Gale Virtual Reference Library - Document - Oceans

5/21/2018 Gale Virtual Reference Library - Document - Oceans
Oceans
Kathleen L. Abdalla
Achieving Sustainability: Visions, Principles, and Practices. Ed. Debra Rowe. Vol. 2. Detroit: Macmillan Reference
USA, 2014. p557-564.
Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2014 Gale, Cengage Learning
Full Text:
Page 557
Oceans
Threats to Sustainability
Impact of Climate Change
Ocean Governance
Resources
Achieving sustainability will not be possible without the sustainable management of oceans. Oceans comprise 72
percent of the earth's surface and constitute a major part of the planet that supports life. They drive the climate and
hydrological cycles and provide vital resources such as fish, minerals, and ecosystem services. Oceans also play
an important role in the global climate system by generating oxygen and absorbing up to 30 percent of global
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Oceans, seas, islands, and coastal areas form an integrated and essential
component of the earth's ecosystem and are critical for global food security, sustainable economic prosperity, and
the well-being of many national economies, particularly in developing countries. Ensuring healthy and productive
oceans is vital for achieving sustainable development.
In 2009 fish provided 3 billion people with almost 20 percent of their animal protein, and 4.3 billion people with
about 15 percent of such protein. In developing countries the share of fish to total protein consumption was 19.2
percent, and for low-income, food-deficit countries it amounted to 24 percent. In 2010 fish and aquatic plant sales
totaled US$217.5 billion, and the fisheries industry provided livelihoods for about 55 million people. In addition,
fisheries and aquaculture provide numerous jobs in ancillary activities such as processing, packaging, marketing,
and distribution; manufacturing of fish-processing equipment; net and gear making; ice production and supply;
boat construction and maintenance; research; and administration. This employment is estimated to support the
livelihoods of 660 to 820 million people, or about 10 to 12 percent of the world's population. Recent trends indicate
a decline in capture fishing and an increase in aquaculture, which amounted to 90.4 and 63.6 million metric tonnes
(99.6 and 70.1 million US tons), respectively, in 2011. Capture fish production has stayed roughly the same during
the period 2007 to 2012, but aquatic fisheries have increased yields from 47.3 million metric tonnes (52.1 million
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US tons) in 2006 or by a total of 33 percent (FAO 2012).
Apart from food and livelihood provision, oceans represent a natural resource with respect to the travel and
tourism, mining, telecommunication, and transportation industries. The travel and tourism industries employ 230
million people, or 8 percent of the population in developing countries (IOC/UNESCO, IMO, FAO, UNDP 2011). In
some small island states, tourism contributes up to 50 percent of gross national product (GNP). The oil industry
has advanced deepwater drilling technologies, and associated oil wells in 2012 totaled 1,400; in 2009 offshore
fields accounted for 32 percent of worldwide crude oil production. This percentage is expected to increase to 34
percent by 2025 (IEA 2010). Offshore wind and tidal power are used for electricity generation; though not yet
significant in terms of total energy produced, these growing uses represent alternative energy sources for the
future. Shipping and ports provide significant economic benefits and jobs in coastal areas. International shipping
transports 90 percent of global trade benefiting developed and developing countries. In addition, some marine
species have been analyzed and tested for pharmaceutical use, among others in the areas of cancer, HIV, and
malaria treatment (UN 2011). It is noteworthy that 40 percent of the world's population, or more than 2.8 billion
people, live within 100 kilometers (62 mi) of the coast, and that thirteen of the world's twenty rapidly growing urban
areas or
Page 558 | Top of Article

The data depicted show average salinity from May 27 to June 2, 2012, in a range from 30 to 40 grams per
kilogram, with 35 grams being the average. Lower values are represented in purples and blues; higher
values are shown in shades of orange and red. Black areas occur where no data were available, either due
to the orbit of the satellite or because the ocean was covered by ice. (CORBIS.)
megacities are located in low-lying coastal areas (IOC/UNESCO, IMO, FAO, UNDP 2011).
Threats to Sustainability
Oceans represent the ultimate public good, with resources available for access by all. Given that no single entity
oversees and manages exploitation and use of ocean resources, we face formidable challenges in reversing many
current threats to achieve sustainability and ensuring that future generations enjoy the multitude of benefits
sustainably managed oceans can provide.
THE GREAT OCEAN CONVEYOR BELT

Ocean temperature, salinity, density, and pressure are important factors that interact with each other and help
to drive deep water ocean circulation. Temperature varies considerably with latitudes and ocean depth.
Salinity also varies with ocean depth: water added by rainfall decreases salinity, and water removed through
evaporation increases salinity. Density is influenced inversely by temperature and directly by salinity.
Processes that change the density of seawater, especially water carried toward the colder Arctic and
Antarctic regions, cause it to rise or sink and in turn drive large-scale circulation between surface and deep
water. Winds also affect surface seawater currents. The oceans have
Full Text:
Fish Stocks Decline
The management of marine fisheries is an integral component of sustainable oceans management and an
imperative given the alarming decline in fish stocks worldwide. In 2010 the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO) indicated that combined estimates for fully exploited, overexploited, and depleted fish
stocks, and those recovering from depletion, were 82 percent. Causes of fish stock decline include overcapacity or
redundant capacity of fishing fleets, destructive fishing practices including bottom Page 559 | Top of
Articletrawling, subsidies that encourage overfishing, and the prevalence of “illegal, unregulated and unreported”
fishing (FAO 2012). Demand for fish worldwide has increased dramatically, with per capita consumption doubling
since 1960. The catch from marine fisheries peaked in 1996 at 86.4 million metric tonnes (95.2 million US tons) of
global marine catch but declined to 77.4 million metric tonnes (85.3 million US tons) in 2010, reflecting a
worsening condition in fish stocks rather than a decline in fishing capacity (FAO 2012).
Fully exploited stocks, that is, those producing at close to their maximum sustainable yield and thus with no room
for further expansion of the catch, represented 57 percent of the total catch in 2009, the last year for which data are
available. Overexploited fish stocks produce lower yields, that is, they reproduce at levels lower than their
biological or ecological potential and require strict management to rebuild stock abundance and restore full and
sustainable productivity. Over-exploited fish stocks accounted for almost 30 percent of the total catch in 2009 (FAO
2012). Only 13 percent of the catch was non-fully exploited stocks. Most of the stocks of the top ten species in the
catch, which account for 30 percent of the catch, are in the fully exploited or overexploited categories, which
include Alaskan pollock, blue whiting, Atlantic herring, Japanese anchovy, Chilean mackerel, chub mackerel, and
various tuna and tunalike species. For many species the situation is dire. For example, in many areas bluefin tuna
is completely depleted, and in those areas where it is still found, it is seriously overexploited (FAO 2012). This
situation led some members of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES) to propose a ban on fishing Atlantic bluefin in 2010, but it was not adopted (Jolly and Broder 2010).
Other species, such as cod, are characterized by a dearth of older fish that produce a higher number of eggs, thus
increasing the challenges of maintaining sustainable stock levels. Some countries have made good progress in
reducing exploitation rates and restoring overexploited fish stocks and marine ecosystems with effective
management programs. In the United States 67 percent of all fish stocks are sustainably harvested, in New
Zealand 69 percent of stocks are above management targets, and in Australia only 12 percent of stocks were
overfished in 2009 (FAO 2012). As countries begin to
Figure 1. Thermohaline Circulation Conveyor Belt. Green arrows indicate cold, deep ocean currents. Red
arrows show shallow, warm water circulation patterns. W. Broecker, modified by E. Maier-Reimer. (Reproduced
by permission of Gale, a part of Cengage Learning.)
implement sustainable fisheries management plans, international attention has turned to highly migratory,
straddling, and other fishery resources that are exploited in the high seas and thus more difficult to manage at the
national level. The United Nations (UN) Fish Stocks Agreement, formally titled, “Agreement for the Implementation
of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the
Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (in force as from 11
December 2001),” is intended to address such issues in the high seas (UN 1995). On the advice of the UN,
regional fisheries management organizations have been set up in many regions to better coordinate fish stock
policies and actions.
OCEANS AND THE GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE
The oceans are a fundamental component of the global carbon cycle and act as a sink for carbon dioxide
emissions. Most of the world's carbon resides in the oceans: critical exchanges take place between the
surface ocean and the atmosphere, and between the upper ocean and the deep ocean. Although this
complex system is not completely understood, scientists have long recognized the importance of the oceans
in absorbing CO2 emissions, and therefore reducing the share that accumulates in the atmosphere. It is
estimated that 25 to 30 percent of cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions have been absorbed by the
oceans (“Oceans' Uptake of Manmade Carbon May Be Slowing” 2009). Although the oceans have long been
assumed to provide an almost bottomless sink for these emissions, scientific findings have pointed to
adverse impacts of increasing concentrations of CO2 in the oceans.
Impact of Climate Change

Climate change caused by the emission of gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2), into the atmosphere as a result
of human activity has had, and is expected to continue to have, adverse impacts on oceans, seas, and marine life.
CO2 levels in the atmosphere have increased from 280 parts per million (ppm) prior to the industrial age to 395
ppm in 2013, an increase of 38 percent. Since the early twentieth century the climate has warmed by 0.8°C (1.4°F),
mostly since the 1980s, and scientists warn that keeping temperature rise below 2°C implies limiting CO2 to 450
ppm. Impacts on oceans have included to various degrees rising temperatures, rising sea levels from warmer
seas, as well as melting ice, loss of marine biodiversity, and ocean acidification. Scientists at the University of
Innsbruck in Austria identified glacier melting as causing 11 centimeters (4.3 in) of the total 20 centimeter (7.9 in)
sea rise between 1902 and 2007, and predicted that by 2100 melting glaciers could cause sea levels to rise by an
additional 22 centimeters (8.6 in) (Marzeion et al. 2012). The summer thinning of the Arctic ice and melting of sea
ice around the Arctic Ocean is greater and occurring faster than expected. The 2012 level of summer Arctic ice
cover reached a record low of 3.4 million square kilometers (1.3 million sq mi) and may nearly disappear by mid-
century (Overland and Wang 2013). There has been some concern that the impact of colder and less salty water
intrusions could affect the dynamics of the ocean currents, but the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) indicated that this is unlikely to occur. As of 2013 the IPCC was preparing an in-depth consideration of
oceans for its Fifth Assessment Report.
The warming of the seas is another cause, along with freshwater runoff, of rising sea waters as well as contributing
to more frequent and more extreme weather events such as hurricanes and typhoons. Although it is difficult to
attribute any single weather event to climate change, many scientists predict a significant increase in the incidence
and severity of extreme weather events. Feedback mechanisms that are difficult to control could kick in, such as
the presence of less ice to absorb and reflect sunlight, causing the sun to warm oceans more, and the release of
methane gases when Arctic ice melts. Warming seas would also affect the range and depth of marine habitats and
are already thought to have seriously affected many areas that support coral reefs.
The oceans act as a carbon sink and have absorbed an estimated 25 to 30 percent of CO2 emitted into the
atmosphere since the start of the Industrial Revolution in the late eighteenth century. Unnoticed until recently,
changes in ocean chemistry are occurring because of higher levels of CO2. When CO2 dissolves in surface
seawater it reacts with water to form a weak carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid dissociates into bicarbonate
ions (HCO3) and hydrogen ions (H+). The release of hydrogen ions decreases the pH (increases the acidity) of
surrounding waters. Although the full impacts of rising ocean acidity are not completely understood, findings on the
sensitivity of corals to higher acidity and the weakening of shell formation by shellfish are cause for alarm. Shell
weights of pteropods (tiny marine organisms classified under zooplankton) and foraminifera (single-celled
organisms with shells), which provide food for animals ranging from tiny krill to whales and including salmon,
mackerel, herring, and cod, have measurably Page 561 | Top of Articledeclined. Entire marine ecosystems could
be affected, with segments of the food chain disappearing.
Many small island countries and coastal communities are dependent on fishing and fish processing industries and
tourism, and could suffer in terms of both economic and food security. The fishing industry contributes more than 6
percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in small island countries as well as in some developing countries with a
high proportion of coastal communities, such as Namibia, Ghana, and Senegal (UNEP et al. 2012; WorldFish
Center 2011). Should early twenty-first-century trends continue, marine-based tourism would be adversely affected
by declines in coral reefs and biodiversity. Threats to the foundation of the marine food web pose serious concern
for all relying on the marine fishing industry for livelihoods or as a source of nutrients. Declines in marine
biodiversity, especially segments on the fish food chain, would affect daily diets and the ability of many millions to
secure caloric and protein needs.
Full Text:
Pollution
Pollution from land-based sources such as agricultural runoff, untreated sewage, and discharge of nutrients and
pesticides poses formidable challenges to the sustainable management of oceans. Inefficient use of fertilizers
containing nitrogen and phosphorus, with the excess running off to nearby rivers and eventually into the ocean,
has contributed to eutrophication, characterized by high levels of algae and plankton growth that consume oxygen
and cause “dead zones” in coastal areas. In the absence of effective action, dead zones are expected to increase
significantly worldwide (UNEP et al. 2012) and by 50 percent in tropical areas by 2050 (Stramma et al. 2008.)
Waste disposal is a serious problem in many ports and coastal areas. Harbor development, urban development,
mining, fisheries, and manufacturing also contribute to marine pollution. Oil spills cause untold damage to marine
life and ecosystems, as demonstrated in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010; off the coast of Brazil in 2011; and by other
incidents off the coasts of China, Nigeria, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand. Some countries have taken
action at the national and local levels, but the problems persist. The problem of marine debris collecting in the high
seas and forming gyres in which plastics are broken down and eaten by fish and other marine species has
garnered international attention. The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) has formed a partnership to address
the problem.
Fish piracy. © 2011 MCT, National Marine Fisheries Servise, Graphic:Pat Carr (McClatchy-Tribune [MCT]
Newspapers.)
Marine Biodiversity
The rich and varied marine diversity of the oceans and seas, home to thirty-two of the thirty-four known phyla and
between half a million and ten million marine species, is at significant risk as a result of factors related to fishing—
overfishing; destructive fishing practices; and illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing—and the impacts
of climate change, pollution, eutrophication, and invasive species, which, in turn, threaten the ocean's capacity to
provide food and other market and nonmarket services. Overfishing, destructive fishing, and IUU are considered
the most serious causes of the fish stock decline detailed above. The trend of marine biodiversity loss is
accelerating on a global scale, with the secretariat of the Convention of Biodiversity (CBD) reporting that 20
percent of the world's coral reefs have been destroyed with no immediate prospects for recovery (WMO 2010).
Coral reefs are particularly important for maintaining healthy marine life because they provide nurture for many
marine species. A 2012 study identifies Australia's Great Barrier Reef as undergoing a decline in coral cover by
half since 1985 (De'ath, Fabricius, Sweatman, and Puotinen 2012).
Coral reef degradation can lead to significant economic losses. For example, by 2015 the Caribbean area could
realize US$95 million to US$140 million in diminished net revenues from fisheries and US$100 million to US$300
million in reduced income from tourism, according to the World Resources Institute (WRI). In addition, the WRI
predicts annual losses of US$140 million to US$420 million from reduced coastal protection by the 2060s (Burke
et al. 2011, 78). Worldwide, approximately 850 million people (one-eighth of the global population) live within 100
kilometers (62 mi) of reefs and derive some benefits from coral reefs, while over 275 million, mostly in developing
countries and island nations, depend directly on reefs for livelihoods and sustenance. Mangroves and seagrass
habitats, important for biodiversity, fisheries, and carbon sequestration, have suffered losses of 20 and 35 percent
respectively (Spalding, Kainuma, and Collins 2010; Waycott et al. 2009). Over 80 percent of the world's 232
marine ecoregions have reported the presence of invasive species, which is the second-most-significant cause of
biodiversity loss worldwide (UNEP et al. 2012).
Marine biodiversity loss is a complex problem, with the solution requiring myriad national and international steps.
As noted above, some countries have begun to tackle the causes of declines in fish stock levels. At the
international level, the CBD has made commitments to marine biodiversity, and its role in ensuring sustainable
development has been acknowledged in Agenda 21, the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, and the 2012 UN
Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) outcome. The establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
is a means of conserving biodiversity and marine habitats, but to date only about 27 percent of global coral reefs
are located inside MPAs, and only 6 percent are located in effectively managed MPAs (Burke et al. 2011).
Noise
Noise pollution is increasingly recognized as a challenge to sustainable management of the oceans and the
health of marine life. Sources of human-made noise include military vessels, oil tankers and ships, undersea
construction activities, cargo shipping, sonar systems, air guns, and explosives, with such noise having increased
a hundredfold since 1960. Adding to the problem is that seawater becomes less sound-absorbing as more CO2 is
absorbed. Human-made noise competes with communications sounds of many species, especially certain types of
whales that communicate on the same frequencies. Many species, such as whales and dolphins, seem to have
changed their behaviors, including calling, foraging, and migration patterns, as a result of increased ocean noise.
In some cases high noise levels are thought to have caused their beaching. But the exact effects of noise on ocean
animals is still unknown. Without a worldwide system to monitor ocean noise, data so far have been gathered only
at specific sites and for certain frequencies. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are working to raise
awareness of the issue both in the general public and in the seafaring community (National Research Council of
the National Academies 2003).
Ocean Governance
Individual countries, and the international community largely under the auspices of the UN General Assembly, are
engaged in governance of the oceans, including establishing policy norms and standards, setting rules and
regulations to create sustainable management of the oceans, and enforcement of regulations. Various NGOs play
important roles in raising awareness and developing constituencies to influence public policy. National laws in
many countries have dealt with sewage runoff, pesticide use, and other pollutants that harm marine life and
destroy coastal ecosystems, though enforcement of regulation requires expertise not available and/or insufficient
in many countries.
Often not one but many government ministries handle ocean issues, resulting in overlaps and gaps. Developed
countries and multilateral funds have extended assistance in solving wastewater and sewage runoff in some large
metropolitan areas of developing countries. Page 563 | Top of ArticlePublic–private partnerships have been
effective in some countries to address these problems. Many countries have also set up marine protected areas
within their jurisdictions. Nevertheless, problems persist in developing and some developed countries. The
general public is unfamiliar with emerging issues, such as inefficient fertilizer use, ocean debris, and pollutant
sources, that have international impacts, further complicating the resolution of ongoing problems.
Limiting CO2 emissions is necessary to address ocean acidification and the warming of the seas. At the
international level, this issue falls under the purview of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. The
UN General Assembly oversees ocean governance mainly through the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the
Sea, which sets out the legal framework under which all UN actions regarding the oceans and seas must be
carried out. The convention has 161 parties including 135 coastal countries; the United States is not a member of
the convention. The UN Conference on Environment and Development and subsequent sessions of the
Commission on Sustainable Development, the World Summit on Sustainable Development, and the UN
Conference on Sustainable Development placed the issue of sustainable management of oceans within the
context of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.
To deal with many of the ocean sustainability issues at the international level, the UN General Assembly in 1995
established the UN Fish Stocks Agreement under the 1982 convention to ensure the long-term conservation and
sustainable use of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stock while calling for effective enforcement by
flag states (that is, by the countries in which ships are registered). This agreement has seventy-eight members and
meets annually. The FAO agreed on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and
Unregulated Fishing in 2009 to prevent illegally caught fish from entering international markets. Other bodies
under the UN include the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of the Marine
Environment. The UN General Assembly also considers the sustainable oceans issues under the UN Informal
Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea, which has considered issues such as IUU fishing,
capacity building for developing countries, ocean acidification, marine genetic resources, fisheries, ecosystem
approaches to ocean management, and marine debris. The UN General Assembly has also set up a working
group to consider how to address the high seas (areas beyond national jurisdiction.)
Oceans were considered in depth at the Rio+20 conference in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2012. Many participants
and NGOs complained that the process on the urgent and complex issues facing oceans has been too slow. UN
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has advocated for more sustainable use and management of oceans and set up
an Oceans Compact, which calls for concrete action including reducing vulnerabilities to marine-related hazards
and protecting and recovering food and livelihoods. The Oceans Compact sets specific goals for protecting coastal
and marine areas and reducing pressures on coral reefs and ocean acidification. The World Bank has established
the Global Partnership for Oceans to use and leverage resources for more efficient and sustainable oceans
management.
See also Climate Change ; Ecosystem Health ; Ecosystem Services ; Global Governance ; Pollution ; Tidal Power
.
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Kathleen L. Abdalla
Division of Sustainable Development,
United Nations (retired)
Source Citation (MLA 8th Edition)

Abdalla, Kathleen L. "Oceans." Achieving Sustainability: Visions, Principles, and Practices, edited by Debra
Rowe, vol. 2, Macmillan Reference USA, 2014, pp. 557-564. Gale Virtual Reference Library,
http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3709800098/GVRL?u=j043905001&sid=GVRL&xid=2ca81027.
Accessed 21 May 2018.
Gale Document Number: GALE|CX3709800098

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Page 558 | Top of Article

THE GREAT OCEAN CONVEYOR BELT

Fish Stocks Decline

Page 560 | Top of Article

OCEANS AND THE GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE

Impact of Climate Change

Page 562 | Top of Article

December 2001).” Accessed August 28, 2013. Available from

Source Citation (MLA 8th Edition)

Gale Document Number: GALE|CX3709800098

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