the electric telegraph, in the United States, and soon after Morse’s invention came into prac tical une, they were extensively employod ly the Coust Survey, in acoutately determining points in every part of the countgy that bould be reached, no pains being spared to make the determina tions as aveurate ax possible, Upon the completion of the first snecossful Atluntié cable in 1880, ani expedition was organived: and placed in change of Dr: BLA. Gould, for the purpose of measuring the moridian distance between Greenwich and the Naval Observatory at Washington, ‘This was successfully ear ried out in spite of numerous difficulties, und the result proved that the determinations ulready made upon whieh the most » which =] Tetoyraphin Determinations of Longituide, 8 reliance was placed were decidedly in error, ‘The result from the chroniometric expedition in 1655 proviowsly referred to differing over in second af thas, In constructing charts for ms at sea, the aceurate determination af latitude and longitude is of the utmost importanes, ‘The havigator starting On a voyage must know the exact position of his destination as well as the location of dangers to be avoided. He must know thy error and rate of his chronometer when le sets out, but as the rate is not constant he should have some means uf rerating it at any place where he may stop. If the longitude of this place is well determined, the operation of obutining the crror and rate is an easy. ano, and. may sive bis vessel fron hiss, Surveys, of coasts oF count must have well established starting points, aud while the latitude ef 1 place ix comparatively ay tw determine, the longitade, excejst whon the tolegmphie method is used, ie atednded with niere or Toss tim In §8ts, Commodons R.H. Wyman, 02S N the Bureau of gation, argrnized by permissi Department, an expedition for the telegraphic deter lnngitwle in the West Indies and Central America. marine cables of the West India and Pantie Telegraph Ge. had 1, extending from Key West through Haviia and Santiago vonth to Jamaiva and Aspinall, and east through the Virizin and Windward [shines to the northeast coast of South Atmerica, thw affordinye admirable fucilitios for the accu rate determination of tinny poiuts, Tt had long len knaven that the longitudes of various points in the West Indies and in Central and South: America, did, net harmapize, there having: bye ite atteenpit emia them with relation to each oth » a common base, Lengitudes in the western part of th cai) Sea depended upon the position of the Morrie Hight- Bich had een determined hy oeeultat Further to the eastward, positions depended ijen that of Port Christian av St. Thomas, in its’ tim aiderk pots the observatory of Major Lang lu the Island of Santa Orae sbeut forty milloe die js portion a ohwervaitions of and Guadelonpe in the Windward Islands had been French otticers who hased their positions up from mnon cul Tho absolute den 1 fhe all points deriv. anid vee tat wx Martinique rvevedd by 1 longitudes derived mination of these starting poiits we 1 from thea, a National (eagraphic Magazine. The U.S. Steamer Fortune wis designated by the Navy Depurtment for the conveyance of the expedition, and Lieut, Commander (now Commander), F, M. Green, 0.8, N. was placed inecharge. ‘This officer had given great attention to the subject, Wak a practiced observer, and exceptionally well qualified for the position... "The serviows of Mr. Milos Rock, a skillful astronomer and computer who is now ehief of the boundary urvey of Guatemala, were obtained at principal astronomical assistant. ‘The breski in the autumn of 187%, of the trouble with Spain and Caba, over the Virginius affair, delayed the expedition ymext your, but in November 184, tart was made fron Hingten, and after a short stay in Kingston, Jamacia, Aspinwall was reached early in Documber, Mr Rook with one se of instruments proceeded immediately to Panama, while Lieut. Commander Groen remained in Aspinwall with the other, "The outtit foreach party consistell of dint, a portable observatury. ‘This was made of wood ii sections, framework af ash, covered with tongued and grooved pine bounls “The seetions wens nected when sét up by iron knives and bolts. When packed was not diffioult to transport, and it could bé put up, or taken down in an hours When sct up it was about eight fect: square, with doors in all sides, anda shed roof, "The roof was made in three scotions, the middle one being hingwl go that it eould be raised for’ observing. ‘Those observatories proved to: be very strong and sorviecable. ‘They year with oucaxional slight repains, were trunsporteid many t san nber of places in Europe, Asi North and South America, They were designed by MrT, A, Rogers, and constewctod at the Washington Navy Yard, Upon arriving at a point where observations were to le made, after obtaining the necessary permits from the focal authorities, a suit= won for the observatory wasthe first consideration, The were, a olear view of the heavens in the able essential requirements tive il rape | and. pro} raph hw spot being found and Y owner far ite use, an apprexi- uy Hing was laid out by eompass, and the house set up with reference ty it. Experience soon shoved t certain additions to the observatory not eod aq or em af the te nuk Fesigans, Int which added much to convenience and oo Felegraphic Determinations of Longitude, z A foundation was made, of timbers abent six inches square, sor- tised together at the ends whieh could be placed in position and civatory was set up, rendering this operation A floor was Inid upon Shelves were put ap at resting plices for tools and small justru- file corner, supported the clrnometer, place for an adsistant tu record observa- various points, affordin ments, while a table and offered a eonyenic tions, eto. ‘The principal instrument used was the transit. ‘Those furnished for the use of the expedition were designed hy Mr... A. Rogorsy and constricted under his supervision in the repair shop of the Hydrographic office. The abjeo! glasses, made by the Clarks at Cambridge, were of 28 inelies elvar aperatire with a focal is ‘of thirty ineles, The instruments were of the prismatic ar broken" form ia whieh thi eve pieoe ix at ume end of the axis, and the light is reflected fram the object glues to the eye by a prism placed at the jutiction of the telescope tine with the sbxie, ‘The observer does not have to change the pasition of his eye, no matter what the sonith i! Tip tar may be, renders observation much les fatiguing: and can The eve-picoe was Gurnished with the iisual 3 roticle and alee with a filar micrumcter for the measurement of aenith distaieos for tatitade, A yertiosl fining cirele wwwx on re-pieews end of the avis, and the instrument was provided glso with a hortmutal Je, fourteen inches in diameter, yraduated to tot secunds. parts wore the striding and zouith twles sand the huminaring loupe, Tho ems of supported bis Veoav the centre was serewed tay thie to socket surmounting the tripe conical in shape anel s was 20 placed | axis supported ina yertical axis was slightly rately fitted inty its seeker, A serow wath, thar the it the instru mont, could bw raised slight tally into any des i Is by the fii rabnwent there wus used at first, a portable pier made in the shape of the frustrunn of «cone, of strong-oak staves, firmly honud with irow oops and when set op, filled with sind orearth, Salseyuentl a brick pier was found th'he mor stable and. the wooden ones 401 were discurtled. 8 Nitional Geographic Magazine, OF equal importance with the transit was the Chrousmeter, ‘The expedition was supplied with four ef these made by Negue of New York, ‘They were regulated to sidereal time, and provided with a trvak cireuit arrangerent, ‘This consists of a toothed wheel acting on a jewel pallet attached toa light «tel spring. In this spring isa platinum point, which tonehes unether Platinum point, exeopt when the spring is acted upon by the toothed wheel. ‘These points are connected respectively with terminals on the outside of the chronometer, and. are inaulaved from each other except at their point of contact. "The eleetrie cirouit is complete through the ehronometer except when the teeth of the wheel acting on the jewel pallet separate the points. ‘The cirenit is opened for about one-fortieth of a sceand and closed during the rest of the time, One tooth in the wheel is omitted and the cinowit remains unbroken at that point which is the beginning of each minute. Each ehtonoineter is pravided with wer to take up the extra current, amd avoid burning a points ‘These chraiomoters were inet ‘excellent instra- ments, the rate was generally small and -very regular, and did not seem to be influenced in any way by the passage of the current. ‘They arestill in usu, and are as eflivient a ever; ‘The expedition was at first provided with a substitum for the ronoggeaph in the shape of the okt fashiened Morse telograph tugister, In this a steel point or stylet was pircssed hy the action of an electromagnet against along fillet of paper, unwaund by clockwork at a rate or Tess regular, ‘hig magnet was in ciewiit with the ehrohiometer and with a break eirquit key in the observer's hand. As long as the wloctrio ciecuit was clused the Tor made a vontinuens indented stright Tine onthe papers but vken, wither ty the chranuneter or the flow lack and feft the paper uunarked oed, The effect of the action af the meter was te zmduate the fillet of paper inty a scries: of straight indentations, from one to two inches in length, separated Uy anmarked spaces frou gg to 4 incl in length, ~ When the key Was presi an independent amd by the relation in dis splice anil the boxinining of the second sjaes ianmedtately ing and following, th y wns determined, ‘The omission of the Ivevak at the sixtieth second, tile the aark of double. lengthy and hence the beginning of the minute wis ar space was Inft on Talegraphic Determinations af Longitude, ® easily recognized, ‘These instruments served their purpose very well, but had several disadvantages ‘The rate of movement of the paper was not regular; when the clockwork was first wound nip the motion was rapid and the second spaces long, and as the spring ran down the marks bocame shorter and shorter, Another drawbsek was the great length of the fillet; with spaces only an inch in length, it required five feet of paper to record a minute 1 time, and after a night’s observation, there would be several jindred feet to examine, measure and record, oecupying the greater part of the following day, By stopping the instrament between the observations something was gained in this reepee ‘but this tended somewhat te confusion and error in keeping th record, They were only used for ane season's work, and in thwir sted were procured two cylinder chromographs, imide by Bon of Boston, ‘These werd fine instruments, but somewhat too delicate to stand the necessary transportat Thy these inate ments as in most other chronographe hes in diameter is made to revolye b cork ance in a minute, An electro-magnot mounted ona catriage actuated hy the same ck-work moves alongside the eyllnder, (va dircetion parallel with its axis, at thy rate of abont nu euhth of an inch ina minute. ‘The armatare of the magnet eqrries attached to ita por, the point of which rests upona sheet of the paper wrapped around the eglinder. While the cireuit through the coils of the maynet is complete, the pon makes a continuous spiral Tine upon the paper, hat when the qirquit is broken by the chronometer, or key, it tes to one side making an offset, and immediately returns to its position, as spon ax the « is again closed. ‘Phe result is te uate the Whole surface of the paper inte second spaces, from 1 the observations can he romd aff with the greatest eave. For supplying the electric current, thers wax used at fir, a ioification Of the Smee battery, lait this pri unieertaite Ih stéength, a gravity battery was substituted, amd afterwards a nbier of LaClinehs cells were precured. Upon the first expedition, no telegraph instruments were oar ried, but the use of such as were needed, was easily obtained from the telogriph sompanies, The Tine het ‘Aspinwall and Panama was in good condition and ne trowlle wus experienced in exohanging the time si by which was effected the compari- son of the chronometer, Wires were stretuhed from the observa tories in eae phice to the respective telegraph offices, and for wll National Geographic: Mag 1M the exchange of

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