Women's Vulnerability To Water-Related Hazards: Comparing Three Areas Affected by Climate Change in Bangladesh

${protocol}://www.developmentbookshelf.com/doi/pdf/10.3362/1756-3488.2009.025 - Wednesday, May 23, 2018 12:01:22 AM - University of South Florida IP Address:131.247.112.
Women’s vulnerability to water-related

hazards: comparing three areas affected by
climate change in Bangladesh
M.D. GOLAM RABBANI, A. ATIQ RAHMAN and
KHANDAKER MAINUDDIN
Various climate change-related events such as heatwaves, cold waves, flood,

drought, sea-level rise (SLR), salinity intrusion and cyclones have both di-
rect and indirect adverse impacts on human beings. This paper is primarily
based on a study conducted to explore gender vulnerability at the commu-
nity level due to water-related natural hazards (flood, drought and salinity
intrusion) and possible coping mechanisms. Both secondary and primary
data have been used and analysed to identify vulnerability. The study in-
dicates that the extreme events (e.g. flood, drought and salinity intrusion)
have adverse impacts which are different for different population groups.
In reality, women are affected more severely: their role is quite negligible
in decision making, and participation in training related to climate change
issues are also insignificant. This implies that the effects of climate change-
related events on women are quite conspicuous compared with other popula-
tion groups.
Keywords: flooding, drought, saline intrusion, disaster management

planning, gender
CLIMATE CHANGE AND CLIMATE VARIABILITY issues have become an addi-

tional threat to the lives, livelihoods and sustainable development
not only of Bangladesh but almost all over the world. The recent
Climate change finding of the Fourth Assessment Report of the world scientific com-
impacts are already munity, represented by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
visible across the Change (IPCC), demonstrates that human activities are responsible
world in various for global warming and global climate change. Climate change im-
pacts are already visible across the world in various forms. This is
forms
demonstrated through various recent extreme climatic events such as
M.D. Golam Rabbani is with the Environment and Climate Change Division, A. Atiq Rahman is the Executive Director,
and Khandaker Mainuddin is with the Socio-economic Division, Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies. This research
was supported by CapNet (Capacity Building Network for Integrated Water Resources Management). We are also
grateful to our BCAS colleagues especially Farhad Hossain, Naima Ansar Khan and Sadakunnahar Parash, who helped
in information collection and formating of this document.
© Practical Action Publishing, 2009, www.practicalactionpublishing.org
doi: 10.3362/1756-3488.2009.025, ISSN: 0262-8104 (print) 1756-3488 (online)
Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3 July 2009
236 M.D. GOLAM RABBANI et al.
${protocol}://www.developmentbookshelf.com/doi/pdf/10.3362/1756-3488.2009.025 - Wednesday, May 23, 2018 12:01:22 AM - University of South Florida IP Address:131.247.112.3
prolonged floods and severe drought in South Asia and Africa, heat-
waves in Europe, devastating cyclones and tidal surges (Katrina and
Rita) on Atlantic coasts (Rahman et al., 2007).
It has been predicted that Bangladesh may face the adverse impacts
Bangladesh has too of climate change because of its geophysical location, hydrological
much water during influence of monsoon rainfall and regional water flow patterns. In
the monsoon, and fact, the country has too much water during the monsoon, causing
too little water in floods, and too little water in the dry season. This situation may be
the dry season aggravated in the warmer climate resulting in severe droughts and
increasing floods. It has also been predicted that by 2030 and 2050
sea level will rise at least by 30 and 50 cm, respectively (World Bank,
2000). This may lead to serious environmental, social and economic
problems for the country. The recent report shows that a 25 cm sea-
level rise may cause the loss of 40 per cent of Sundarban while a sea-
level rise above 60 cm may submerge the whole Sundarban (Hare,
2003). Further, for a 1 m sea-level rise, 21 per cent of the country
will be inundated by salt water (Rahman et al., 2007a; Rahman et
al., 2007b). Analysis of past floods suggests that about 26 per cent of
the country is subject to annual flooding and an additional 42 per
cent is at risk of floods with varied intensity (IPCC, 2001). In fact,
these events have already affected agriculture, mangroves including
the Sunderbans and the coastal ecosystem. Climate change and pos-
sible sea-level rise is likely to inundate the coastal wetlands, lowlands,
accentuate coastal erosion, increase frequent and severe floods, and
create drainage and irrigation problems. Poor and marginal groups
would be critically affected by the possible sea-level rise and salinity
intrusion in the Bangladesh coastal zone.
It is estimated that more than 1 million people will be directly af-
More than 1 million
fected by sea-level rise by 2050 in each of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-
people are expected Meghna delta in Bangladesh (Cruz et al., 2007; Rahman et al., 2007).
to be directly However, the country is also vulnerable to recurrent cyclone and
affected by sea-level storm surges, drought, temperature and rainfall variation, and erratic
rise by 2050 weather patterns. According to the IPCC ‘climate change impacts will
be differently distributed among different regions, generations, age
classes, income groups, occupations and genders’ (IPCC 2001). The
most recent report states that the effects of climate change, mani-
fested in the increase of extreme weather conditions, indicates gen-
der-specific implications in terms of both vulnerability and adaptive
capacity (Ahmed et al., 2007).
Rationale
Bangladesh faces the onslaught of various catastrophic events relat-
ed to water, particularly floods, cyclone/storm surges, drought and
July 2009 Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3

WOMEN’S VULNERABILITY TO WATER-RELATED HAZARDS 237
salinity intrusion, which may be aggravated under anticipated cli-

Women, children
mate stimuli including variability and extreme events. These extreme
and those with events often adversely affect most sectors including lives and live-
disabilities may be lihoods. Women, children and those with disabilities may be more
more vulnerable to vulnerable to the above extreme conditions. The key planning and
extreme climatic policy document of the Government of Bangladesh (2005) states that
events women suffer from higher levels of mortality and morbidity mainly
because of environmental hazards and malnourishment.
In Bangladesh, women represent the majority of low-income earn-
ers (working in garments, construction, agricultural, domestic sectors,
etc.). They maintain their households, take care of their families and
attend their places of work every day. In fact, most of the women fight
each and every day to perform regular activities. Women generally
have a lower education level than men and lack access to information
and technology, and are thus more likely to be technically inefficient
in farming. Crop diversification, livestock varieties, including the re-
placement of plant types, hybrids and animal breeds with new vari-
Adaptation options eties with higher drought, heat, flood and salinity tolerance, which
are rarely available are recommended as adaptation options to climate change, are rarely
to poor women available to such women farmers. Naturally and culturally, women in
Bangladesh especially in rural areas are reluctant to take any decisions
farmers
on their own.
The risks and vulnerabilities of the different groups within the pop-
ulation, including women, men and children, due to climate-related
hazards have been evaluated under this research in three areas prone
to flood, drought and salinity intrusion. BCAS (Bangladesh Centre
for Advanced Studies) has been assigned by CapNet (Capacity Build-
ing Network for Integrated Water Resources Management) to conduct
this research.
Objective and methodology

The main objective of the study is to identify and bring into focus the
specific risks and vulnerabilities confronted by the affected popula-
tion especially women and children. In addition, participation and
the role played by women in disaster risk management is an impor-
tant highlight of the study. Moreover, emphasis has been given to
formulate the strategies that will strengthen the capacity of the com-
munity to prepare for coping with the hazards.
The approach and methodology for conducting the proposed re-
search involved multiple methods and tools. A reconnaissance survey
was conducted to determine the research sites to be studied. The sites
(one site for each issue) were selected based on the following hazards
(direct or indirect)-related vulnerability issues:

• drought;
• flood;
• salinity intrusion.
Secondary data and information were collected from relevant

The study examined agencies to identify study areas exposed to different climate-related
the role played by hazards. The documents available from government, NGO and re-
women in disaster search/academic institutions on climate/water-related natural haz-
risk management ards, impacts on vulnerable groups and their adaptation strategies
were thoroughly reviewed to meet the study objectives.
A questionnaire for the sample survey and a checklist for focus
group discussions were developed to collect the primary data from
the study sites. A number of issues including perception of climate/
water-related natural hazards, effects of hazards on vulnerable groups
and coping strategies were emphasized in both questionnaire and
checklist.
Primary data collection

Different methods were adopted to collect, assess and analyse the risks
and vulnerability of the target groups (e.g. women, children, people
with disabilities, minority ethnic groups, etc.). The methods included
a sample survey and focus group discussions.
Sample survey. A sample survey was carried out on the target population
in each of selected sites. The number of respondents for sample survey
was women from 100 households for each site. A questionnaire was
developed incorporating a number of issues including impacts of
flood, drought and salinity intrusion and socio-economic profile of
the target population. The households included in the sample survey
were randomly selected for each site.
Focus group discussion (FGD). Two FGDs were conducted at each site.
One was with only women participants. The other was mixed with
both male and female participants.
Survey data were analysed using the SPSS software package. Quali-
tative information from the FGDs was analysed accordingly. A draft
report was prepared based on available findings. The findings of the
research were shared at the national level to validate and obtain feed-
back from the relevant stakeholders and experts in order to finalize
the report.
Description of the study areas

As mentioned above, three districts which are exposed to drought,
flood and salinity problems were selected for the study.

Study site 1: Manikganj (flood-prone area). Nearly 1.3 million people live
in an area of 1,379 km2 (Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 2003). Main
rivers are the Padma, Jamuna, Dhaleshwari, Ichamati and Kaliganga.
Annual temperature: maximum 36°C and minimum 12.7°C; annual
rainfall 2,376 mm. Average literacy 26.9 per cent (male 33.7 per
cent, female 20.1 per cent). Main occupations include agriculture,
Flooding is one of fishing, agricultural labouring, wage labouring, industry, commerce,
the main hazards construction, service and transport. Flooding is one of the main
of the people of hazards of the people of Manikganj. This site is known as a flood-
prone area (FPA) of the country. The study villages of Manikganj
Manikganj
district are Nihanda and Raninagar under Shivalaya upazila.
Study site 2: Rajshahi (drought-prone area). The population and area

of Rajshahi district are approximately 2.3 million and 2,407 km2,
respectively (Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 2003). Main rivers in
and around Rajshahi are the Ganges, Mahananda, Baral and Barnai.
Annual average temperature: maximum 37.8°C, minimum 11.2°C;
annual rainfall 1,862 mm. Average literacy is 30.61 per cent (male
37.6 per cent and female 23.2 per cent). The main occupations
include agriculture, wage labouring, commerce, service and transport.
The people of Rajshahi have been suffering from drought for over
two decades. Godagari is one of the most drought-affected upazillas
(sub-district) in Rajshahi, the drought-prone area (DPA). Two villages,
namely Faradpur and Charbhubanpara of Godagari upazilla under
Rajshahi district, were selected for the study.
Study site 3: Satkhira (salinity-prone area). The area and population of

Satkhira district is 3,858 km2 and approximately 2 million, respectively.
Main rivers are Kobadak, Sonai, Kholpatua, Morischap, Raimangal,
Hariabhanga, Ichamati, Betrabati and Kalindi-Jamuna. Annual average
temperature: maximum 35.5°C, minimum 12.5°C and annual rainfall
1,710 mm. Average literacy is 30.35 per cent (male 39.7 per cent and
Salinity intrusion, female 21 per cent). The main occupations are agriculture, fishing,
coastal flooding pisciculture, agricultural labouring, wage labouring, commerce,
and cyclone are the industry, transport and service. Salinity intrusion, coastal flooding
major hazards for and cyclone are the major hazards for Satkhira. This study identifies
Satkhira as the most affected salinity-prone area (SPA). Jelekhali and
Satkhira
Harinagar villages were covered in the survey of Satkhira district.
Findings of the study

Demographic and socio-economic profile
It appears from the data that the age of most of the household members
from all study sites is between 15 and 30 years (31.9 per cent). Overall,
males and females composed 52 per cent and 48 per cent of the popula-
tion, respectively.

The respondents of the study were found to range in age from 16

to over 60 years. It was found that most of the respondents were be-
tween 31 and 45 years of age (50.3 per cent) while only 5 per cent of
the respondents were above 50. On the other hand, over 50 per cent
of the respondents in flood- and salinity-prone areas were in the age
group of 31 to 45 while only 41 per cent of the respondents in the
drought-prone area were in this age group.
Table 2 shows that a large proportion of the respondents in all
A large proportion flood-, drought- and salinity-prone areas were illiterate. Only a few
of the respondents respondents were found to be academically qualified with a Bachelor
in all areas were degree. Specifically, out of 300 respondents in all three study areas,
illiterate more than 40 per cent were found to be illiterate while only 8 per
cent had SSC (Secondary School Certificate, 10th Grade) and HSC
(Higher Secondary Certificate, 12th Grade) or a Bachelor degree. The
remainder had either primary or secondary school education. In the
flood-prone area, the illiteracy rate was found to be the highest (46
per cent) while it is lowest (36 per cent) in Satkhira. In contrast, 3
per cent of respondents in the flood-prone area had a Bachelor de-
gree while none of the respondents from the salinity-prone area had
the same. In the drought-prone area, none of the respondents had a
Bachelor degree or even HSC.
Most of the respondents in all the studied hazard-prone areas were
found to be household workers by profession. Only a few of them
Table 1. Age group of respondents by district

Age group District
Manikganj (FPA) Rajshahi (DPA) Satkhira (SPA) All
16–30 31 (31.0) 32 (32.0) 11 (11.0) 74 (24.7)
31–45 52 (52.0) 41 (41.0) 58 (58.0) 151 (50.3)
46–60 13 (13.0) 24 (24.0) 23 (23.0) 60 (20.0)
60+ 4 (4.0) 3 (3.0) 8 (8.0) 15 (5.0)
Total 100 (100.0) 100 (100.0) 100 (100.0) 300 (100.0)
Note: Figures within parentheses represent percentages
Table 2. Education status of respondents by district

Education status District
Manikganj Rajshahi Satkhira All
Illiterate 46 (46.0) 42 (42.0) 36 (36.0) 124 (41.3)
Primary 19 (19.0) 37 (37.0) 46 (46.0) 102 (34.0)
Secondary 19 (19.0) 16 (16.0) 15 (15.0) 50 (16.7)
SSC 8 (8.0) 5 (5.0) 2 (2.0) 15 (5.0)
HSC 5 (5.0) – 1 (1.0) 6 (2.0)
Degree/bachelor 3 (3.0) – – 3 (1.0)
Total 100 (100.0) 100 (100.0) 100 (100.0) 300 (100.0)

work either in government or in non-government sectors. Some of

them have different occupations including farming, non-agricultural
labour or students. The study indicates that 92 per cent of the respon-
dents from the three study areas together were housewives. Only less
than 2 per cent of respondents were found to be working in other
sectors including agriculture, service, or as students.
The monthly income of the studied households varied from less
than 2,000 taka (US$30; exchange rate: 1 taka = $0.015, 7 May 2009) to
above 8,000 taka ($120). Most of the household surveyed earns 4,000
to 6,000 taka ($60–90). The household income per month was found
to be comparably higher in the flood-prone area than in the drought-
and salinity-prone areas. It shows that out of 100 households in each
study area, monthly income of most households remains between
2,000 and 4,000 taka. In fact, 45 per cent of households in salinity-
prone areas were found to be earning less than 4,000 taka per month
compared with 32 and 35 per cent in flood- and drought-prone areas,
respectively. On the other hand, 19 per cent of the households in the
flood-prone area earn over 8,000 taka ($120) per month (Table 4).
Table 3. Distribution of respondents by occupation by district

Occupation District
Manikganj Rajshahi Satkhira All
(FPA) (DPA) (SPA)
Agriculture – 1 (1.0) – 1 (0.3)
Household work 95 (95.0) 98 (98.0) 83 (83.0) 276 (92.0)
Non-agricultural labour – – 4 (4.0) 4 (1.3)
Service 2 (2.0) – 2 (2.0) 4 (1.3)
Student 2 (2.0) – 1 (1.0) 3 (1.0)
Retired 1 (1.0) – 5 (5.0) 6 (2.0)
Others – 1 (1.0) 5 (5.0) 6 (2.0)
Total 100 (100.0) 100 (100.0) 100 (100.0) 300 (100.0)
Table 4. Distribution of households surveyed by monthly income by district

Monthly income District
(taka) Manikganj Rajshahi Satkhira All
(FPA) (DPA) (SPA)
Up to 2000 4 (4.0) 4 (4.0) 31 (31.0) 39 (13.0)
2000–4000 32 (32.0) 35 (35.0) 45 (45.0) 112 (37.3)
4000–6000 28 (28.0) 30 (30.0) 16 (16.0) 74 (24.7)
6000–8000 17 (17.0) 15 (15.0) 2 (2.0) 34 (11.3)
8000+ 19 (19.0) 16 (16.0) 6 (6.0) 41 (13.7)
Total 100 (100.0) 100 (100.0) 100 (100.0) 300 (100.0)
Note: Figures within parentheses represent percentages. The exchange rate was
100 taka = $1.5

Vulnerability context
Perception of the household respondents on changes in living standard
Many people in the last decade was different in specific study locations (Figure 1).
mentioned that In flood- and drought-prone areas, the living standard improved while
living standards had in the salinity-prone area it deteriorated, as mentioned by most of the
not changed over respondents. On the other hand, many people mentioned that the liv-
the years ing standard had not changed over the years. Out of 300 respondents,
about 43 per cent respondents mentioned that the living standard had
improved while 27 per cent of them said it had deteriorated. About
30.0 per cent respondents said that it was the ‘same’ which means the
living standard had neither increased nor decreased.
Main water-related hazards

Figure 2 indicates that all the study districts are exposed to flood to
some extent, while Rajshahi was identified as a drought-affected area
by most of the respondents and Satkhira was identified as a salin-
ity-affected area. From Figure 2 it is apparent that while the highest
number of total households is affected by flood, a significant num-
ber suffer from drought and salinity intrusion. However, flooding has
Flooding emerged emerged as the main water-related hazard, as each district mentioned
as the main water- it, albeit only 14 per cent from Rajshahi and 21.9 per cent from Satkh-
related hazard ira. During the group discussion with the household members (both
male and female), a similar opinion was found on the main hazard
affecting them in each of the study areas.
80
70
60
% of respondents
50
Flood Prone Area
40 Drought Prone Area
30 Salinity Prone Area
20
10
0
Improved Deteriorated Same
Status of living standard
Figure 1. Percentage distribution of households’ perceptions on ‘changes in

living standard’ by study area

120
100
% of respondents
80
Manikganj
60 Rajshahi
Satkhira
40
20
0
Flood Drought Saline Intrusion
Study district
Figure 2. Percentage distribution of households’ perceptions of the main water-

related hazards in the study area
Mortality attributed to water-related hazards

Figure 3 shows that the mortality of children over the last 30 years
The mortality due to water-related hazards was higher than any other group within
of children due the household population. In fact, children below 18 (both males and
to water-related females) are the most adversely affected, followed by women above
hazards was higher 18 in all flood-, drought- and salinity-prone areas. From the three dis-
than any other tricts the largest level of child (below 18) mortality was obtained from
Satkhira and female (above 18) mortality from Rajshahi. The study
group
indicates that 50 per cent of the children are vulnerable in terms of
mortality in the flood-prone area compared with 18 and 59 per cent
70
60
50
% of death
Children
40
Women
30 Men
20
10
0
Flood Prone Drought Prone Salinity Prone All
Area Area Area
Vulnerable group
Figure 3. Mortality among children, women, and men due to water-related

hazards

in drought- and salinity-prone areas, respectively. Figure 3 also shows

that the mortality of females in flood-, drought- and salinity-prone
areas was 33, 42 and 25 per cent, respectively. In contrast, the mortal-
ity of the males in both flood- and salinity-prone areas was only 17
per cent of the total. In the drought-prone area the males’ mortal-
ity is close to that of the females. In other words, the lowest figures
for mortality for each vulnerable group were found from flood-prone
Manikganj, which had an overall mortality of 15 per cent. The total
Drought and saline mortality rates indicate that the water hazard flood which had the
intrusion, while not highest occurrence in Manikganj households does not cause large
affecting as large a numbers of severe casualties. On the other hand, drought and sa-
number as flooding, line intrusion, while not affecting a large number of households like
flooding, have greater mortality statistics. Drought-prone Rajshahi
result in higher
and salinity-prone Satkhira both have the same percentage of total
mortality levels mortalities, 42.5 per cent.
Morbidity attributed to the most recent water hazards

Again, morbidity is higher for children due to the most recent water-
related hazards in all the study areas, followed by females. The mor-
bidity of males is the lowest in each of the hazard-prone study areas.
In the flood-prone area, the children were found to be the greatest
victims with about 44 per cent of the total morbidity, compared
with females and males at 41 and 15 per cent, respectively. Likewise,
the highest morbidity was found in the children in both drought-
70
60
50
% of Morbidity
40 Children
Female
30 Male
20
10
0
Flood Prone Drought Prone Salinity Prone All
Area Area Area
District
Figure 4. Percentage of morbidity among children, females and males due to

water-related hazards

(44 per cent) and salinity- (58 per cent) prone areas. In both these
areas, females composed about 30 per cent of the total morbidity
whereas the males accounted for 22 per cent of the morbidity in the
drought-prone area and less than 15 per cent in the salinity-prone
area (Figure 4).
Effect of flood, drought and salinity on food availability

It appears that the effects of flood, drought and salinity are quite
alarming in terms of food deficiency for the different household
members in the study area. The study indicates that different hazards
affect different groups of household members in a different manner.
Women are the Women are the most vulnerable in the flood-prone area in terms of
most vulnerable food availability whereas males are in the drought-prone area. On the
in the flood-prone other hand, children suffer more deficiency of food during a hazard
period in the salinity-prone area. In the flood-prone area, 90 per cent
area in terms of
of female face a deficit of food during the inundation period. Drought
food availability causes food deficiency for about 95 per cent of males while salinity
affects the same number of children, 95 per cent (see Figure 5).
Effect of flood, drought and salinity on safe water availability

The study indicates that the household members suffer a great deal
owing to lack of safe water during the hazard period in all study areas.
100
90
80
% of respondents
70
60
Children
50 Male
Female
40
30
20
10
0
Manikganj (FPA) Rajshahi (DPA) Satkhira (SPA)
Study Area
Figure 5. Percentage of respondents mentioning deficit of food among children,

females and males during hazard period

120
100
% of respondents
80
FPA
60 DPA
SPA
40
20
0
Children Men Women
Household Member
Figure 6. Percentage of respondents lacking safe water among children, women

and men during hazard periods
It shows 96 per cent of children suffer from a lack of safe water in the
Women are most
flood-prone area while 94 per cent of males above 18 face the same
vulnerable to any problems during a hazard period. On other hand, 97 per cent (highest)
of the water-related of females meet the safe water challenge during flood events (details in
hazards Figure 6).
Opinion on who suffers during the hazard period

According to the opinion of the respondents (on average) the females
are most vulnerable to any of the current climate-induced, water-
related hazards. Table 5 shows that 67.3 per cent of respondents from
the flood-prone area consider females to suffer the most followed by
14.9 per cent who hold that children below 18 suffer the most. Only
5.9 per cent of respondents deemed male family members to suffer
more (Table 5).
Table 5. Percentage distribution of household members suffering the most during

a hazard period
Hazard Who suffer most during hazard period

Children Male Female Others Total
(below 18 years)
Flood-prone area 14.9 5.9 67.3 11.9 100.0

Drought-prone area 20.4 39.8 18.6 21.2 100.0
Salinity-prone area 45.4 10.9 36.4 7.3 100.0

Involvement with disaster risk management (DRM) activity

The study clearly finds that participation of females in the disaster
Most women were risk management plan/process is quite imbalanced. Over 90 per cent
not involved in of the respondents in each of the study sites mentioned that they are
the disaster risk not involved in any disaster-risk management activities or plan. In
management the salinity-prone area only 9 per cent of respondents are involved in
process DRM-related activities compared with 7 per cent in the flood-prone
area and 2 per cent in the drought-prone area, the lowest (Table 6).
It appears that most of the women who are involved in the disaster
risk management activity/plan/committee just join the seminars or
meetings. Only 12 per cent of them are involved in the decision-mak-
ing process (Figure 7).
The females in flood- and salinity-prone areas do not receive suf-
Women from all
ficient cooperation from male members to solve water-related prob-
three districts faced lems. In the drought-prone area, cooperation by the males is greater
inadequate help in than in the other study areas. An overall 51.7 per cent of respondents
dealing with water- from all three districts revealed facing inadequate help in dealing
related problems with water-related problems (Table 7).
Table 6. Percentage of respondents involved in disaster risk management in the

study site
District Yes No Total
FPA 7 93 100
DPA 2 98 100
SPA 9 91 100
All 6 94 100
Others Decision making

6% 12%
No activities
6%
Join seminar
76%
Figure 7. Percentage distribution of women’s role in disaster risk management in

all study areas

Table 7. Percentage of respondents mentioning cooperation from males to solve

water-related problems in the study areas
District Percentage of respondents on cooperation from males
Yes No Total
Manikganj (FPA) 44 (44.0) 56 (56.0) 100 (100.0)

Rajshahi (DPA) 56 (56.0) 44 (44.0) 100 (100.0)
Satkhira (SPA) 45 (45.0) 55 (55.0) 100 (100.0)
All 145 (48.3) 155 (51.7) 300 (100.0)
The women are allowed to play only a marginal role in the decision-
making process, not only in the disaster management plan but also in
national affairs, because of traditional values and cultural practices.
The minimum role of women in such activities has been evidenced
though the FGDs as well as the survey in all three study locations.
Conclusion and recommendations

This study has attempted to present a comprehensive review of wom-
en’s vulnerability to climate change-induced water-related hazards.
The study has put the stress on vulnerability and possible measures
needed to cope with the hazards.
Analysis of the data and presentation of the findings have brought
to light the vulnerability issues, existing coping strategies and areas
where more work is needed.
Adaptation to climate change is particularly important for a vul-
Women and
nerable country such as Bangladesh. In general, the findings have
children are more highlighted that women and other population groups including chil-
vulnerable than dren are more vulnerable than males to water-related hazards. Future
males to water- measures which may reduce the vulnerability of women and other
related hazards groups include the following:
• Early warning system may reduce vulnerability in the hazard-

prone areas.
• Embankments/bandhs need to be constructed if feasible.
• Raising the platform of tube wells and latrines.
• Seeds and fertilizer need to be secured and made available to all
farmers, male and female.
Female farmers • Training for capacity building of female farmers to cope with
need training to flood, drought and salinity intrusion hazards is needed.
• Gender issues should be considered during shelter design.
cope with flood,
• Women’s participation in all local-level disaster-related plans and
drought and salinity activities need to be balanced.

• Government may initiate/extend the programme for rain wa-

ter harvesting in the most vulnerable areas (e.g. Rajshahi and
Satkhira) to reduce vulnerability during, pre- and post-hazard.
• Women’s issues should be considered in all relevant policy and
Women’s issues
programmes, such as water, agriculture and food security.
should be • A rehabilitation centre or call centre for hazard and coping in-
considered in all formation on water, agriculture and health can be established
relevant policy and in each of the most vulnerable areas at least to serve during the
programmes hazard period. This centre can act as a warning centre for the
locality.
• Canals and ponds should be recovered/re-excavated to facilitate
irrigation services especially in Rajshahi.
• Roads and streets may be constructed considering the danger
level of water during a flood and a rise in sea level.
References
Ahmed, A.U., Neelormi, S. and Adri, N. (2007) Impacts of and Adaptation to Cli-
mate Change Induced Water Logging for Women in Bangladesh, Centre for Global
Change, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Asiatic Society of Bangladesh (2003). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Ban-

gladesh. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Dhaka.
Cruz, R.V., Harasawa, H., Lal, M., Wu, S., Anokhin, Y., Punsalmaa, B., Honda,
Y., Jafari, M., Li, C. and Huu Ninh, N. (2007) ‘Asia’, in M.L. Parry, O.F. Can-
ziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson (eds), Climate Change
2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to
the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
pp. 469–506, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Government of Bangladesh (2005) Unlocking the Potential: National Strategy for

Accelerated Poverty Reduction, General Economic Division, Planning Commis-
sion, Government of Bangladesh.
Hare, W. (2003) Assessment of Knowledge on Impacts of Climate Change: Contribu-

tion to the Specification of Art 2. of the UNFCCC, Potsdam, Berlin.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2001) Climate Change

2001: Working Group II, Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, Cambridge, UK.
Rahman, A.A., Huda, A.S. and Rabbani, M.G. (2007a) Situational Analysis of Ca-
pacity Building Needs for IWRM in South Asia, Bangladesh Centre for Advanced
Studies, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Rahman, A. A., Alam, M., Alam, S.S., Uzzaman, M.R., Rashid, M., Rabbani,
M.G. (2007b). ‘Risk, vulnerability and adaptation in Bangladesh’, a back-
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World Bank (2000) Bangladesh: Climate Change and Sustainable Development,

Report no 21104-BD, World Bank, Dhaka.

Women's Vulnerability To Water-Related Hazards: Comparing Three Areas Affected by Climate Change in Bangladesh

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${protocol}://www.developmentbookshelf.com/doi/pdf/10.3362/1756-3488.2009.025 - Wednesday, May 23, 2018 12:01:22 AM - University of South Florida IP Address:131.247.112.

Women’s vulnerability to water-related

Various climate change-related events such as heatwaves, cold waves, flood,

Keywords: flooding, drought, saline intrusion, disaster management

CLIMATE CHANGE AND CLIMATE VARIABILITY issues have become an addi-

July 2009 Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3

salinity intrusion, which may be aggravated under anticipated cli-

Objective and methodology

Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3 July 2009

Secondary data and information were collected from relevant

Primary data collection

Description of the study areas

July 2009 Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3

Study site 2: Rajshahi (drought-prone area). The population and area

Study site 3: Satkhira (salinity-prone area). The area and population of

Findings of the study

Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3 July 2009

The respondents of the study were found to range in age from 16

Table 1. Age group of respondents by district

Table 2. Education status of respondents by district

July 2009 Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3

work either in government or in non-government sectors. Some of

Table 3. Distribution of respondents by occupation by district

Table 4. Distribution of households surveyed by monthly income by district

Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3 July 2009

Main water-related hazards

30 Salinity Prone Area

Figure 1. Percentage distribution of households’ perceptions on ‘changes in

July 2009 Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3

Figure 2. Percentage distribution of households’ perceptions of the main water-

Mortality attributed to water-related hazards

Figure 3. Mortality among children, women, and men due to water-related

Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3 July 2009

in drought- and salinity-prone areas, respectively. Figure 3 also shows

Morbidity attributed to the most recent water hazards

Figure 4. Percentage of morbidity among children, females and males due to

July 2009 Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3

Effect of ﬂood, drought and salinity on food availability

Effect of ﬂood, drought and salinity on safe water availability

Figure 5. Percentage of respondents mentioning deficit of food among children,

Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3 July 2009

Figure 6. Percentage of respondents lacking safe water among children, women

Opinion on who suffers during the hazard period

Table 5. Percentage distribution of household members suffering the most during

Hazard Who suffer most during hazard period

Flood-prone area 14.9 5.9 67.3 11.9 100.0

July 2009 Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3

Involvement with disaster risk management (DRM) activity

Table 6. Percentage of respondents involved in disaster risk management in the

District Yes No Total

Others Decision making

Figure 7. Percentage distribution of women’s role in disaster risk management in

Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3 July 2009

Table 7. Percentage of respondents mentioning cooperation from males to solve

District Percentage of respondents on cooperation from males

Manikganj (FPA) 44 (44.0) 56 (56.0) 100 (100.0)

Note: Figures within parentheses represent percentages

Conclusion and recommendations

• Early warning system may reduce vulnerability in the hazard-

July 2009 Waterlines Vol. 28 No. 3

• Government may initiate/extend the programme for rain wa-

Asiatic Society of Bangladesh (2003). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Ban-

Government of Bangladesh (2005) Unlocking the Potential: National Strategy for