TT 389 Municipal Wastewater Management PDF

Process Design Manual For
Small Wastewater Works
TT 389
DJ Nozaic & SD Freese
Process Design Manual For Small Wastewater Works
TT 389/09
Water Research Commission

PROCESS DESIGN MANUAL FOR
SMALL WASTEWATER WORKS
Report to the
by
DJ Nozaic and SD Freese
on behalf of
Waterscience CC
WRC REPORT NO. TT 389/09

APRIL 2009
Obtainable from

Private Bag X03
Gezina
0031
The publication of this report emanates from a project entitled “Design Manual for Small Sewage
Treatment Works” (WRC Project No. K5/1660)
DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Water Research Commission (WRC) and approved for publication.
Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the WRC, nor
does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
ISBN 978-1-77005-826-2
Printed in the Republic of South Africa
ii
E X E C U T I V E S U M M A RY
INTRODUCTION
The official starting date of this project was 1 April 2006 and the project was scheduled for completion in
May 2008. However, due to the Project Steering Committee requesting the inclusion of material that was
additional to that specified in the original proposal, the completion date for the project was extended to
September 2008.
The motivation for conducting such a project was based on the fact that 'A Guide to the Design of
Sewage Purification Works' was first published in 1973 by the then Southern African Branch of the
Institute for Water Pollution Control (IWPC) and over the years this useful reference document has
become known as the 'Black Book'. This guide was revised and republished in 1987, the same year that
the IWPC became the Institute of Water and Environmental Management and the same year in which the
Water Institute of Southern Africa was formed.
A major decision taken by the Branch Council was that the revised publication should be applicable to
sewage works treating up to 5 Ml/day of domestic sewage as there was concern that the revised book
should not be used as a type of “do-it-yourself manual” by people lacking adequate expertise to design
such a works. The purpose of the 1987 revised publication was to update outdated information, include
new processes and provide the information in a more user-friendly manner. The 1987 revision of the
Manual was intended to be less of a guide to design, and more of a manual to assist firstly designers, and
secondly engineers and/or chemists who may be required to approve the designs for smaller domestic
sewage works treating up to 5 Ml/d.
Since publication of the revised edition of the Manual for Design of Small Sewage Treatment Works in
1987, no further revision has been carried out, despite that fact that since then there have been a number
of new technologies introduced into wastewater. It is obvious that the manual is in need of updating as
several new processes are available and the understanding of the activated sludge process, in particular,
has advanced significantly since then. The manual also does not consider processes used in small plants
of the package plant type as are commonly used in housing complexes. It is clear that with technological
advances and a number of changes in the procedures used in plant operation, a new manual, covering
these changes, is required. Another change to the manual is that the maximum capacity of 5 Ml/d
stipulated in previous versions is considered arbitrary and irrelevant. Although the manual is designed
with smaller wastewater plants in mind, it needs to be borne in mind that much of the information and
design calculations are applicable to much larger plants and not confined to works of 5 Ml/d or less. Many
larger plants have been built in stages over extended periods of time, resulting in plants consisting of a
iii
number of smaller modules. In such cases this manual could be of particular relevance. The manual is
however written with smaller wastewater works in mind and is intended to assist in designing, approving
and operation of these smaller plants.
AIMS
This aims of this project were to:
 Produce a preliminary manual after sourcing literature sources and extracting information from
these literature sources. Consult with other specialists in fields where this is considered necessary.
 Produce an internally edited and reviewed draft manual for submission to a steering committee for
peer review
 Produce the final Design Manual for Small Sewage Treatment Plants including the comments,
recommendations etc. obtained after peer review of the draft manual
 Conduct workshops to disseminate the information contained in the Manual to coincide with WISA
2008.
METHODOLOGY
The initial part of this project involved review of the existing manual. It was proposed to update this
manual wherever necessary, particularly the biological filter and activated sludge chapters, and to add
chapters on rotating biocontactors (RBC) and submerged media reactors.
Once the manual had been comprehensively reviewed, a thorough literature study was conducted to
ensure that wastewater treatment practices used both locally and internationally were covered. This made
it possible to identify the key issues that needed to be addressed in compiling a new manual and also
highlighted any gaps that existed in the previous manual. The regulatory aspects and new legislative
requirements were carefully considered in terms of how they were expected to impact on this manual. A
final draft of the manual was proof-read by A Pitman, to check for content and errors, before being
circulated to the Steering Committee members for comment.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research in this report emanates from a project funded jointly by the Water Research Commission r
and entitled:
Design Manual for Small Sewage Treatment Works.
The Steering Committee responsible for this project consisted of the following persons:
Dr HG Snyman : Water Research Commission (Chairperson)
Mr DJ Nozaic : Waterscience CC (Project Leader)
Mrs SD Freese : Waterscience CC (Researcher)
Mr CS Crawford : Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, DWAF
Prof WA Pretorius : PretWatSpes
Mr W Alexander : Alexander Process Consulting
Mr APC Warner : PD Naidoo & Associates (Pty) Ltd, PDNA
Mrs MM Komape : Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, DWAF
The financing of the project by the Water Research Commission and the contribution of the members of
the Steering Committee are gratefully acknowledged.
The assistance of Mr A Pitman in proof reading the document is also gratefully acknowledged.
A number of diagrams and photographs used in this manual were obtained from the eWISA website.
Gareth McConkey and the rest of the eWISA team are gratefully acknowledged for the use of this
material. The eWISA website provides excellent information on a wide variety of topics dealing with water
and wastewater and is a highly recommended site for anyone involved in the water and wastewater fields.
Visit www.ewisa.co.za.
Alistair Hunter is thanked for assisting in obtaining some of the excellent quality photographs obtained in
this manual.
Narina Ramdhaw is thanked for her excellent drawings which appear in Chapter 7.
Kim Hodgson is also acknowledged for ensuring that references made to legislation that is currently
under revision (Regulation 2834 of the National Water Act) was correct at the time of publishing.
v
vi
TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..............................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................................. v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...............................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................... xvii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................xix
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................................xxi
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................................. 1
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 HOW TO USE THE DESIGN MANUAL ........................................................................................ 2
CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................................................. 3
2. DESIGN PRELIMINARIES.................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 GUIDE TO ESTABLISHING A WASTEWATER WORKS............................................................. 3
2.1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Effluent Standards ................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.3 Sludge UTILISATION AND DISPOSAL Standards............................................................... 4
2.1.4 Maintenance .......................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.5 Operator Level....................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 POPULATION AND PROJECTIONS ............................................................................................ 6
2.2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 FLOW ESTIMATION ..................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.2 ASSESSMENT OF WASTEWATER FLOW ......................................................................... 8
2.3.3 FLOW VARIATION.............................................................................................................. 11
2.4 SEWAGE STRENGTH AND CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................... 13
2.4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 13
2.4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF INTEREST ................................................................................. 13
2.5 LOAD ESTIMATION ................................................................................................................... 17
2.5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 17
2.5.2 ORGANIC CONCENTRATION ........................................................................................... 17
2.5.3 NUTRIENT CONCENTRATION.......................................................................................... 18
2.5.4 SOLIDS CONCENTRATION............................................................................................... 18
2.5.5 LOAD FROM TYPICAL DOMESTIC SEWAGE .................................................................. 19
2.5.6 MIXED WASTEWATER AND INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS ................................................. 19
2.5.7 OTHER CRITERIA .............................................................................................................. 19
2.6 PROCESS SELECTION ............................................................................................................. 23
vii
2.6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 23
2.7 TREATMENT SEQUENCES....................................................................................................... 25
2.7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 25
2.7.2 Very Small Plants (Single Dwelling up to approximately 500 kl/d) ..................................... 25
2.7.3 Small Plants (500 kl/d up to 2 000 kl/d) .............................................................................. 25
2.7.4 Medium Sized Plants (2 Ml/d to 10 Ml/d) – no primary sedimentation ............................... 26
2.7.5 Medium Sized Plants (2 Ml/d to 10 Ml/d) – primary sedimentation provided ..................... 27
2.7.6 Large Plants (> 10 Ml/d) ..................................................................................................... 28
2.8 EFFLUENT DISPOSAL AND DISCHARGE STANDARDS ........................................................ 29
2.8.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 29
2.8.2 SECTION 39 OF THE NATIONAL WATER ACT, 1998...................................................... 29
2.9 SLUDGE utilisation and DISPOSAL ........................................................................................... 40
2.9.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 40
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................................ 43
3. PRELIMINARY TREATMENT ............................................................................................................. 43
3.1 FLOW MEASUREMENT ............................................................................................................. 43
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 43
3.1.2 FLOW MEASUREMENT ..................................................................................................... 43
3.1.3 MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................. 44
3.1.4 Other Flumes....................................................................................................................... 45
3.1.5 Measuring Weirs ................................................................................................................. 45
3.2 SCREENING ............................................................................................................................... 49
3.2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 49
3.2.2 APPLICABILITY .................................................................................................................. 49
3.2.3 SCREENS ........................................................................................................................... 49
3.2.4 EQUIPMENT SELECTION ................................................................................................. 51
3.2.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ........................................................................... 51
3.2.6 CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................................................... 52
3.2.7 PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................................ 53
3.2.8 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ................................................................................... 54
3.3 DEGRITTING (DETRITUS REMOVAL) ...................................................................................... 55
3.3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 55
3.3.2 TYPES OF GRIT REMOVAL EQUIPMENT ........................................................................ 55
3.3.3 ADVANTAGES .................................................................................................................... 57
3.3.4 DISADVANTAGES .............................................................................................................. 58
3.3.5 DESIGN CRITERIA ............................................................................................................. 59
3.3.6 PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................................ 60
3.3.7 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ................................................................................... 61
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................................ 62
viii
4. ANAEROBIC TREATMENT ................................................................................................................ 62
4.1 SEPTIC TANKS .......................................................................................................................... 62
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 62
4.1.2 COMBINED AND SEPARATE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS ...................................................... 62
4.1.3 CAPACITY OF SEPTIC TANK............................................................................................ 63
4.1.4 CONSTRUCTION OF SEPTIC TANKS .............................................................................. 64
4.1.5 DISPOSAL OF SEPTIC TANK EFFLUENT ........................................................................ 66
4.1.6 LOCATION OF SEPTIC TANKS ......................................................................................... 66
4.1.7 LOCATION OF SOIL PERCOLATION SYSTEMS ............................................................. 66
4.1.8 SUITABILITY OF THE SOIL ............................................................................................... 66
4.1.9 PERCOLATION TRENCH CONSTRUCTION .................................................................... 67
4.2 ANAEROBIC PONDS ................................................................................................................. 68
4.2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 68
4.2.2 Mechanism of Treatment and Advantages ......................................................................... 68
4.2.3 Pond Design ........................................................................................................................ 68
4.2.4 Performance ........................................................................................................................ 69
4.3 ANAEROBIC CONTACTORS ..................................................................................................... 71
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 71
4.3.2 Environmental Factors ........................................................................................................ 71
4.3.3 Process Description ............................................................................................................ 72
4.3.4 Performance ........................................................................................................................ 73
4.3.5 Design ................................................................................................................................. 73
4.4 ANAEROBIC BAFFLED CONTACTORS ................................................................................... 75
4.4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 75
4.4.2 Layout .................................................................................................................................. 75
4.4.3 Design ................................................................................................................................. 76
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................................ 77
5. PONDS AND WETLANDS .................................................................................................................. 77
5.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 77
5.1.1 Treatment Sequences ......................................................................................................... 77
5.1.2 Effluent Quality .................................................................................................................... 78
5.2 FACULTATIVE PONDS .............................................................................................................. 79
5.2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 79
5.2.2 Mixing .................................................................................................................................. 79
5.2.3 Sludge layer ........................................................................................................................ 80
5.2.4 Depth ................................................................................................................................... 80
5.2.5 Temperature ........................................................................................................................ 81
5.2.6 Advantages of Ponds. ......................................................................................................... 81
5.2.7 Design Preliminaries ........................................................................................................... 82
ix
5.2.8 Design of Facultative Ponds. .............................................................................................. 82
5.2.9 OTHER CRITERIA .............................................................................................................. 84
5.2.10 2.8.3 Recirculation. ............................................................................................................ 87
5.3 MATURATION PONDS ............................................................................................................... 88
5.3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 88
5.3.2 Design ................................................................................................................................. 88
5.4 MATURATION RIVERS .............................................................................................................. 92
5.4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 92
5.4.2 Design ................................................................................................................................. 92
5.5 AERATED LAGOONS ................................................................................................................ 93
5.5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 93
5.5.2 Design parameters .............................................................................................................. 93
5.5.3 BOD Removal Efficiency for Sizing of Pond ....................................................................... 95
5.6 ARTIFICIAL WETLANDS AND REEDBEDS .............................................................................. 96
5.6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 96
5.6.2 Description of Basic Layout ................................................................................................. 96
5.6.3 Treatment Mechanisms ....................................................................................................... 97
5.6.4 COD (and BOD) Removal ................................................................................................... 98
5.6.5 Solids Removal ................................................................................................................. 100
5.6.6 Nitrogen ............................................................................................................................. 100
5.6.7 Phosphorus Removal ........................................................................................................ 102
5.6.8 Pathogen removal ............................................................................................................. 103
5.6.9 Design of Artificial Wetlands ............................................................................................. 103
5.6.10 Pretreatment...................................................................................................................... 104
5.6.11 Wetland Appurtenances and other Physical Features ...................................................... 104
CHAPTER 6 .............................................................................................................................................. 107
6. SEDIMENTATION ............................................................................................................................. 107
6.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 107
6.2 Process Considerations ............................................................................................................ 107
6.3 General Considerations for Design ........................................................................................... 108
6.3.1 Basic Guide ....................................................................................................................... 108
6.3.2 Design Considerations ...................................................................................................... 109
6.3.3 Design of Primary Sedimentation Tanks ........................................................................... 111
6.3.4 Design of Secondary Sedimentation (Humus) Tanks ....................................................... 112
6.3.5 Design of Activated Sludge Clarifiers. ............................................................................... 114
6.4 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 115
6.5 WORKED EXAMPLES .............................................................................................................. 115
CHAPTER 7 .............................................................................................................................................. 117
7. ACTIVATED SLUDGE ...................................................................................................................... 117
x
7.1 ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES ....................................................................................... 117
7.1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 117
7.1.2 VARIANTS OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS .................................................. 118
7.1.3 PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS ....................................................................................... 118
7.1.4 DESIGN PARAMETERS ................................................................................................... 123
7.1.5 WORKED EXAMPLE ........................................................................................................ 128
7.2 SEQUENCING BATCH REACTORS (SBR) ............................................................................. 130
7.2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 130
7.2.2 Process Description .......................................................................................................... 130
7.2.3 Applicability ....................................................................................................................... 131
7.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages. ....................................................................................... 131
7.2.5 Design ............................................................................................................................... 131
7.3 MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS (MBR) ....................................................................................... 134
7.3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 134
7.3.2 Process Description .......................................................................................................... 134
7.3.3 Advantages of the MBR System ....................................................................................... 135
7.3.4 Disadvantages of MBR Systems....................................................................................... 135
7.3.5 Cost Comparison – MBR Versus Alternative Process Trains ........................................... 136
7.3.6 Design ............................................................................................................................... 136
7.4 DIFFUSED AIR ......................................................................................................................... 137
7.4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 137
7.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fine Bubble Diffusion ................................................ 138
7.5 ......................................................................................................................................................... 138
7.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Coarse Bubble Diffusion ........................................... 138
7.5.2 Diffusers ............................................................................................................................ 139
7.5.3 Types of fine pore diffusers ............................................................................................... 139
7.5.4 Performance ...................................................................................................................... 141
7.5.5 Air Filtration ....................................................................................................................... 142
7.5.6 Costs ................................................................................................................................. 142
7.6 MECHANICAL AERATION ....................................................................................................... 143
7.6.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 143
7.6.2 Slow Speed Turbine Surface Aerators (Radial Flow) ....................................................... 144
7.6.3 High Speed Turbine Surface Aerators (Axial flow) ........................................................... 145
7.6.4 Horizontal Rotors............................................................................................................... 146
7.6.5 Submerged aerators ......................................................................................................... 147
7.7 MIXERS..................................................................................................................................... 148
7.7.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 148
7.7.2 Design ............................................................................................................................... 148
7.7.3 Impeller Mixers. ................................................................................................................. 149
xi
7.7.4 Submersible Mixers ........................................................................................................... 150
CHAPTER 8 .............................................................................................................................................. 151
8. FIXED-FILM AEROBIC PROCESSES ............................................................................................. 151
8.1 HIGH RATE PLASTIC MEDIA FILTERS .................................................................................. 151
8.1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 151
8.1.2 Performance ...................................................................................................................... 152
8.1.3 Design ............................................................................................................................... 152
8.1.4 WORKED EXAMPLE ........................................................................................................ 155
8.2 BIOLOGICAL (TRICKLING) FILTERS ...................................................................................... 156
8.2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 156
8.2.2 Process Considerations .................................................................................................... 156
8.2.3 Design Parameters............................................................................................................ 159
8.2.4 Practical Considerations ................................................................................................... 160
8.2.5 WORKED EXAMPLE ........................................................................................................ 162
8.3 ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORS (RBC) ................................................................... 165
8.3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 165
8.3.2 Process Considerations .................................................................................................... 166
8.3.3 Design Basis ..................................................................................................................... 167
8.3.4 WORKED EXAMPLE ........................................................................................................ 171
8.4 SUBMERGED MEDIA REACTORS.......................................................................................... 173
8.4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 173
8.4.2 Design ............................................................................................................................... 173
CHAPTER 9 .............................................................................................................................................. 175
9. SLUDGE TREATMENT .................................................................................................................... 175
9.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 175
9.1.1 Types of Sludge ................................................................................................................ 175
9.2 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION ........................................................................................................ 176
9.2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 176
9.2.2 SLUDGE THICKENERS ................................................................................................... 176
9.2.3 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION ................................................................................................ 177
9.2.4 DESIGN OF UNHEATED SINGLE STAGE DIGESTION ................................................. 179
9.2.5 DESIGN OF HEATED (MESOPHILIC) DIGESTION ........................................................ 180
9.2.6 GENERAL ANAEROBIC DIGESTION DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ............................. 182
9.2.7 DESIGN SEQUENCE AND WORKED EXAMPLE ........................................................... 186
9.3 SLUDGE THICKENING ............................................................................................................ 188
9.3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 188
9.3.2 Gravity Thickeners ............................................................................................................ 188
9.3.3 WORKED EXAMPLES ...................................................................................................... 189
9.3.4 Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) ............................................................................................ 191
xii
9.3.5 Design ............................................................................................................................... 191
9.3.6 Operating Aspects ............................................................................................................. 193
9.3.7 CenTrifugal Thickeners ..................................................................................................... 193
9.3.8 Rotary Press...................................................................................................................... 194
9.3.9 Rotary Drum Sludge Thickeners ....................................................................................... 194
9.3.10 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 194
9.4 SLUDGE DEWATERING .......................................................................................................... 195
9.4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 195
9.4.2 Belt Presses ...................................................................................................................... 195
9.4.3 Performance ...................................................................................................................... 195
9.4.4 Operational aspects .......................................................................................................... 195
9.4.5 Centrifuges ........................................................................................................................ 196
9.4.6 Screw Press ...................................................................................................................... 197
9.4.7 SLUDGE DRYING BEDS .................................................................................................. 197
9.4.8 Worked Examples ............................................................................................................. 199
CHAPTER 10 ............................................................................................................................................ 201
9.5 ......................................................................................................................................................... 201
10. DISINFECTION ............................................................................................................................. 201
10.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 201
10.2 Purpose and Methods of Disinfection ....................................................................................... 201
10.3 Chlorine ..................................................................................................................................... 202
10.3.1 Liquid/gas chlorine ............................................................................................................ 202
10.3.2 Hypochlorite ...................................................................................................................... 202
10.3.3 On-site hypochlorite generation ........................................................................................ 202
10.4 Chloramines .............................................................................................................................. 203
10.5 Bromine, Bromine Chloride and Iodine ..................................................................................... 203
10.6 Ozone ........................................................................................................................................ 203
10.7 Ultraviolet Radiation .................................................................................................................. 203
10.8 CHLORINATION PRACTICE .................................................................................................... 204
10.9 Gas Chlorinators ....................................................................................................................... 204
10.10 Hypochlorite Feeders ............................................................................................................ 204
10.11 Safety Precautions ................................................................................................................ 205
10.12 Chlorine Contact Tanks ......................................................................................................... 205
CHAPTER 11 ............................................................................................................................................ 207
11. CHEMICAL TREATMENT............................................................................................................. 207
11.1 ALKALI ADDITION .................................................................................................................... 207
11.1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 207
11.1.2 Alkalis Used....................................................................................................................... 207
11.1.3 Dosages ............................................................................................................................ 208
xiii
11.1.4 Phosphate removal ........................................................................................................... 208
11.1.5 Laboratory Tests ............................................................................................................... 208
11.2 METAL SALT ADDITION .......................................................................................................... 209
11.2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 209
11.2.2 Enhanced Primary Sedimentation..................................................................................... 209
11.2.3 Phosphate Removal .......................................................................................................... 209
CHAPTER 12 ............................................................................................................................................ 211
12. PUMPS.......................................................................................................................................... 211
12.1 Classification of pumps ............................................................................................................. 211
12.2 Rotodynamic pumps ................................................................................................................. 211
12.3 Positive displacement pumps.................................................................................................... 214
12.4 Compressed air operated pumps .............................................................................................. 215
12.5 Archimedian screw pumps ........................................................................................................ 216
12.6 Pump Drivers............................................................................................................................. 216
12.7 Protective Devices .................................................................................................................... 217
CHAPTER 13 ............................................................................................................................................ 219
13. SAFETY ASPECTS ...................................................................................................................... 219
13.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 219
13.2 EMPLOYEE WELFARE ............................................................................................................ 219
13.3 GENERAL SAFETY .................................................................................................................. 220
13.3.1 Fencing.............................................................................................................................. 220
13.3.2 Handrailing ........................................................................................................................ 220
13.3.3 Warning Signs ................................................................................................................... 220
13.3.4 Lighting .............................................................................................................................. 221
13.3.5 Sampling Areas ................................................................................................................. 221
13.3.6 Fire .................................................................................................................................... 221
13.3.7 Pipelines ............................................................................................................................ 221
13.3.8 Valves ................................................................................................................................ 221
13.4 GENERAL STRUCTURES ....................................................................................................... 221
13.4.1 Ventilation and Lighting ..................................................................................................... 221
13.4.2 Floors ................................................................................................................................ 221
13.4.3 Stairways and Ladders ...................................................................................................... 222
13.4.4 Doors ................................................................................................................................. 222
13.4.5 Location of Operational Equipment ................................................................................... 222
13.4.6 Walls and Ceilings ............................................................................................................. 222
13.5 LABORATORY .......................................................................................................................... 222
13.5.1 Exits ................................................................................................................................... 222
13.5.2 Interior Doors..................................................................................................................... 222
13.5.3 Fire Resistant Finishes ...................................................................................................... 222
xiv
13.5.4 Additional Information ....................................................................................................... 223
13.6 WORKSHOP ............................................................................................................................. 223
13.6.1 Noise ................................................................................................................................. 223
13.6.2 Exits ................................................................................................................................... 223
13.6.3 Waste Disposal Area ......................................................................................................... 223
13.7 MACHINERY ............................................................................................................................. 223
13.7.1 Buildings ............................................................................................................................ 223
13.7.2 Hoists ................................................................................................................................ 223
13.8 Layout of Plant .......................................................................................................................... 223
13.9 STOREROOM ........................................................................................................................... 224
13.9.1 Storage Areas ................................................................................................................... 224
13.10 Chlorine ................................................................................................................................. 224
13.11 PUMP STATION ................................................................................................................... 224
13.11.1 Buildings ........................................................................................................................ 224
13.11.2 Pumps ........................................................................................................................... 224
13.11.3 Water Supply ................................................................................................................. 224
13.11.4 Dry Wells, etc. ............................................................................................................... 224
13.12 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS ........................................................................................... 225
13.13 POTABLE WATER ................................................................................................................ 225
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 226
xv
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
3.1.1 Example of a flume 44
3.1.2 Example of a rectangular weir 46
3.2.1 Typical coarse screens 50
3.2.2 Manual cleaning of screens 52
3.2.3 Mechanically raked screens (eWISA) 52
3.3.1 Typical vortex-type grit chamber 56
4.1.1 Septic tank before installation 66
4.1.2 Partially installed septic tank 66
5.3.1 Typical maturation pond 90
5.6.1 Artificial reedbed under construction 99
5.6.2 The same artificial reedbed two years later 99
6.3.1 Typical primary settling tank (eWISA) 113
6.3.2 Typical secondary sedimentation tank 114
7.1.1 Typical activated sludge reactor basin (eWISA) 119
7.1.2 Typical activated sludge flow diagram (eWISA) 128
7.5.1 Typical bridge mounted surface aerator 145
Some types of aerators (a) standard surface aerator, (b) surface aerator with draft 146
7.5.2
tube, and (c) surface aerator with impellor
7.5.3 The layout of an horizontal shaft mechanical surface aerator 147
7.5.4. Submerged turbine aerators: (a) axial flow and (b) radial flow 148
8.1.1 Typical trickling filter 158
8.2.1 Schematic of a biological trickling filter (eWISA) 162
xvii
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
8.3.1 Rotating biocontactor 167
8.4.1 Typical submerged media reactor 175
9.2.1 Typical anaerobic digester (eWISA) 179
9.3.1 Schematic of a circular gravity thickener (eWISA) 191
8.4.1 Typical sludge drying beds (eWISA) 199
10.1 Typical chlorine contact tank 207
12.5.1 Typical Archimedian screw pumps 218
13.3.1. Examples of correct safety signage 222
xviii
L I S T O F TA B L E S
TABLE TITLE PAGE
2.3.1 Typical figures for flow estimates for fully sewered households 8
2.3.2 Typical flows for dwellings without full in-house water reticulation 9
2.3.3 Typical figures for sewage flow estimates for units other than households 10
2.3.4 Typical peak factors for estimation of peak flows in l/s 11
2.5.1 Suggested loads per capita for typical domestic sewage 18
2.5.2 British Water - Table of loadings for sewage disposal facilities 19
2.5.3 Design basis for new sewage works (Washington State, 1988) 20
2.8.1 Wastewater limit values applicable to discharge of wastewater into a water resource 33
2.8.2 Monitoring requirements for domestic wastewater discharges 34
2.8.3 Listed water resources 35
3.2.1 Description of coarse screens 50
3.2.2 Screening device classification 52
3.2.3 Design criteria for mechanically cleaned bar screens 53
3.2.4 Screening removal quantities 53
3.2.5 Grit and screenings removals at various plants in the USA 54
3.3.1 Horizontal flow grit chamber design 60
4.1.1 Desludging frequency for septic tanks 65
4.1.2 Septic tank sidewall area required for different percolation times 68
4.2.1 BOD removals in anaerobic ponds loaded at 250 g BOD/m3d (Mara, 1976) 71
4.3.1 Anaerobic contact process performance data from various applications. 74
xix
TABLE TITLE PAGE
5.5.1 Estimation of mixing energy for oxygen dispersion from various sized aerators 96
5.5.2 Calculated efficiencies at different temperatures and detention times 97
Approximate relationship between sludge age yield factor for new biomass
7.1.1 125
produced per unit of COD loading and loading rate
7.1.2 Empirical values to determine carbonaceous oxygen requirement 128
Typical figures for oxygen transfer efficiency into clean water for different types of
7.1.3 129
aeration equipment
7.2.1 Key design parameters for a conventionally loaded SBR 134
7.2.2 Case studies for several SBR installations 135
8.1.1 Normalised Germain equation k20 values from pilot studies 156
8.2.1 Guide for loading rates of biological filters 162
8.2.2 Media for biological filters from BSA 1438:1971 163
8.3.1 Reduction in wetted area of RBC when using more than two stages 171
8.3.2 Suggested correction factors for design of RBC’s for domestic sewage 171
8.3.3 Suggested correction factors for design of RBC’s for domestic sewage (cold areas) 172
10.1.1 Removal of bacteria by different processes 203
xx
G L O S S A RY
BR Anaerobic Baffled Reactor
ADWF Average Dry Weather Flow
BNR Biological nutrient removal
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Bv BOD Loading
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
d Day(s)
DAF Dissolved Air Flotation
DO Dissolved oxygen
DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
E. coli Escherichia coli
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
FFR Fixed Film Reactors
F/M Food to micro-organism
3
Ft /Mgal Cubic feet per mega gallon
g/Cap.d grams per capita per day
3
g/m .d Grams per cubic metre per day
IWPC Institute for Water Pollution Control
kg Kilograms
kg/d.h Kilograms per day per hectare
kl Kilolitre
kl/d Kilolitre per day
kW Kilo Watts
kW/kg.d Kilo Watts per kilogram per day
l litre
2
l/m .d Litres per square metre per day
3
m Cubic meters
MBR Membrane Bioreactor
3
m /d Cubic meters per day
MF Microfiltration
mg/l Milligrams per litre
m/h Metres per hour
3
m /ha.d Cubic meters per hectare per day
Ml Megalitres
Ml/d Megalitres per day
ml/l Millilitres per litre
xxi
MLSS Mixed liquor suspended solids
MLVSS Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
mm Millimetres
mm/s Millimetres per second
3
m /min.m cubic metres per minute per metre
m/s Metres per second
NH4-N Ammonia nitrogen
P Phosphorus
OA Oxygen Absorbed
O&M Operation and Maintenance
PDWF Peak Dry Weather Flow
PST Primary settling tank
PV Permanganate Value
PWWF Peak Wet Weather Flow
RAS Return activated sludge
RBC Rotating Biological Contactor
RDU Rotating Disc Unit
rpm Revolutions Per Minute
RSS Return Sludge Concentration (Clarifier underflow)
SABS South African Bureau of Standards
SAR Sodium Adsorption Ratio
SBR Sequencing batch reactor
SNL Supernatant Liquor
SRT Solids Retention Time
SS Suspended solids
SSVI Stirred specific volume index
SVI Sludge volume index
SWD Sidewater depth
TKN Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
TWL Top Water Level
µm Micro metre
UF Ultrafiltration
USAB Upward Anaerobic Sludge Blanket
UV Ultraviolet
WAS Waste activated sludge
3
W/m Watts per cubic metre
WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant
xxii
CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
'A Guide to the Design of Sewage Purification Works' was first published in 1973 by the then Southern
African Branch of the Institute for Water Pollution Control (IWPC) and over the years this useful reference
document has become known as the 'Black Book'. This guide was revised and republished in 1987, the
same year that the IWPC became the Institute of Water and Environmental Management and the same
year in which the Water Institute of Southern Africa was formed. This became known as the ‘Green Book’.
A major decision taken by the Branch Council was that the revised publication should be applicable to
sewage works treating up to 5 Ml/day of domestic sewage as there was concern that the revised book
should not be used as a type of “do-it-yourself manual” by people lacking adequate expertise to design
such a works. The purpose of the 1987 revised publication was to update outdated information, include
new processes and provide the information in a more user-friendly manner. The 1987 revision of the
Manual was intended to be less of a guide to design, and more of a manual to assist firstly designers, and
secondly engineers and/or chemists who may be required to approve the designs for smaller domestic
sewage works treating up to 5 Ml/d.
No further revision has been carried out since publication of the revised edition of the Manual for Design
of Small Sewage Treatment Works in 1987, , despite that fact that since then there have been a number
of new technologies introduced into wastewater. It is obvious that the manual was in need of updating as
several new processes are available and the understanding of the activated sludge process in particular,
has advanced significantly since then. The 1987 edition of the manual also did not consider processes
used in small plants of the package plant type as are commonly used in housing complexes. It is clear
that a new manual, covering these changes was required, .with technological advances and a number of
changes in the procedures used in plant operation.
Another change in this new edition of the manual is that the maximum capacity of 5 Ml/d stipulated in
previous versions is considered arbitrary and irrelevant. Although the manual is designed with smaller
wastewater plants in mind, it needs to be remembered that much of the information and design
calculations are applicable to much larger plants and not confined to works of 5 Ml/d or less. Many larger
plants have been built in stages over extended periods of time, resulting in plants consisting of a number
1
of smaller modules. This manual could be of particular relevance in such cases. The manual is however
written with smaller wastewater works in mind and is intended to assist in designing, approving and
operation of these smaller plants.
1.2 HOW TO USE THE DESIGN MANUAL

Even a highly-qualified engineer would not attempt to design a car or an aeroplane by reading a book.
Even a large number of books on the subject would not provide the background know-how which is
garnered by experience over a period of time. One would also need to have access to the tools of the
trade that may be essential to the design process.
Whilst a wastewater works is relatively simple conceptually, the same argument can be applied.
Designing a plant requires experience and know-how which needs to be accumulated by exposure to the
field over a period of time, and using a single reference book to design a plant would be a risky approach.
Like its IWPC predecessors (the Black Book and the Green Book) this manual does not, therefore set out
to be an all-embracing guide to design. There are many other comprehensive works and manuals of
practice that could and should also be consulted. However it does provide an overview of South African
practice and design criteria.
The manual is intended to be a guide to persons already in the field, who may use it for cross-checking
purposes, and a starting point to persons interested in wastewater treatment and would like to be involved
in works design.
It could also be a useful reference for persons who have a need for a plant and who have had a design
presented to them for approval. With a few quick checks it should be possible to assess if the plant
appears to be about the right size, and whether suitable process selection has been carried out.
It would also be of use as a prescribed book for a number of the higher-level courses being offered in
wastewater treatment, where a brief design overview is to be included.
2
CHAPTER 2
2. DESIGN PRELIMINARIES
2.1 GUIDE TO ESTABLISHING A WASTEWATER WORKS

2.1.1 INTRODUCTION
It is not feasible to just go ahead and design and build a sewage or wastewater works. Permission has to
be granted by a number of authorities before work can commence. If the works is in a municipal area it
will be necessary to apply to the municipality for permission. Compliance with various regulations and
planning provisions will be needed and approval may be subject to negotiation over a fairly extended
period of time.
The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) will also have to be approached for approval and
permission. The formalities are less stringent for small works (less than 2 Ml/d) where the General
Authorisation limits apply, but there are still procedures that need to be met. If DWAF has delegated
some of its powers to the Municipality this will be an additional step that has to be gone through with
them.
DWAF (and/or the Municipality) will be interested in the treatment sequence proposed, in order to satisfy
themselves that the effluent will comply with the required limits. In certain catchments listed by DWAF
there are higher standards applicable (Special Standard) which may be applicable to designated
conservation areas, or there may be phosphate limits on the effluent where eutrophication is a
downstream problem. Irrigation use of effluent also has different requirements.
In addition to all of this an EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) is required, regardless of the size of
the plant, and this involves compiling an EIA and submitting it to the Provincial Department of the
Environment.
The negotiations may be time-consuming and complex and it may well be advisable to obtain the
assistance of a specialised consultant, if this is not a routine activity for you or your organisation.
3
2.1.2 EFFLUENT STANDARDS
The effluents from wastewater plants have to comply with Gazetted Standards for Discharge as set by
DWAF. The General Authorisation limits apply to works of 2 Ml/d and less. Larger plants have to have a
survey and report done on the potential effects of effluent discharge on the river, and in certain cases,
more stringent limits may apply.
The provisions of some of the applicable regulations extracted from the relevant Government Gazette are
given later in this document.
2.1.3 SLUDGE UTILISATION AND DISPOSAL STANDARDS

A WRC project was established in which all role players could contribute following a certain amount of
controversy over the years as to the applicable standards for sludge application to land.,. The result of
this has been the publication of a five part set of guidelines which set out permissible disposal routes for
sludges of various qualities depending on the level of treatment and stabilisation. This guide has been
adopted by DWAF and the Department of Health, and copies are available from the WRC
2.1.4 MAINTENANCE
The selection of processes for a works should take into account the level of infrastructure that exists at
the proposed site. There are many plants in existence that have been poorly selected through
specification of relatively sophisticated machinery and processes. In many country areas there are
virtually no maintenance contractors or facilities available, and plants need to be kept as simple as
possible. Sophisticated PLC controls and automatic valves may reduce the need for operator input but
they increase the need for high level maintenance. Many plants as a result cease to perform effectively
after a period of time.
2.1.5 OPERATOR LEVEL

The more sophisticated a plant, and the larger the works to be operated, the higher will be the works
classification and the higher will be the level of skills and qualifications required by the process controller
and supervisor operating the works. The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) has had a
system of Works and Operator classification in place for many years. It is currently in the process of
revision. Until now this was governed by Regulation 2834 of the National Water Act, but in future will fall
under Regulation 17 under Section 9 of the Water Services Act. Works designers should be aware that
the processes they select will entail certain requirements in terms of process controller education and
experience and ongoing training requirements which will need to be complied with for the process
4
controller to obtain a licence and to operate the works. Process controlling can be considered to be a
scarce skill, and may be virtually unobtainable in rural areas.
5
2.2 POPULATION AND PROJECTIONS
2.2.1 INTRODUCTION
For correct sizing of a works it is necessary to have good estimates of existing or likely wastewater flows
and biological loads over the period encompassed by the design. When the design is an extension or
refurbishment of an existing plant one is usually able to access some data regarding flows and
wastewater strengths as a basis for process sizing, but for new plants, in areas which are still in the
process of planning or development, it is necessary to make a number of design assumptions.
In the case of residential areas or developments where there is no existing data, the best estimates of
flow and load are usually based on population projections. The developers of the residential areas or
estates will have an overall plan of the number of stands and for smaller developments may even have
knowledge of the size of houses to be built, or the number of bedrooms in the flats or apartments
planned. From this it should be possible to obtain a reasonable estimate of the likely population and in
turn from this, an estimate of likely wastewater flows and biological loads.
Population and flow projections for areas served by a wastewater treatment plant should be made before
sizing of treatment processes and piping. Where possible, designs should be based on a 10-year design
period for any one phase of construction. However shorter periods or staged developments often need to
be implemented to match predicted growth patterns. In considering staged development the ultimate
development of the collection area should be assessed to determine how the layout for the plant may
appear if the area is fully developed.
The population per dwelling unit depends on a number of factors. Obviously the size of the house is
relevant and a four-bedroom house is likely to have a higher occupancy than a one or two bedroom unit.
The area is also relevant. A holiday area is likely to be much closer to being fully occupied in season than
a development which houses permanent residents. Income level and family size are also important. Many
lower income areas have larger families than high income areas and populations of 6 to 8 persons per
household are common in poorer areas compared to 4 persons per unit in a high income area.
Population projections should be based on historic growth in the catchment area, together with projected
housing and industrial developments and the programmes of construction. The population projections
should also take into account non-permanent residents and seasonal changes in populations (that is,
heavy tourist areas or commercial areas). The sum of the non-permanent and the permanent population
is considered the functional population and is the basis for design flow. Although a seasonal population
may be present in a service area for only a portion of the year (for example, the summer months, or the
winter months), it may have a significant effect on the waste-water flow treated by the plant. If large
fluctuations in flow are expected, the design may need to include provisions for isolating parts of the plant
6
during periods of low flow, and bringing these back into operation as the need arises during periods of
high flow or organic loading.
Consideration of service area characteristics should be included when estimating flow per capita. When
available, water consumption for an area should be used to estimate wastewater flow generation. At least
50 to 80% of the water consumption reaches the sewer system (the lower percentage is applicable in
semi-arid regions). If water consumption data are not available or an area is undeveloped, an estimation
of flow per capita can be used to generate expected wastewater flow. This is discussed in the following
section (Chapter 2, Section 3).
When estimating population one therefore needs to establish the total number of residences, and to
allocate a population per unit depending on income level, size of units, and type of development. This
then forms the basis for estimating the flows and biological loads which will be used to size the works.
In purely residential areas the wastewater will consist of domestic sewage, the strength of which is related
to the demographics of the area. The water consumption per capita depends on income level so that
sewages from low income areas are of higher strength than those from higher income areas. This aspect
is discussed later (Chapter 2, Section 4).
Commercial areas may contribute significantly to flow, yet not have a significant population count., The
type of industry or commercial business should therefore be identified whenever possible. If the area is
zoned for commercial use but is not developed, an estimate based on the wastewater generation from
similar businesses in the surrounding area offers a starting base for flow projections.
In mixed areas such as where a new town or city is being planned there will be mixed use of water and
the possibility of effluent from wet or dry industries contributing to the wastewater mix. Usually some
information will be available regarding this, as new towns are generally built for a purpose such as to
serve a mine or a large industrial development, and assumptions can be made to estimate likely non-
domestic flows. Collaboration with the designers of the potable water works or water supply authority can
avoid duplication in such cases and ensure that the water supply capacity and the wastewater treatment
capacity are matched.
New developments are sometimes planned to be constructed over extended periods which may be five,
ten, or even twenty years. Whilst a good argument can be made for building a plant with the ultimate
capacity for a five year development, it is usually more appropriate to build works for longer-term
developments in stages or modules. The number of stages required will depend on the programme and
the rate of population or flow increase, balanced by the cost penalties incurred in building a works in a
relatively large number of small stages. The optimal number of stages of development is therefore
decided by a combination of economic and engineering judgements together with input from the client as
regards affordability over the development period.
7
2.3 FLOW ESTIMATION
2.3.1 INTRODUCTION
When designing a new sewage works or extending an existing one, the design should be based on the
flow rate and sewage strength. Estimation of the flow rate is therefore a critical factor in design. If an
existing works is to be extended and the flow records and plant performance data of the plant are
available, then careful assessment of the rate of flow, daily and seasonal fluctuations in flow rate and
sewage strength and operational data for the various process units can be used to determine the design
parameters of the extended plant. However if no reliable data are available, as is often the case in
designing new works, then estimates have to be made. This chapter provides guidelines in estimating
flow for design purposes. This is achieved by establishing the size of the population for the contributing
area to the works, thereby making it possible to obtain a reasonable estimate of likely flows to the works.
2.3.2 ASSESSMENT OF WASTEWATER FLOW
2.3.2.1 Domestic Sewage
This component is normally the major contributor to the total flow and a reliable estimate is therefore
important. There are various ways in which this may be determined. Domestic sewage flow may be
expressed in terms of litres/household.day. Typical figures for fully-sewered housing units with
bathrooms, basins and kitchen sinks, taken from SABS Publication 0252-2 are given in Table 2.3.1
below. Table 2.3.2 then gives reduced flows for dwelling units that do not have full in-house water
reticulation.
TABLE 2.3.1: Typical figures for flow estimates for fully-sewered households.
Description Sewage Flow
l/person/day
Low income group:

Per dwelling unit, or 500
Per person per dwelling unit 70
Middle to upper-income groups:

Per person per dwelling unit, or 160
Dwellings with 2 bedrooms 750
Dwellings with 3 bedrooms 900
Dwellings with 4 bedrooms 1 100
1) An allowance of 15% for storm-water infiltration and other

contingencies should be incorporated in the design figures
to be used for dwelling houses
8
TABLE 2.3.2 : Typical flows for dwellings without full in-house water reticulation
Level of water supply Sewage flow

l/person/day
Public street standpipes 12 to 15
Single on-site standpipe with dry 20 to 25

sanitation system
Single on-site standpipe with a WC pan 45 to 55

connected to water supply
Single in-house tap with a WC pan 50 to 70

connected to water supply
Flows in excess of those tabled above are likely where water supplies are not metered, while lower
flows will prevail in residential areas without normal internal plumbing in the dwellings. As an alternative
it has been established in many areas that a figure of about one kl/d per stand for fully reticulated sites
provides a reasonable estimate of flow. No reliable correlation between the sewage flow and the
number of sanitary fittings in a dwelling has yet been established.
Water consumption records, where available, are a possible alternative basis for estimating domestic
sewage flows. About 70% of domestic water consumption may be expected to reach the sewer; but this
percentage will be higher from dwellings where there are no gardens, and lower where there are large
gardens, especially if lawn sprinklers are used. Some areas have a return as low as 40% to 50%
Flows from other units contributing to domestic sewage are estimated as listed in Table 2.3.3. and are
taken from SABS publication 0252-2.
In providing for the full design life of a sewage treatment works the upward trend in per capita sewage
contribution should be kept in mind and an annual increase of 1.5% to 2.5% could be expected in
below-average areas. Persons intending to design wastewater plants and appurtenances would be well
advised to obtain the relevant SABS publication as, apart from flow guidelines, it also contains much of
the necessary detail requirements.
2.3.2.2 Other Criteria
Guidelines for expected flows and loads are also available from other publications in this country such
as Government Departments. In addition there are criteria from the UK, Europe and USA. These can
be helpful but care is needed in applying them as different lifestyles and per capita consumptions may
exist. In the section on load estimation (Section 2.5), tables from UK (British Water) and USA
(Washington State) are given as examples.
9
TABLE 2.3.3: Typical figures for daily sewage flow estimates
for units other than households.
Type of establishment Unit Daily sewage flow
l/unit
Airports Passenger 10
Bars Customer 8
Boarding houses Person 110
(Additional kitchen wastes for
Non-resident boarders) Person 23
Cocktail lounges Seat 70
Country clubs Visitor 370
Employee 50
Day schools Student 37
Department stores Toilet 1 850
Employee 40
Dining halls Meals served 30
Drive-in theatres Car space 9
Factories (exclusive of industrial waste) Worker / shift 140
Hospitals, medical Bed 500
Employee 40
Hospitals, mental Bed 400
Employee 40
Hotels without private bathrooms Person 110
Hotels with private bathrooms Person 140
Motels Bed 90
Offices Worker / shift 70
Restaurants (toilet and kitchen wastes) Person 20
Service stations Parking space 10
Shopping centres Employee 5
Swimming baths Person 9
Theatres Seat 10
Tourist camps or caravan parks with
central bathhouse Person 90
2.3.2.3 Non- Domestic Wastewater
Although this design manual is intended for relatively small works treating mostly domestic sewage the
situation often arises, even on small plants, that there is a significant non-domestic component. This
applies to settlements or towns established to serve a single factory, mine, sugar mill, brewery, or
agricultural industry, or a relatively small industrial township. In this case, the proposed industrial
activity needs to be established together with planned production levels and the expected water
consumptions and effluent generation. It will then be necessary to consult the literature for the specific
industry or industries involved to establish likely wastewater flows and loads and characteristics.
Information should be available from the industrial entrepreneurs and there are a number of useful
publications in this field. The series of WRC reports in the published in the NATSURV series some
years ago would still be useful in this regard. The nature of the non-domestic wastewater component
needs to be carefully considered as it may well have a major effect on process selection and plant
sizing
10
2.3.3 FLOW VARIATION
The flows given above are average flows. On top of this there is a diurnal variation over 24 hours and
variation during wet and dry conditions. Infiltration of groundwater and ingress of surface stormwater
into the sewerage system will affect the rate of flow significantly. Hence flow recording during both wet
and dry weather conditions is necessary to establish peak factors.
2.3.3.1 Average Dry Weather Flow (ADWF)
The flow used when designing treatment units will be the total domestic sewage flow and is known as the
ADWF and is measured in kl/d. The figures given in the tables above represent ADWF.
2.3.3.2 Peak Dry Weather Flow (PDWF)
The normal daily peak flow in dry weather (PDWF) exceeds the AWDF by a factor that is generally
highest when the population and the area served are small. The larger the town and the more mixed the
population the lower the likely peak factor. Conversely in a settlement serving one industry where nearly
everyone follows the same timetable, the peak factor is likely to be high.
The following formula is often used to calculate the factor:
14
Peak Factor = 1+ ………………………………………………………..(2.1)
4 p
where p is the equivalent population (1000's) contributing to the system.
The Table 2.3.4 below gives typical peak factors. Peak flows are typically measured in l/s.
TABLE 2.3.4: Typical peak factors for estimation of peak flows in l/s.
Peak Factor
Population Served
(l/s)
2 000 3.5
10 000 3.0
30 000 2.5
The effect of long sewers is to attenuate and thereby decrease the peak factor. Also a sewered area with
an elongated shape and flat slopes will likewise tend to lower the peak factor. The peak dry weather flow
for a works receiving sewage by pumping may vary considerably from that of a fully gravitational system.
These cases should be investigated in more detail.
11
2.3.3.3 Peak Wet Weather Flow (PWWF)
The average dry weather flow (ADWF) should exclude any provision for groundwater infiltration or
stormwater entering the sewerage system. Capacity should, however, be provided for this peak wet
weather flow. Special circumstances, such as high rainfall intensity, high natural water table, water-
tightness of pipe systems, frequency of drainage inspections, etc., should be taken into account in
assessing the peak wet weather flow.
Estimates of peak wet weather flow (PWWF) vary so widely that no fixed criteria can be given. The
allowance in an arid region may be effectively zero. Areas close to sea level or flat areas with high water
tables may have continuing infiltration of groundwater which may have high salinity. Unstable ground
conditions may lead to frequent sewer fractures and high levels of ground and stormwater infiltration. The
geology and climate of the area therefore needs to be taken into account when planning for wet weather
peaks.
One empirical method for estimating increased flow under wet weather conditions is to size the hydraulic
design to allow for a flow rate equal to one and a half times the peak dry weather flow (PDWF).
12
2.4 SEWAGE STRENGTH AND CHARACTERISTICS
2.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Wastewaters can have a wide range of strengths and varying characteristics depending on their origin.
When considering wastewater one normally starts with domestic sewage and this manual is basically for
the design of plants for treating sewage of domestic origin. However even a small town may have an
industrial component to its wastewater and knowledge of the expected characteristics is essential for a
suitable design of treatment works.
Different industries produce effluents which differ in strength and characteristics. These have been
extensively surveyed and reports published in the NATSURV series issued by the Water Research
Commission. The reports cover most of the types of wet industry likely to be encountered. However if the
industry in question is already in existence, there is no substitute for a local investigation into the quantity
and nature of effluent being produced. This is normally the work of a specialist and particular care should
be taken when designing plants if experienced assistance is not available.
Further discussion on industrial effluents is beyond the scope of this manual and the discussion below is
confined to domestic sewage.
2.4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF INTEREST

Sewage characteristics can be divided into four main categories:
i. the concentration of oxidisable organic material, or substrate,
ii. the concentration of nutrients present and
iii. the solids concentration.
iv. the pH and alkalinity value
The concentration of oxidisable material is normally expressed as an oxygen demand and is a

measure of the strength of the sewage. The nutrients generally refer to nitrogen and phosphorus
present, and is a measure of the propensity for the treated effluent to give rise to eutrophication (algal
growth) downstream from the works.
The solids concentration is an indicator of the relative amount of sludge likely to be produced. The
alkalinity needs to be adequate to sustain full nitrification (oxidation of ammonia to nitrate).
13
2.4.2.1 Strength of Sewage
The strength of sewage arriving at treatment works varies considerably, depending largely upon the
domestic living standards of the contributing population. The following are the most common parameters
for measuring organic strength:
1. Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
2. Five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
The selection of one of these parameters depends largely on practical considerations and personal
preferences. However, guidelines to assist in selection of these parameters are presented below.
BOD is intended to be a measure of the amount of oxygen required by bacteria and organisms to break
down the sewage. However the normal test is the 5 day BOD, and it only estimates about half the total
biological demand. It is possible to carry out an ultimate (complete) BOD but this takes about 50 days and
is a difficult test that is highly prone to inaccuracies. We therefore tend to use the BOD (5 day) as a
measure of the biodegradability of the sewage or effluent and the COD as a better estimate of the oxygen
demand for purification. Many design criteria are in terms of BOD but these have a correction factor built
in. However the trend has been towards using COD for the design criteria in recent years, and this
manual generally expresses its design criteria in terms of COD.
BOD is widely used in the design of lagoon and pond systems, and this has been retained in this manual.
The design of biological filters used to be expressed in terms of the old Oxygen Absorbed (OA) or
Permanganate Value parameters but this, and the activated sludge process are now increasingly being
designed in terms of COD.
The COD test is increasingly used in the design of the activated sludge process. The test itself takes
about 2 hours and is an oxidation of sewage at high temperature (reflux) under strongly acid and oxidising
conditions. With only minor exceptions, the COD effectively oxidises all the organic matter and is a good
measure of the total strength of the sewage.
There is a fairly constant COD/BOD ratio of about 2:1 in domestic sewages. As such, treatment
processes for domestic sewage can be designed using either COD or BOD as a design parameter. Only
where final COD’s and BOD’s are being considered for pond designs does the difference become
material.
2.4.2.2 Nutrient Concentration
The two most important nutrients in sewage treatment processes are nitrogen and phosphorus.
14
Nitrogen concentration is generally determined as Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN), which measures the
sum of the free and saline ammonia plus the organic nitrogen concentrations. Nitrogen is not usually the
limiting nutrient for eutrophication but is important because it exerts an oxygen demand on the activated
sludge process, and consumes alkalinity when converted from ammonia to nitrate (nitrification).
Sewage phosphorus in most domestic is present in both the poly-phosphate and the ortho-phosphate
forms. It is therefore important, when measuring the total phosphorus concentration present, to select a
test that converts all the phosphate into one form, usually the orthophosphate. Phosphorus is the limiting
nutrient for eutrophication. As little as 0.1 mg/l phosphate in an impoundment can lead to algal growth.
The limit for sewage effluents in sensitive areas is 1 mg/l, and normal sewages have about 10 to 12 mg/l
of phosphate present. Phosphate removal by biological means can be built into the activated sludge
process but this requires specialised design. If phosphorus is limited, most small plants use metal salt
addition to remove phosphate (iron or aluminium)
2.4.2.3 Solids Concentration
The removal of suspended solids in the raw sewage by primary sedimentation gives a reasonably good
estimate of the sludge solids which will be requiring treatment in the sludge plant at the works. Typical
removals are of the order of about 250 mg/l (0.25 kg/m3). These solids are incorporated into the waste
sludge discharged from the process for extended aeration activated sludge plants.
2.4.2.4 Alkalinity
The oxidation of ammonia to nitrate also requires about 7mg/l of alkalinity per mg/l of nitrogen. If the total
alkalinity of a wastewater is not more than seven times the TKN, there will be a shortage of alkalinity for
nitrification, resulting in low pH effluent with residual ammonia. The two options available to counter this
are to promote denitrification, which recovers just over half the alkalinity lost per mg/l, or to add alkali
(lime or soda ash).
2.4.2.5 Typical Sewage
A typical domestic sewage or a wastewater with a high domestic component will have typical
characteristics, as shown below :
BOD (as O2 ) 250 to 350 mg/l
COD (as O2 ) 500 to 700 mg/l
Settleable solids 8 to 10 ml/l
Suspended solids 200 to 350 mg/l
TKN 60 to 85 mg/l
+
Ammonia (NH4 -N) 40 to 50 mg/l
Phosphate (P) 10 to 13 mg/l
15
An increase in concentrations should be anticipated if the major contribution to the sewage is from lower
income groups. Conversely if the contributing area is a high-income area, the sewage will be of lower
strength.
16
2.5 LOAD ESTIMATION
2.5.1 INTRODUCTION
The strength of sewage arriving at treatment works varies considerably, depending largely upon the
domestic living standards of the contributing population. Sub-economic housing areas tend to produce
strong sewages due to low per-capita water consumptions and high occupation densities. Luxury housing
areas produce weak or dilute sewages due to high specific water consumption patterns, and the use of
washing appliances.
Wastewater characteristics can be divided into three main categories:

i. The concentration of oxidisable organic material, or substrate
ii. The concentration of nutrients present
iii. The solids concentration.
2.5.2 ORGANIC CONCENTRATION

The following are the most common parameters for measuring organic strength:
1. Chemical oxygen demand ( CO D)
2. The five-day biochemical oxygen demand ( BO D)
The C O D test is increasingly used in the design of the activated sludge process and fixed film aerobic
processes. The design criteria in Europe and America sometimes use COD and sometimes BOD but the
use of COD seems to be gaining ground. The BOD test has been, and is still used in the design of
lagoon and pond systems, and occasionally of biological filters and the activated sludge process.
However the test itself has a number of disadvantages, making the result dependent on the reaction rate
as well as the substrate concentration.
In domestic sewages the range of C OD /BO D ratios varies between about 1.8 and 2.5 and is commonly
assumed to be about 2:1. The COD/OA (Oxygen Absorbed) ratio is usually about 10:1. As such,
treatment processes for domestic sewage can be designed using either CO D, B O D or OA as a design
parameter. In practice one would normally measure or estimate the COD concentration or load, and
divide by 2 if the design criteria were expressed in terms of BOD, or by 10 if old OA or PV (Permanganate
Value) criteria were being used. In this design guideline we will generally be using COD as a basis,
although BOD will be retained for pond design.
17
2.5.3 NUTRIENT CONCENTRATION
The two most important nutrients in sewage treatment processes are nitrogen and phosphorus.
Phosphorus is usually the limiting nutrient when wastewater effluents are discharged to watercourse and
impoundments and its presence leads to the proliferation of benthic algae in rivers (attached algae), and
phyto-plankton (floating algae) in dams and lakes. The phenomenon is known as eutrophication and is a
cause of secondary pollution. Certain species of algae can become toxic to livestock. For this reason the
phosphorus concentration in effluents is limited in certain catchments, and processes which remove this
nutrient are necessary on wastewater plants on such catchments. The designer of a wastewater works
should therefore ensure the status of the catchment into which the works effluent will be discharged
before finalising the design of the plant.
High nitrogen concentrations are also limited, as there is a General Authorisation limit on ammonia and
nitrate concentrations in effluent discharges. High concentrations of nitrate are harmful when consumed
by infants, which is a consideration when there is informal abstraction downstream of a plant. Ammonia in
effluent is toxic to various aquatic organisms, including many species of fish. Nitrogen concentration is
generally determined as Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) which measures the sum of the free ammonia and
ionised ammonium concentrations, as well as the organic nitrogen concentrations.
2.5.4 SOLIDS CONCENTRATION

The solids component of wastewater, and particularly of domestic sewage, comprises a significant portion
of the overall biological load (approximately 40%). On large works it is usually preferable from an
operating cost point of view to treat the solids separately in a separate sludge treatment section of the
plant. On small works the additional capital cost and operating complications of separate sludge
treatment are not justified, and, apart from septic tanks, the solids are usually treated in the aerobic
process.
Solids in wastewater are generally measured using two tests. The first and oldest test is the Settleable
Solids test where the wastewater is poured into a steep-sided conical flask known as an Imhoff Cone
(similar to a rain gauge, with similar volumetric graduation marks from the base of the cone). It is then
settled for a fixed period (typically one hour) and the volume of settled solids read off. The settleable
solids test gives an approximate value for the volume of sludge likely to be produced from a particular
wastewater. For a domestic sewage this usually ranges from about 5 to 15 ml/l.
The second more reliable test is the Suspended Solids (SS) test where the wastewater is filtered and
solids removed, dried and weighed. For sludge treatment design the suspended solids removal is
relevant, rather than the absolute value in the wastewater. This would be determined by measuring the
suspended solids in the raw wastewater and the suspended solids after settling the wastewater for an
18
hour or two hours. SS results are expressed as milligrams per litre (mg/l) which is equivalent to parts per
million. A typical suspended solids removal would be between 150 and 350 mg/l.
2.5.5 LOAD FROM TYPICAL DOMESTIC SEWAGE

The daily load per capita can be expressed by various parameters and these will also vary depending on
the diet and social structure of the population served. The suggested loads for design purposes are given
in Table 2.5.1 below.
TABLE 2.5.1: Suggested loads per capita for typical domestic sewage.
Parameter Design Loads
g/Cap.d
Oxygen Demand
BOD (as 02) 50 – 80
COD (as 02) 100 – 160
Solids
Settleable solids 60
Suspended solids 30
Nutrients
Ammonia nitrogen (NH4 -N) 15
Phosphate (P) 4
.
2.5.6 MIXED WASTEWATER AND INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS

The existing or planned factories need to be considered for their contribution to the works. Norms exist for
nearly all industries relating expected wastewater flows, strengths and characteristics to production levels
and types of product. In addition to this samples can be taken from an existing factory and effluent
volumes estimated. If the factory is still in the planning stage it may also be possible to take samples from
a similar existing factory to obtain an idea of the expected effluent characteristics.
The industrial load and volume would then be added to the domestic component to arrive at a total
volume and load. Allowance must also be made for the domestic sewage load arising from the factories
particularly if many of the employees come from outside the area.
2.5.7 OTHER CRITERIA

In addition, many criteria are available on the Internet, particularly from the USA. Comprehensive tables
from the British Water website and the Washington State (USA) website are shown below as examples.
19
TABLE 2.5.2: British Water: Table of Loadings for Sewage Disposal Facilities
Expressed per person / activity / day (unless otherwise specified) (Ammonia as N)
Flow BOD Ammonia
l g g
DOMESTIC DWELLINGS
Standard residential 200 60 8
Mobile home type caravans with full services 180 75 8
INDUSTRIAL
Office / Factory without canteen 50 25 5
Office / Factory with canteen 100 38 5
Open industrial site, e.g. construction, without canteen 60 25 5
*Full-time Day Staff 90 38 5
*Part-time Staff (4 hr shift) 45 25 3
SCHOOLS
Non-residential with canteen cooking on site 90 38 5
Non-residential without a canteen 50 25 5
Boarding school (i) residents 200 75 10
(ii) day staff (including mid-day meal) 90 38 5
HOTELS, PUBS & CLUBS
Hotel Guests (Prestige hotels) 300 105 12
Hotel Guests (3 & 4 hotels) 250 94 10
Guests (Bedroom only – no meals) 80 50 6
Residential Training/Conference Guest (all meals) 350 150 15
Non residential Conference Guest 60 25 2.5
Drinkers 12 15 5
HOTELS, PUBS & CLUBS continued
Holiday camp chalet resident 227 94 10
Resident Staff 180 75 10
Restaurants - Full Meals - luxury catering 30 38 4
- pre-prepared catering 25 30 2.5
- Snack Bars & bar meals 15 19 2.5
- Function Rooms including buffets 15 19 2.5
- Fast Food i.e. (roadside restaurants) 12 12 2.5
- Fast Food Meal (burger chain and similar) 12 15 4
Students (Accommodation only) 100 56 5
AMENITY SITES 10 112 2.5
Toilet Blocks (per use 10 12 2.5
Toilet (WC) (per use) 5 12 2.5
Toilet (Urinal) (per use) 10 19 4
Toilet Blocks in long stay car parks/lorry parks (per use) 40 19 2
Shower (per use) 20 19 5
Local community sports club, e.g. squash, rugby & football 40 25 6
20
TABLE 2.5.2: Continued Flow BOD Ammonia
l g g
AMENITY SITES
Swimming (separate pool without sports centre) 10 12 2.5
Health Club/Sports Centre 50 19 4
Tent sites
Caravan Sites - (i) Touring not 100 44 8
(ii) Static not 100 44 8
(iii) Static fully 180 75 8
HOSPITALS & RESIDENTIAL CARE HOMES
Residential old people / nursing 350
Small hospitals 450
Large hospitals Assess
*Staff figures also apply to other applications
TABLE 2.5.3: Design Basis for New Sewage Works (Washington State)
Flow
Flow BOD SS Duration
DISCHARGE FACILITY
l/d g/d g/d h/d
Dwellings per person 380 90 90 24
Schools with showers and cafeteria per person 60 18 18 8
Schools without showers and with cafeteria per person 40 11 11 8
Boarding schools per person 285 90 90 16
Motel (rooms only) per room 490 118 118 24
Trailer (caravan) courts at 3 persons per caravan per site 1100 272 272 24
Restaurants per seat 190 90 90 16
Highway restaurants per seat 680 318 318 24
Highway rest areas per person 20 5 5 24
Service stations per vehicle serviced 40 5 5 16
Factories per person per 8-hr shift 55-130 14-32 14-32 8
2
Shopping centres per 100 m of floor space 750-1140 5 5 12
Hospitals per bed 1140 272 272 24
Nursing homes per bed 750 136 136 24
Homes for the aged per bed 380 90 90 24
2
Doctor’s office in medical centre per 100 m 1800 45 45 12
Laundromats, 9 to 12 machines per machine 1800 130 130 16
Community colleges per student and faculty 60 14 14 12
Swimming pools per swimmer 35 0.5 0.5 12
Theatres, drive-in type per car 20 5 5 4
Theatres, auditorium type per seat 20 5 5 12
Picnic areas, per person 20 5 5 12
Resort camps, day and night, with limited plumbing per
campsite 190 23 23 24
Luxury camps with flush toilets per campsite 380 45 45 24
21
Care should be taken when applying these criteria as they do not necessarily relate to local conditions. In
particular, the USA criteria for dwellings have a high per capita load due to the widespread use of kitchen
waste-disposal units. Where no local criteria appear to exist however, they can serve as a guide and can
be related to other criteria for which a local equivalent is available.
22
2.6 PROCESS SELECTION
2.6.1 INTRODUCTION
Process selection is sometimes straightforward, but is often complex and involves a large number of
factors. The result depends on the primary objective which may either be the best technical solution at an
efficient cost, or the best available solution for the finance available. It also depends on other
considerations such as the available operating expertise, the maintenance and engineering capabilities of
the client, the availability and cost of power and chemicals, the distance from large cities where technical
and backup resources are available, and the climatic factors involved.
As a general principle, process selection should arrive at the simplest practical solution that will achieve
the desired objective. Although there are often complex biochemical processes involved, wastewater
treatment processes are generally not all that High-Tech in nature. However the ability of clients to
operate activated sludge processes (especially nutrient removal plants), and to maintain machinery in
efficient working order needs to be established before making a decision. The ability of operating staff to
operate complex processes such as occur in a reclamation plant needs also to be considered before
making an appropriate decision on re-use of water or effluent.
In general the objective of wastewater treatment is the removal of suspended solids and reduction of
COD or BOD, and ammonia. Choice of the process most applicable will be influenced by the proposed
plant size, type of waste to be treated, and degree and consistency of treatment required. Some of the
considerations involved are listed below.
The selection of primary solids separation automatically involves the need for separate sludge treatment
and dewatering processes. This is not justified on small plants for reasons of cost and complexity. As a
reasonable generalisation for cut-off, plants of 10Ml/d and smaller should not have primary sedimentation
and many plants larger than this are also of the extended aeration type.
Notwithstanding the above, very small plants of package plant size for housing estates are often best
served by the installation of septic tanks as a first stage for solids removal and sludge accumulation, as
well as some biological load reduction.
Effluents of high strength are often well suited to a first stage anaerobic process which reduces the
biological load without high power consumption. Effluents from the anaerobic first stage or high rate
aerobic process are then treatable by either activated sludge in one of its variants, or by a low rate fixed
film process as a second stage to achieve the necessary discharge standards. High rate plastic media
filters are a reasonable alternative to primary anaerobic treatment as they are low in energy requirement,
but the plastic medium is relatively expensive.
23
Nutrient removal processes are less successful as a second aerobic stage of treatment than as a single
stage aerobic process, due to the removal of readily biodegradable COD in the primary stage.
The selection of process depends on land availability. With unlimited land a pond system has much to
recommend it. Smaller areas could use aerated lagoons and maturation ponds, or mechanical plants
followed by a pond or a wetland. Highly built-up areas will require mechanical plants, sometimes on two
levels and using high-rate compact processes.
The level of operating skills available is important. No plant can be fully automated, but some processes
require less attention than others. For very small plants, fixed film processes with septic tanks may often
be preferable to variants of the activated sludge process, although sequencing batch reactors (SBR’s)
reduce some of the operating attention required.
The positioning of the plant is relevant. Plants adjacent to residences should be quiet and odour-free and
this will influence process selection.
Where sludge treatment is necessary, the choice of sludge treatment process, thickening and/or
dewatering will depend on the land availability and the disposal route available. Land disposal, landfill
disposal, composting, and incineration all have different requirements.
The cost of power is important. High power costs move the choice towards anaerobic and fixed film
processes. Low power costs favour aerobic digestion and activated sludge.
Climatic factors also need to be considered. Cold winters would necessitate long sludge age activated
sludge plants for continued nitrification, and well-insulated mesophillic digestion of sludge. Warm climates
would allow lower sludge ages and cold digestion.
Mechanical complexity is an issue. It would not be advisable to install complex machinery in a plant for a
small municipality in a remote rural area. Conversely a plant for a mining village where there is mine
maintenance staff available would tolerate a mechanised approach using machinery rather than a large
labour force.
Finally, but importantly, the process selection should be suitable for achieving the discharge or effluent
standards that are required for the particular application (see Chapter 2.8).
24
2.7 TREATMENT SEQUENCES
2.7.1 INTRODUCTION
In designing a wastewater plant some process choices limit the number of alternatives possible for
subsequent treatment, or predicate the need for additional processes such as sludge treatment or
dewatering. As in many other fields, the guiding principle should be to keep it simple. This is particularly
the case for very small plants where skilled operation may not be available. On much larger plants it may
be economically beneficial to have primary sedimentation, anaerobic digestion and mechanical
dewatering or sludge drying beds. However on small plants it may be best to have a septic tank and a
fixed film aerobic process.
The tables below are not fully comprehensive but are intended to give a guide as to options available to a
designer at various stages of the selection of processes.
2.7.2 VERY SMALL PLANTS (SINGLE DWELLING UP TO

APPROXIMATELY 500 Kl/D)
2.7.2.1 Primary Selection
No Head of Works (No Screens, degritters or flowmeter).
2.7.2.2 Process Choices Available
1. Pond system
2. Septic tank followed by soakaway
3. Septic tank followed by RBC or Submerged Media Reactor
4. Septic tank followed by activated sludge (Usually slightly larger plants in this range).
2.7.2.3 Disinfection Choices Available
1. None (soakaway, maturation ponds, wetlands, irrigation)

2. Chlorination and discharge to watercourse or irrigation (HTH (calcium hypochlorite) pills, sodium
hypochlorite solution)
3. Ultraviolet (UV) Irradiation and discharge to watercourse or irrigation.
2.7.3 SMALL PLANTS (500 Kl/D UP TO 2 000 Kl/D)

Plants in this size range will have a head of works, with screening and degritting, and usually either a
flowmeter or some other form of flow measurement.
25
No primary sedimentation.
1. Extended aeration activated sludge

2. Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
3. Maturation ponds or wetlands after aerobic treatment
4. Sludge lagoons
5. Sludge drying beds.
1. Chlorination by sodium hypochlorite solution or commercial granulated calcium hypochlorite with

solution feed
2. UV irradiation.
2.7.3.4 Effluent Disposal Choices
1. Discharge to watercourse or wetland

2. Low grade re-use.
2.7.4 MEDIUM SIZED PLANTS (2 Ml/D TO 10 Ml/D) – NO PRIMARY

SEDIMENTATION
Plants in this size range will invariably have a head of works that will probably be mechanised
No primary sedimentation.
1. Extended aeration activated sludge

2. Maturation ponds or wetlands after aerobic treatment
3. Sludge lagoons
4. Sludge drying beds
5. Mechanical sludge dewatering (DAF, belt press, centrifuge).
1. Chlorination by sodium hypochlorite solution or gas chlorination
26
2. UV irradiation.

2. Low grade re-use
3. Re-charging groundwater.
2.7.5 MEDIUM SIZED PLANTS (2 Ml/D TO 10 Ml/D) – PRIMARY

SEDIMENTATION PROVIDED
Plants of this size will usually have a mechanised Head of Works.
Primary sedimentation provided.
1. Conventional Activated Sludge or Variants

2. Biological (Trickling) Filters
3. Maturation ponds or wetlands after aerobic treatment.
2.7.5.3 Sludge Processing Choices
1. Anaerobic Sludge Digestion (cold, mesophillic, or thermophillic)

2. Sludge drying beds
3. Mechanical sludge dewatering (DAF, belt press, centrifuge).
1. Chlorination by sodium hypochlorite solution or gas chlorination

2. UV irradiation.

2. Low grade re-use
3. Re-charging groundwater.
27
2.7.6 LARGE PLANTS (> 10 Ml/D)
These are beyond the scope of this manual but most of the choices for medium-sized works remain valid.
There is more likelihood of re-use being made of the effluent from larger works, as this represents
significant quantities of water, and the scale of use justifies the more sophisticated treatment processes
that are required.
28
2.8 EFFLUENT DISPOSAL AND DISCHARGE STANDARDS
2.8.1 INTRODUCTION
Discharge of wastewater effluent to a water course or by irrigation is controlled by Government
legislation, namely Section 39 of the National Water Act, 1998 (Act No. 36 of 1998). This is available from
the Department of Water Affairs website and as it is periodically revised, it is advisable to access the
latest version from the website., , The latest version at the time of publishing this manual is provided
below for ease of use..
The Act specifies the volumes of wastewater effluent that can be irrigated to land, or discharged to a
water resource daily, the volume being limited by the quality of the effluent and its impact on affected
water resources, land, and health and safety of the population. Tables listing chemical, physical and
bacterial limits are provided, together with a table of listed water resources. The special wastewater limits
apply when discharging wastewater effluent to a listed water resource
The Act also specifies monitoring frequency, analytical and record-keeping requirements, precautionary
procedures and procedures for registering as a user with the Department of Water Affairs.
2.8.2 SECTION 39 OF THE NATIONAL WATER ACT, 1998

GAZETTE NO 26187
GOVERNMENT NOTICE
DEPARTMENT OF WATER AFFAIRS AND FORESTRY
NO. 399 26 March 2004
REVISION OF GENERAL AUTHORISATIONS IN TERMS OF SECTION 39 OF THE NATIONAL

WATER ACT, 1998 (ACT NO. 36 OF 1998)
IRRIGATION WITH WASTEWATER

2.7. A person who-
(a) owns or lawfully occupies property registered in the Deeds Office as at the date of this notice;
(b) lawfully occupies or uses land that is not registered or surveyed; or
(c) lawfully has access to land on which the use of water takes place, may on that property or land:
(i) irrigate up to 2000 cubic metres of domestic and biodegradable industrial waste water on any given
day provided the-
29
Faecal coliforms do not exceed 1000 per 100 ml;
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) does not exceed 75 mg/l;
pH is not less than 5.5 or more than 9.5 pH units;
Ammonia (ionised and un-ionised) as nitrogen does not exceed 3 mg/l;
Nitrate/nitrite as nitrogen does not exceed 15 mg/l;
Chlorine as free chlorine does not exceed 0,25 mg/l;
Suspended solids does not exceed 25 mg/l;
Electrical conductivity does not exceed 70 milliSiemens above intake to a maximum of 150 milliSiemens
per metre (mS/m);
Ortho-phosphate as phosphorus does not exceed 10 mg/l
Fluoride does not exceed 1 mg/l; and
Soap, oil or grease does not exceed 2.5 mg/l.
(ii) irrigate up to 500 cubic metres of domestic or biodegradable industrial wastewater on any given day,
provided the-
(a) electrical conductivity does not exceed 200 milliSiemens per metre (mS/m);
(b) pH is not less than 6 or more than 9 pH units;
(c) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) does not exceed 400 mg/l after removal of algae;
(d) faecal coliforms do not exceed 100 000 per 100 ml; and
(e) Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) does not exceed 5 for biodegradable industrial wastewater.
(ii) irrigate up to 50 cubic metres of biodegradable industrial wastewater on any given day, provided the-
(a) electrical conductivity does not exceed 200 milliSiemens per metre (mS/m);
(b) pH is not less than 6 or more than 9 pH units;
(c) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) does not exceed 5 000 mg/l after removal of algae;
(d) faecal coliforms do not exceed 100 000 per 100 ml; and
(e) Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) does not exceed 5 for biodegradable industrial wastewater,
if the irrigation of wastewater-

(a) does not impact on a water resource or any other person’s water use, property or land; and
(b) is not detrimental to the health and safety of the public in the vicinity of the activity.
Registration of irrigation with wastewater

2.8.(1) A person who irrigates with wastewater in terms of this authorisation must submit to the
responsible authority a registration form or any other information requested in writing by the responsible
authority for the registration of the water use before commencement of irrigation.
(2) On written receipt of a registration certificate by the Department, the person will be regarded as a
registered water user.
30
(3) All forms for registration of water use are obtainable from the Regional offices of the Department as
well as from the Departmental web-site at http://www.dwaf.gov.za
Location of irrigation with wastewater

2.9. Wastewater irrigation in terms of this authorisation is only permitted if the irrigation takes place-
(a) above the 100 year flood line, or alternatively, more than 100 metres from the edge of a water
resource or a borehole which is utilised for drinking water or stock watering, whichever is further; and
(b) on land that is not, or does not, overlie a major aquifer (identification of a major aquifer will be
provided by the Department, upon written request).
Record-keeping and disclosure of information

2.10. (1) The water user must ensure the establishment of monitoring programmes to monitor the quantity
and quality of the wastewater to be irrigated prior to commencement of irrigation and thereafter, as
follows-
(a) the quantity must be metered and the total volume recorded weekly; and
(b) the quality must be monitored monthly as at the last day of each month by grab-sampling at the point
at which the wastewater enters the irrigation system for all parameters listed in Subparagraphs 2.7.(i) and
(ii).
(2) The methods for the measurement of specific substances and parameters in any wastewater must be
carried out-
(a) by a laboratory that has been accredited under the South African National Accreditation System
(SANAS) in terms of SABS Code 0259 for that method; or
(b) as approved in writing by the responsible authority.
(3) Upon the written request of the responsible Authority the water user must-
(a) ensure the establishment of any additional monitoring programmes; and
(b) appoint a competent person to assess the water use measurements made in terms of this
authorisation and submit the findings to the responsible authority for evaluation.
(4) Subject to Paragraph 2.10. (3) above, the water user must keep a written record of the following
wastewater irrigation and related activities, for at least three years-
(a) demarcate the location of the irrigation area on a suitablly scaled map, and indicate the extent of the
area under irrigation on a 1: suitably scaled map;
(b) details of the crop(s) and the area under irrigation;
(c) the irrigation management techniques being practiced;
(d) quantity of wastewater irrigated;
(e) quality of wastewater irrigated;
(f) details of the monitoring programme;
31
(g) details of failure and malfunctions in the irrigation system and details of measures taken, and such
information must be made available upon written request to the responsible authority.
(5) Any information on the occurrence of any incident that has or is likely to have a detrimental impact on
the water resource quality must be reported to the responsible authority.
Precautionary practices
2.11. (1) The water user must follow acceptable construction, maintenance and operational practices to
ensure the consistent, effective and safe performance of the wastewater irrigation system, including the
prevention of-
(a) water-logging of the soil and pooling of wastewater on the surface of the soil;
(b) nuisance conditions such as flies or mosquitoes, odour or secondary pollution;
(c) waste, wastewater or contaminated stormwater entering into a water resource;
(d) the contamination of run-off water or stormwater;
(e) the unreasonable chemical or physical deterioration of, or any other damage to, the soil of the
irrigation site; the unauthorised use of the wastewater by members of the public; and
(f) preventing of people being exposed to the mist originating from the industrial waste.
(2) All reasonable measures must be taken for storage of the wastewater used for irrigation when
irrigation cannot be undertaken.
(3) Suspended solids must be removed from any wastewater, and the resulting sludge disposed of
according to the requirements of any relevant law or regulation, including-
(a) “Permissible utilisation and disposal of sewage sludge” Edition 1, 1997. Water Research Commission
Report No TT 85/97 as amended from time to time; and
(b) “Guide: Permissible utilisation and disposal of treated sewage effluent”, 1978. Department of National
Health and Population Development Report No. 11/2/5/3, as amended from time to time (obtainable from
the Department upon written request).
(4) All reasonable measures must be taken to provide for mechanical, electrical, operational, or process
failures and malfunctions of the wastewater irrigation system.
(5) All reasonable measures must be taken to collect stormwater runoff containing waste or wastewater
emanating from the area under irrigation and to retain it for disposal;
Inspections
2.12. Any property or land in respect of which a water use has been authorised in terms of this notice
must be made available for inspection by an authorised person in terms of section 125 of the National
Water Act.
32
Offences
2.13. A person who contravenes any provision of this authorisation is guilty of an offence and is subject to
the penalty set out in Section 151(2) of the National Water Act.
DISCHARGING OF DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER INTO WATER RESOURCES
3.7. (1) A person who-

(a) owns or lawfully occupies property registered in the Deeds Office as at the date of this notice; or
(b) lawfully occupies or uses land that is not registered or surveyed, or
(c) lawfully has access to land on which the use of water takes place, may on that property or land
outside of the areas excluded in paragraph 3.4 above,
(i) discharge up to 2 000 cubic metres of wastewater on any given day into a water resource that is not a
listed water resource set out in Table 3.43, provided the discharge-
(a) complies with the General wastewater Limit Values set out in Table 3.12;
(b) does not alter the natural ambient water temperature of the receiving water resource by more
than 3 degrees Celsius; and
(c) the discharge is not a complex Industrial wastewater.
(ii) discharge up to 2 000 cubic metres of wastewater on any given day into a listed water resource set out
to in Table 3.43, provided the discharge -
(a) complies with the special wastewater limit values set out in Table 3.21;
(b) does not alter the natural ambient water temperature of the receiving water resource by more
than 2 degrees Celsius; and
(c) is not a complex Industrial wastewater,
if the discharging of wastewater-

(a) does not impact on a water resource or any other person’s water use, property or land; and
(b) is not detrimental to the health and safety of the public communities in the vicinity of the activity.
(2) A person may not discharge stormwater runoff from any premises, not containing waste, or water
containing wastewater emanating from industrial activities and premises, into a water resource.
Registration of discharges into water resources

3.8. (1) A person who discharges wastewater into a water resource in terms of this authorisation must
submit a registration form for registration of the water use before commencement of the discharge.
(2) On written receipt of a registration certificate by the Department, the person will be regarded as a
registered water user.
33
(3) All forms for registration of water use are obtainable from the Regional offices of the Department, as
well as from the Departmental web-site at http://www.-dwaf. gov.za
TABLE 2.8.1: Wastewater limit values applicable to discharge of wastewater into a water resource
SUBSTANCE/PARAMETER GENERAL LIMIT SPECIAL LIMIT
Faecal Coliforms (per 100 ml) 1 000 0
Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/l) 75 (i)* 30(i)*
pH 5.5-9.5 5.5-7.5
Ammonia (ionised and un-ionised) as 36 2
Nitrogen (mg/l)
Nitrate/Nitrite as Nitrogen (mg/l) 15 1.5
Chlorine as Free Chlorine (mg/l) 0.25 0
Suspended Solids (mg/l) 25 10
Electrical Conductivity (mS/m) 70 mS/m above intake to a 50 mS/m above background
maximum of 150 mS/m receiving water, to a maximum
of 100 mS/m
Ortho-Phosphate as phosphorus (mg/l) 10 1 (median) and 2.5 (maximum)
Fluoride (mg/l) 1 1
Soap, oil or grease (mg/l) 2.5 0
Dissolved Arsenic (mg/l) 0.02 0.01
Dissolved Cadmium (mg/l) 0.005 0.001
Dissolved Chromium (VI) (mg/l) 0.05 0.02
Dissolved Copper (mg/l) 0.01 0.002
Dissolved Cyanide (mg/l) 0.02 0.01
Dissolved Iron (mg/l) 0.3 0.3
Dissolved Lead (mg/l) 0.01 0.006
Dissolved Manganese (mg/l) 0.1 0.1
Mercury and its compounds (mg/l) 0.005 0.001
Dissolved Selenium (mg/l) 0.02 0.02
Dissolved Zinc (mg/l) 0.1 0.04
Boron (mg/l) 1 0.5
* (i) After removal of algae
Record-keeping and disclosure of information

3.9. (1) The water registered user must ensure the establishment of monitoring programmes to monitor
the quantity and quality of the discharge prior to the commencement of the discharge, as follows-
(a) the quantity of the discharge must be metered and the total recorded weekly; and
(b) the quality of domestic wastewater discharges must be monitored monthly by grab sampling and
analysed for specific substances and parameters as required by the responsible authority. as set out in
Table 3.32.
(c) the quality of industrial wastewater discharges must be monitored weekly by grab sampling-
34
(i) for all substances which have been added to the water through any industrial activity;
(ii) for all substances which have been concentrated in the water through any industrial activity;
(iii) for all substances which may be harmful or potentially harmful to human health or to the water
resource quality; and
(iv) as set out in paragraph 3.9(1)(b) above, if the wastewater contains any domestic wastewater.
TABLE 2.8.2: Monitoring requirements for domestic wastewater discharges

DISCHARGE VOLUME ON ANY GIVEN DAY MONITORING REQUIREMENTS
< 10 cubic metres None
10 to 100 cubic metres pH
Electrical Conductivity (mS/m)
Faecal Coliforms (per 100 ml)
100 to 1000 cubic metres pH
Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/l)
Ammonia as Nitrogen (mg/l)
Suspended Solids (mg/l)
1 000 to 2 000 cubic metres pH
Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/l)
Ammonia as Nitrogen (mg/l)
Nitrate/Nitrite as Nitrogen (mg/l)
Free Chlorine (mg/l)
Suspended Solids (mg/l)
Ortho-Phosphate as Phosphorous (mg/l)
(d) The methods for the measurement of specific substances and parameters in any wastewater must be
carried out-
(i) by a laboratory that has been accredited under the South African National Accreditation System
(SANAS) in terms of SABS Code 0259 for that method; or
(ii) as approved in writing by the responsible authority .
(2) Upon the written request of the responsible authority the registered user must-
(a) ensure the establishment of any additional monitoring programmes; and
(b) appoint a competent person to assess the water use measurements made in terms of this
authorisation and submit the findings to the responsible authority for evaluation.
35
(3) Subject to paragraph 3.9. (2) above, the water user must, for at least five years, submit the following
information on a monthly basis to the responsible authority keep a written record of the following
wastewater discharge and related activities-
(a) the quantity of wastewater discharged;
(b) the quality of wastewater discharged;
(c) details of the monitoring programme/s;
(d) details of failures and malfunctions in the discharge system and details of measures taken, and such
information must be made available upon written request to the responsible Authority.
(4) Any information on the occurrence of any incident that has or is likely to have a detrimental impact on
the water resource quality must be reported to the Responsible Authority.
Precautionary practices
3.10. (1) The water user must follow acceptable construction, maintenance and operational practices to
ensure the consistent, effective and safe performance of the discharge.
(2) All reasonable measures must be taken to provide for mechanical, electrical, operational, or process
failures and malfunctions of the discharge system.
Inspections
3.11. Any property or land in respect of which a water use has been authorised in terms of this notice
must be made available for inspection by an authorised person in terms of Section 125 of the National
Water Act.
Offences
3.12. A person who contravenes any provision of this authorisation is guilty of an offence and is subject to
the penalty set out in Section 151(2) of the National Water Act.
TABLE 2.8.3: Listed water resources

WATER RESOURCE
1 Hout Bay River to tidal water
2 Palmiet River from Kogelberg Dam to its estuary: Eerste River to tidal water
3 Lourens River to tidal water
4 Steenbras River to tidal water
5 Berg and Dwars Rivers to their confluence
6 Little Berg River to Vogelvlei weir
7 Sonderend, Du Toits and Elandskloof Rivers upstream and inclusive of Theewaterskloof Dam
8 Witte River to confluence with Breede River
9 Dwars River to Ceres divisional boundary
10 Olifants River to the Ceres divisional boundary
36
WATER RESOURCE
11 Hisloot and Smalblaar (or Molenaars) Rivers to their confluence with Breede River
12 Hex River to its confluence with Breede River
13 Van Stadens River to tidal water
14 Buffalo River from its source to where it enters the King Williams Town limits municipal area
15 Klipplaat River from its source to Waterdown Dam
16 Swart Kei River to its confluence with the Klipplaat River
17 Great Brak River
18 Bongola River to Bongola Dam
19 Kubusi River to the Stutterheim limits municipal boundary
20 Langkloof River from its source to Barkly East limits municipal boundary
21 Kraai River to its confluence with the Langkloof River
22 Little Tsomo River
23 Xuka River to the Elliot limits district boundary
24 Tsitsa and Inxu Rivers to their confluence
25 Mvenyane and Mzimvubu Rivers from sources to their confluence
26 Mzintlava River to its confluence with the Mvalweni River
27 Ingwangwana River to its confluence with Umzimkulu River
28 Umzimkulu and Polela Rivers to their confluence
29 Elands River to the Pietermaritzburg-Bulwer main road
30 Umtamvuma and Weza Rivers to their confluence
31 Umkomaas and Isinga Rivers to their confluence
32 Lurane River to its confluence with the Umkomaas River
33 Sitnundjwana Spruit to its confluence with the Umkomaas River
34 Inudwini River to the Polela district boundary
35 Inkonza River to the bridge on the Donnybrook-Creighton road
36 Umlaas to the bridge on District Road 334 on the farm Maybole
37 Umgeni and Lions River to their confluence
38 Mooi River to the road bridge at Rosetta
39 Little Mooi and Hlatikula Rivers to their confluence
40 Bushmans River to Wagendrift Dam
41 Little Tugela River and Sterkspruit to their confluence
42 M'Lambonjwa and Mhlawazeni Rivers to their confluence
43 Mnweni and Sandhlwana Rivers to their confluence
44 Tugela River to its confluence with the Kombe Spruit
45 Inyamvubu (or Mnyamvubu) River to Craigie Burn Dam
46 Umvoti River to the bridge on the Seven Oaks-Rietvlei road
47 Yarrow River to its confluence with the Karkloof River
48 Incandu and Ncibidwane Rivers to their confluence
49 Ingogo River to its confluence with the Harte River
50 Pivaan River to its confluence with Soetmelkspruit
37
WATER RESOURCE
51 Slang River and the Wakkerstroom to their confluence
52 Elands and Swartkoppie Spruit to their confluence
53 All tributaries of the Komati River between Nooitgedacht Dam and its confluence with and including
Zevenfontein Spruit
54 Seekoeispruit to its confluence with Buffelspruit
55 Crocodile River and Buffelskloofspruit to their confluence
56 All tributaries of the Steelpoort River down to its confluence with and including the Dwars River
57 Potspruit to its confluence with the Waterval River
58 Dorps River (or Spekboom River) to its confluence with the Marambanspruit
59 Ohrigstad River to the Ohrigstad Dam
60 Klein-Spekboom River to its confluence with the Spekboom River
61 Blyde River to the Pilgrim's Rest municipal boundary
62 Sabie River to the Sabie municipal boundary .
63 Nels River to the Pilgrim's Rest district boundary
64 Houtbosloop River to the Lydenburg district boundary
65 Blinkwaterspruit to Longmere Dam
66 Assegaai River upstream and inclusive of the Heyshope Dam
67 Komati River upstream and inclusive of the Nooitgedacht Dam and the Vygeboom Dam
68 Ngwempisi River upstream and inclusive of Jericho Dam and Morgenstond Dam
69 Slang River upstream and inclusive of Zaaihoek Dam
70 All streams flowing into the Olifants River upstream and inclusive of Loskop Dam, Witbank Dam and
Middelburg Dam
71 All streams flowing into Ebenezer Dam on the Great Letaba River
72 Dokolewa River to its confluence with the Politzi River
73 Ramadiepa River to the Merensky Dam on the farm Westfalia 223, Letaba
4
LISTED WATER RESOURCES WHERE SPECIAL LIMIT FOR ORTHO-PHOSPHATE AS PHOSPHORUS
IS APPLICABLE (Crocodile (west) Marico Water Management Area)
74 Pienaars River and tributaries as far as Klipvoor Dam
75 Crocodile River and tributaries as far as Roodekopjies Dam
76 Elands and Hex River and trrbutaries as far as Vaalkop Dam
77 Molopo River and Tributaries as far as Madimola Dam
RAMSAR LISTED WETLANDS: PROVINCE LOCATION
o ’ o ’
78 Barberspan North-West 26 33 S 25 37 E
79 Blesbokspruit Gauteng 26 17 S 28 30’ E
o ’ o
o ’ o ’
80 De Hoop Vlei Western Cape 34 27 S 20 20 E
o ’ o ’
81 De Mond (Heuningnes Estuary) Western Cape 34 43 S 20 07 E
o ’ o ’
82 Kosi Bay Kwazulu-Natal 27 01 S 32 48 E
o ’ o ’
83 Lake Sibaya Kwazulu-Natal 27 20 S 32 38 E
o ’ o ’
84 Langebaan Western Cape 33 06 S 18 01 E
38
WATER RESOURCE
o ’ o ’
85 Orange River Mouth Northern Cape 28 40 S 16 30 E
o ’ o ’
86 St Lucia System Kwazulu-Natal 28 00 S 32 28 E
o ’ o ’
87 Seekoeivlei Nature Reserve Free State 27 34 S 29 35 E
o ’ o ’
88 Verlorenvlei Western Cape 32 24 S 18 26 E
o ’ o ’
89 Verloren Valei Mpumalanga 25 14 S 30 4 E
o ’ o ’
90 Nylsvlei Northern 24 39 S 28 42 E
o ’ o ’
91 Wilderness Lakes Western Cape 33 59 S 22 39 E
39
2.9 SLUDGE UTILISATION AND DISPOSAL
2.9.1 INTRODUCTION
Wastewater sludges can be derived from a number of sources, for example:
3. Raw or primary sludge (from a primary settling tank)
4. Anaerobically digested sludge
5. Oxidation pond sludge
6. Septic tank sludge
7. Waste activated sludge (sludge wasted from an activated sludge plant)
8. Humus tank sludge
9. Composted sludge
The type of sludge needs to be taken into consideration when choosing a management option for the
disposal of the sludge.
New, comprehensive guidelines for the disposal of wastewater sludges were produced as part of a Water
Research Commission project (Snyman and Herselman, 2006). The previous guidelines (WRC Report
TT85/97,1997) dealt predominantly with the use of wastewater sludges as soil conditioners, but failed to
clarify the requirements for other options, such as disposal to landfill sites. In 2002 an addendum to the
1997 Guidelines was produced (WRC Report TT 154/02, 2002) which clearly defined the different
management options available for sludge disposal. The most recent Guidelines (Snyman and Herselman,
2006) clarify these options still further and provide a comprehensive sludge classification system. The
previous Guidelines were based mainly on international findings, but the new Guidelines incorporate the
findings of a WRC initiated research programme devised to increase the knowledge base of sludge
management suitable to South African conditions.
The new Guidelines adopt the concept of sustainability, meaning that management options are chosen
which do not harm the environment, either by using non-renewable resources or by resulting in a build-up
of constituents, beyond that which the environment can safely assimilate. The three options available for
sustainable disposal of sludge include:
1. Utilising the calorific energy value of the sludge (e.g. heat generation)
2. Using the useful components of the sludge (e.g. as a soil conditioner, compost)
3. Extracting useful constituents from the sludge
The option of using the useful components, such as for agricultural use, is the most viable option for
South African conditions, but not all sludges produced in this country are suitable for this application.
Factors which prevent agricultural use of wastewater sludge include:
1. Unacceptably high concentrations of heavy metals or organic contaminants
40
2. Land availability
3. Community resistance to agricultural use of sludge in their area (odours, flies etc.)
The new Guidelines therefore developed four different management options for the disposal of
wastewater sludges, each option developed as a separate guideline volume. These Guidelines now
provide the regulatory requirements for the disposal of wastewater sludges.
The new Guidelines require that a sludge be classified in terms of three criteria, namely:
1. Microbial
2. Stability
3. Pollution
Each of the three classes, listed above, then consists of three subclasses. In the case of the microbial
class, this is based on the concentrations of faecal coliforms and helminth ova present in the sludge
(Microbial Classes A, B and C). The sub-classes making up the Stability Class depend on the treatment
process that the sludge has undergone prior to disposal, the more stable the sludge, the higher the
Stability Sub-Class into which it falls (Stability Class 1, 2 and 3). The Pollutant Class depends on the
results of the analysis of the sludge in terms of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury,
nickel and zinc (Pollutant Class a, b and c). A good-quality sludge would therefore be classified as an A1a
sludge.
The sludge classification determines the management options available for the sludge. For example, for
an A1a sludge, there are no restrictions for the agricultural use of this sludge, while a sludge classified as
Microbial Class C must attain Stability Class 1 or 2 in order to qualify for agricultural use (e.g. C1a and
C2a would be suitable for agricultural use, but not C3a).
The Guidelines also specify monitoring frequency, sampling procedures, analytical tests, record-keeping
requirements and the application rates of sludge to land or waste sites.
The sludge disposal options are an important factor in any wastewater plant design and the various
options available should be carefully considered, since the cost implications can be significant. It
therefore strongly advised that the Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater Sludge be
consulted when designing a wastewater works.
The Guidelines can be obtained from:

Private Bag X03
Gezina 0031
or
41
The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
Resource Protection and Waste
Private Bag X313
Pretoria 0001
42
CHAPTER 3
3. PRELIMINARY TREATMENT
3.1 FLOW MEASUREMENT

3.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Flow measurement, either of the raw sewage entering the works, or the final effluent leaving a plant, is
important if operation of the plant is to be optimised or for the loading on the works to be monitored.
There are five reasons to measure plant flows:
1. To assist in process control and operation of the treatment facility.
2. To help minimise the cost of operation and maintenance.
3. To provide a historical record of wastewater flows and process performance on which to base future
plant expansions and modifications.
4. To meet the monitoring requirements of regulatory agencies. These requirements are usually
contained in the treatment plant discharge permit.
5. To check for excessive levels of infiltration during wet weather periods or sudden drops in flow
indicating a sewer break or pump-station failure
3.1.2 FLOW MEASUREMENT
3.1.2.1 General
All plants, regardless of size, should provide facilities for measurement of flow, even if a flow meter is not
provided. Metering devices within a sewage works should be located so that recycle flow streams do not
inadvertently affect the flow measurement.
3.1.2.2 Flow Meter Selection
Factors to be considered in selecting the method of flow measurement are as follows:

1. Probable flow range
2. Acceptable head loss
3. Required accuracy
4. Fouling tendency from wastewater.
43
3.1.3 MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
3.1.3.1 Measuring Flumes
Venturi flumes are the most commonly used

type of flume which basically consists of a
smooth-walled constriction in the flow channel
with a sensor to measure the height of flow
through the flume on the upstream side. This is
related to the flow in the channel by an
equation containing the flume dimensions and
the flow height, and can be obtained from
standard textbooks on hydraulics. Parshall
flumes differ from Venturi flumes in that the
former has a downward slope in the bottom of
the channel, downstream of the throat of the
flume whereas venture flumes have a level
bottom.
The flow from the calibration equation can be

read off a gauge plate set up the wall of the
channel as an instantaneous reading, or can
be integrated from a float sensor in a side
chamber, or from an ultrasonic sensor
mounted vertically above the flume to read the
water level. Previously float chambers were the
norm, now it is usual to specify ultrasonic
sensors.
FIGURE 3.1.1: Example of a flume
Flumes can be considered when measuring raw sewage or primary effluent, because of their freedom
from clogging problems. Requirements to be observed when designing a flume installation are as follows:
1. The crest shall have a smooth, definite edge. If a liner is used, all screws and bolts shall be
countersunk.
2. Downstream elevations should be low enough to maintain free-flow discharge conditions and prevent
excessive “backing up” in the diverging section, or provisions must be made to correct the
measurement for submergence.
44
3. Proper location of the flume is very important for accuracy. The flume should not be installed too
close to turbulent flow, surging or unbalanced flow, or a poorly distributed velocity pattern. It should
be located in a straight section of a channel, without bends immediately upstream of the flume. The
flume should be readily accessible for both installation and maintenance purposes. The ultrasonic
sensor should be rigidly mounted over the channel in the upstream part of the flume, with sufficient
signal damping to provide a relatively noise-free reading and should be connected to the integrator
and/or flow indication by suitable compatible electronic means.
1.3.1.1 Flow through Flumes

A simplified formula for flow through flumes is as follows
Q = k.b.h1,5 (Approximately)
Where Q - flow rate (m3/s)

b - width of throat at narrowest point (m)
h - height of liquid above invert upstream of throat (m)
k - a constant that varies, but is typically about 1.75
3.1.4 OTHER FLUMES

Other types of flumes are also available for measuring plant flows. Manufacturers’ instructions should be
followed.
3.1.5 MEASURING WEIRS

Weirs are appropriate for measuring effluent flows where there is limited likelihood of solids deposition
and build-up behind the weir. (Weirs included in these guidelines are V-notch, rectangular with end
contractions, and Cipolletti.)
, The following criteria should be met for installation of weirs:

1. The upstream face of the bulkhead should be smooth and in a vertical plane, perpendicular to the
axis of the channel
2. The entire crest of a horizontal weir should be a level, plane surface that forms a sharp, right-angled
edge where it intersects with the upstream face
3. The upstream corners of the notch must be sharp. They should be machined or filed perpendicular to
the upstream face, free of burrs or scratches.
4. The distance of the crest from the bottom of the approach channel (weir pool) should be not less
than twice the depth of water above the crest
5. The water overflowing the weir should touch only the upstream edges of the crest and sides
45
6. The measurement of head on the weir should be taken as the difference in elevation between the
crest and the water surface, at a point upstream from the weir a distance of four times the maximum
head on the crest
7. The cross-sectional area of the approach channel should be at least six times that of the crest for a
distance upstream from 15 to 20 times the upstream head on the weir
8. The head on the weir should have at least 75 mm of free fall at the maximum downstream water
surface to ensure free fall and aeration of the nape.
3.1.5.1 Other Flumes
Other types of flumes are also available for measuring plant flows. Manufacturers’ instructions should be
followed.
3.1.5.2 Measuring Weirs
Weirs are appropriate for measuring effluent flows. (Weirs included in these guidelines are V-notch,
rectangular with end contractions, and Cipolletti.)
FIGURE 3.1.2: Example of a rectangular weir
The following criteria should be met for installation of weirs,:

1. The upstream face of the bulkhead should be smooth and in a vertical plane, perpendicular to the
axis of the channel
46
2. The entire crest of a horizontal weir should be a level, plane surface which forms a sharp, right-
angled edge where it intersects with the upstream face
3. The upstream corners of the notch must be sharp. They should be machined or filed perpendicular to
the upstream face, free of burrs or scratches
4. The distance of the crest from the bottom of the approach channel (weir pool) should be not less
than twice the depth of water above the crest
5. The water overflowing the weir should touch only the upstream edges of the crest and sides
6. `The measurement of head on the weir should be taken as the difference in elevation between the
crest and the water surface, at a point upstream from the weir a distance of four times the maximum
head on the crest
7. The cross-sectional area of the approach channel should be at least six times that of the crest for a
distance upstream from 15 to 20 times the upstream head on the weir
8. The head on the weir should have at least 75 mm of free fall at the maximum downstream water
surface to ensure free fall and aeration of the nape.
3.1.5.2.1 Flow over V-notch weirs

The equation for flow over a V-notch weir is:
Q (m3/s) = 1,4 h2.5
where h – Head of water above weir (m)
3.1.5.2.2 Flow over Rectangular weirs

For a weir of width L (m) and a height of flow of h (m) the flow Q (m3/s) is given by:
Q = 2.0 L.h1.5 for sharp-crested weirs (Steel plates etc)

And
Q = 1.7 L.h1.5 for broad-crested weirs (Concrete etc)
3.1.5.3 Venturi and Orifice Meters
Venturi and orifice meters can be used for measuring liquid or gas flows in pipes. Requirements to be
observed for application of Venturi and orifice meters are as follows:
1. The range of flows, hydraulic gradient, and space available for installation must be suitable for a
Venturi or orifice meter and are very important in selecting the mode of transmission to the indicator,
recorder, or integrator.
2. Venturi or orifice meters should not be used where the range of flows is too great, or where the liquid
may not be under a positive head at all times.
47
3. Orifice meters are not suitable for raw sewage or sludge. Cleanouts or hand holes are desirable for
such duties on Venturi meters.
4. Units used to measure air delivered by positive-displacement blowers should be located as far as
possible from the blowers, or means should be provided to dampen blower pulsations.
5. The velocity and direction of the flow in the pipe ahead of the meter can have a detrimental effect on
accuracy. There should be no bends or other fittings for five pipe diameters upstream of the Venturi
or orifice meter, unless compensated for by the manufacturer’s calibration.
3.1.5.4 Magnetic Flow Meters
Magnetic flow meters are appropriate for measuring influent, effluent, and process flows, and are
frequently specified for sludge flow measurement. They must be installed in a straight run of pipe at least
four pipe diameters away from the nearest bend or pipe appurtenance. They should also be installed
away from pump vibration and according to manufacturers’ instructions. The pipe should flow full at all
times. It is beneficial to have a means of checking the calibration of such meters by displacement tests. If
possible this should be allowed for in the works design
3.1.5.5 Other Flow Metering Devices
Flow meters, such as propeller meters, orifice meters, Pitot tubes, and other devices should only be used
in accordance with the manufacturers’ recommendations and design guidelines. If possible the plant
design should include a section of open channel flow or tank filling application where electronic flow
meters can be verified.
48
3.2 SCREENING
3.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Domestic and Municipal wastewaters contain large solids, plastics, rags, and grit that can interfere with
treatment processes or cause undue mechanical wear and increased maintenance on wastewater
treatment equipment. To minimise potential problems, these materials require removal and/or separate
handling. Preliminary treatment at the Head of Works removes these constituents from the influent
wastewater. Preliminary treatment normally consists of screening, grit removal, and usually flow
measurement.
3.2.2 APPLICABILITY
Because various types of screening and grit removal devices are available, it is important that the proper
design be selected for each situation. Though similarities exist between different types of equipment for a
given process, an improperly selected design may result in an inefficient treatment process.
3.2.3 SCREENS
Screening is the first unit operation used at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Screening removes
objects such as rags, paper, plastics, and metals to prevent damage and clogging of downstream
equipment, piping, and appurtenances. Some modern wastewater treatment plants use both coarse
screens and fine screens.
3.2.3.1 Coarse Screens
Coarse screens remove large solids, rags, and debris from wastewater, and typically have openings of
10 mm or larger. Types of coarse screens include mechanically and manually cleaned bar screens,
including trash racks. Table 3.2.1 describes the various types of coarse screens.
3.2.3.2 Fine Screens
Fine screens are typically used to remove material that may create operation and maintenance problems
in downstream processes, particularly in systems that lack primary treatment. Typical opening sizes for
fine screens are 1.5 to 6 mm. Very fine screens with openings of 0.2 to 1.5 mm placed after coarse or fine
screens can reduce suspended solids to levels near those achieved by primary clarification and are
sometimes used instead of primary sedimentation tanks.
49
FIGURE 3.2.1: Typical coarse screens
TABLE 3.2.1: Description of coarse screens

Trash Rack
Designed to prevent logs, timbers and other large debris from entering treatment processes.
Opening size: 38 to 150 mm
Manually Cleaned Bar Screen
Designed to remove large solids, rags, and debris.

Bars set at 30 to 45 degrees from vertical to facilitate cleaning.
Primarily used in older or smaller treatment facilities, or in bypass channels.
Mechanically Cleaned Bar Screen
Designed to remove medium to large solids, rags, and debris.

Bars set at 0 to 30 degrees from vertical.
Almost always used in new installations because of large number of advantages relative to other screens.
50
3.2.4 EQUIPMENT SELECTION
Most large facilities use mechanically-cleaned screening systems to remove larger materials because
they reduce labour costs and they improve flow conditions and screening capture. It may be possible to
run a works on a one- or two-shift basis with mechanical screening whereas three shifts may be required
if hand-raked screens are provided. The savings in labour costs soon make up for the additional cost of a
mechanical screen.
Typically, only older or smaller treatment facilities use a manually cleaned screen as the primary or only
screening device. A screening compactor is usually situated close to the mechanically cleaned screen
and compacted screenings are usually bagged and conveyed to a dumpster or disposal area.
Plants utilising mechanically cleaned screens should have a standby hand-raked screen to put in
operation when the primary screening device is out of service. This is standard design practice for most
newly designed plants.
The use of fine screens in preliminary treatment has experienced a resurgence in the last 20 years. Such
screens were a common feature before 1930 but their use diminished because of difficulty in cleaning oils
and grease from the screens. In the early 1980s, fine screens regained popularity because of improved
materials.
3.2.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
3.2.5.1 Advantages
Manually cleaned screens require little or no equipment maintenance and provide a good alternative for
smaller plants with few screenings. Mechanically cleaned screens tend to have lower labour costs than
manually cleaned screens and offer the advantages of improved flow conditions and screening capture
over manually cleaned screens.
3.2.5.2 Disadvantages
Manually cleaned screens require frequent raking to avoid clogging and high backwater levels that cause
build-up of a solids mat on the screen. The increased raking frequency increases labour costs. Removal
of this mat during cleaning may also cause flow surges that can reduce the solids-capture efficiency of
downstream units. Mechanically cleaned screens are not subject to this problem, but they can have high
equipment maintenance costs.
51
FIGURE 3.2.2: Manual cleaning of screens FIGURE 3.2.3: Mechanically raked screens (eWISA)
3.2.6 CLASSIFICATION
Screening devices are classified based on the size of the material they remove (the screenings). The
“size” of screening material refers to its diameter. Table 3.2.2 lists the correlation between screening
sizes and screening device classification.
TABLE 3.2.2: Screening device classification

Screening Device Size Range of Screen
Size Classification
Classification Opening
Bar screen
Manually cleaned Coarse 25 –50 mm
Mechanically cleaned Coarse 15 – 75 mm

Fine bar or perforated coarse screen
(mechanically cleaned)
Fine bar Fine to coarse 3 – 12.5 mm
Perforated plate Fine to coarse 3 –9.5 mm
Rotary drum Fine to coarse 3 –12.5 mm
Fine Screen (mechanically cleaned)
Fixed parabolic Fine 0.25 – 3.2 mm
Rotary drum Fine 0.25 – 3.2 mm
Rotary disc Very fine 0.15 – 0.38 mm
52
In addition to screening size, other design considerations include the depth, width, and approach velocity
of the channel; the discharge height, the screen angle; wind and aesthetic considerations; redundancy;
and head loss. Table 3.2.3 lists typical design criteria for mechanically cleaned bar rack type screens.
TABLE 3.2.3: Design criteria for mechanically cleaned bar screens

Design Criteria Metric Units
Bar Width 5 – 15 mm
Bar Depth 25 – 40 mm
Clear spacing between bars 15 – 75 mm
Slope from vertical 0 – 30°
Approach velocity 0.6 – 1.0 m/s
Allowable headloss 150 mm
The use of fine screens produces removal characteristics similar to primary sludge removal in primary
sedimentation. Fine screens are capable of removing 20 to 35 percent suspended solids and BOD5. Fine
screens may be either fixed or movable, but are permanently set in a vertical, inclined, or horizontal
position and must be cleaned by rakes, teeth, or brushes.
3.2.7 PERFORMANCE
The use of screening and grit removal systems is well documented. The performance of bar screens
varies depending on the spacing of the bars. Table 3.2.4 lists typical screening quantities for various
screen sizes and Table 3.2.5 lists grit and screenings removal quantities for various plants in the USA.
The quantity of screenings depends on the length and slope of the collection system and the presence of
pumping stations. When the collection system is long and steep or when pumping stations exist, fewer
screenings are produced because of disintegration of solids. Other factors that affect screening quantities
are related to flow, as quantities generally increase greatly during storm flows. Peak daily removals may
vary by a 20:1 ratio on an hourly basis from average flow conditions. Combined collection systems may
produce several times the coarse screenings produced by separate collection systems.
TABLE 3.2.4: Screening removal quantities

Screen Size (mm) Screenings Quantity (m3/106 m3)
13 60.8
38 11.2
53
TABLE 3.2.5: Grit and screenings removals at various plants in the USA
Plant Location Flow Grit Screenings
3 3 3 3
m /d m /10 m m3/103m3
Uniontown, Pennsylvania 11 400 0.074 0.006
East Hartford, Connecticut 15 100 0.017 0.009
Duluth, Minnesota 45 400 0.006 0.004
Lamberts Point, Norfolk, Va 75 700 0.034 0.009
Village Creek, Ft Worth 170 000 0.009 0.005
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 454 000 0.003 0.004
Twin Cities, Minnesota 825 000 0.034 0.008
Chicago, Illinois (Northside) 1 260 000 0.003 0.006
Local data for screening and grit removal have been obtained for a large South African Municipality.
Based on annual average figures, the amount of screenings and grit removed averaged about 20 kg/Ml
with a range of variation from 6 kg/Ml to about 60 kg/Ml over ten wastewater works with a combined
treatment capacity of about 500 Ml/d.
Screenings and grit removed per megalitre tended to be highest for wastewater from poorer residential
areas, intermediate for wealthier areas and lower for areas with mixed or predominantly industrial
catchments.
The ratio between grit and screening removed ranged from roughly equal (1:1) to about 4.0 to 1 for
detritus to screenings. The weighted average is about 2 to 1 for grit to screenings.
3.2.8 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Manually cleaned screens require frequent raking to prevent clogging. Cleaning frequency depends on
the characteristics of the wastewater entering a plant. Some plants have incorporated screening devices,
such as basket-type trash racks, that are manually hoisted and cleaned.
Mechanically cleaned screens usually require less labour or operation than manually cleaned screens
because screenings are raked with a mechanical device rather than by facility personnel. However, the
rake teeth on mechanically cleaned screens must be routinely inspected because of their susceptibility to
breakage and bending. Drive mechanisms must also be frequently inspected to prevent fouling due to grit
and rags. Grit removed from screens must be disposed of regularly.
54
3.3 DEGRITTING (DETRITUS REMOVAL)
3.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Grit (detritus) includes sand, gravel, cinder, or other heavy solid materials that are “heavier” (higher
specific gravity) than the organic biodegradable solids in the wastewater. The grit normally removed on a
works also includes eggshells, bone chips, seeds, coffee grounds, and large organic particles, such as
food waste. Removal of grit prevents unnecessary abrasion and wear of mechanical equipment, grit
deposition in pipelines and channels, and accumulation of grit in anaerobic digesters and aeration basins.
Grit removal facilities typically precede primary clarification, and follow screening and comminution. This
prevents large solids from interfering with grit handling equipment. In secondary treatment plants without
primary clarification, grit removal should precede aeration (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003).
Many types of grit removal systems exist, including aerated grit chambers, vortex-type (paddle or jet-
induced vortex) grit removal systems, detritus tanks (short-term sedimentation basins), horizontal flow grit
chambers (velocity-controlled channels), and hydrocyclones (cyclonic inertial separation). Various factors
must be taken into consideration when selecting a grit removal process, including the quantity and
characteristics of grit, potential adverse effects on downstream processes, head loss requirements, space
requirements, removal efficiency, organic content, and cost. The type of grit removal system chosen for a
specific facility should be the one that best balances these different considerations. Specifics on the
different types of grit removal systems are provided below.
3.3.2 TYPES OF GRIT REMOVAL EQUIPMENT
3.3.2.1 Aerated Grit Chamber
In aerated grit chambers, grit is removed by causing the wastewater to flow in a spiral pattern. Air is
introduced in the grit chamber along one side, causing a perpendicular spiral velocity pattern to flow
through the tank. Heavier particles are accelerated and diverge from the streamlines, dropping to the
bottom of the tank, while lighter organic particles are suspended and eventually carried out of the tank.
55
3.3.2.2 Vortex-Type Grit Chamber
The vortex-type grit chamber

consists of a cylindrical or
conical tank in which the flow
enters tangentially, creating a
vortex flow pattern. Grit settles
by gravity into the bottom of the
tank (in a grit hopper) while
effluent exits at the top of the
tank. The grit that settles into
the grit hopper may be
removed by a grit pump or an
air lift pump.
FIGURE 3.3.1: Typical vortex-type grit chamber
3.3.2.3 Detritus Tank
A detritus tank (or square tank degritter) is a constant-level, short-detention settling tank. These tanks
require a grit-washing step to remove organic material. One design option includes a grit auger and a
rake that removes and classifies grit from the grit sump.
3.3.2.4 Horizontal Flow Grit Chamber or Channel
The horizontal flow grit chamber is the oldest type of grit removal system. Grit is removed by maintaining
a constant stream velocity of 0.3 m/s. The velocity is controlled by proportional weirs or rectangular
control sections, such as Parshall flumes. In this system, heavier grit particles settle to the bottom of the
channel, while lighter organic particles remain suspended or are resuspended and transported out of the
channel. The detritus or grit is often removed manually but can be removed by a conveyor with scrapers,
buckets, or ploughs. Screw-conveyors or bucket elevators are used to elevate the grit for washing or
disposal. In smaller plants, grit chambers are usually cleaned manually.
3.3.2.5 Hydrocyclone
Hydrocyclone systems are typically used to separate grit from organics in grit slurries or to remove grit
from primary sludge. Hydrocyclones are sometimes used to remove grit and suspended solids directly
from wastewater flow by pumping at a head ranging from 3.7 to 9 m. Heavier grit and suspended solids
collect on the sides and bottom of the cyclone due to induced centrifugal forces, while scum and lighter
solids are removed from the centre through the top of the cyclone.
56
3.3.2.6 Selection
When selecting a grit removal process, the quantity and characteristics of grit and its potential to
adversely affect downstream processes are important considerations. Other parameters to consider may
include head-loss requirements, space requirements, removal efficiency, organic content, and
economics.
3.3.3 ADVANTAGES
Some advantages of aerated grit chambers include:

1. Consistent removal efficiency over a wide flow range
2. A relatively low putrescible organic content may be removed with a well controlled rate of aeration
3. Performance of downstream units may be improved by using pre-aeration to reduce septic conditions
in incoming wastewater
4. Aerated grit chambers are versatile, allowing for chemical addition, mixing, re-aeration and
flocculation.
These systems remove a high percentage of fine grit, up to 73 percent of 140-mesh (0.11 mm diameter)
size. The advantages of such a system are as follows:
1. Vortex grit removal systems have a consistent removal efficiency over a wide flow range.
2. There are no submerged bearings or parts that require maintenance.
3. The “footprint” (horizontal dimension) of a vortex grit removal system is small relative to other grit
removal systems, making it advantageous when space is an issue.
4. Head-loss through a vortex system is minimal, typically 6 mm. These systems are also energy
efficient.
Detritus tanks do not require flow control because all bearings and moving mechanical parts are above
the water line. There is minimal head-loss in this type of unit.
3.3.3.4 Horizontal Flow Grit Channels and Chambers
Horizontal flow grit chambers are flexible because they allow performance to be altered by adjusting the
outlet flow control device. Construction is not complicated. Grit that does not require further classification
may be removed with effective flow control.
57
Hydrocyclones can remove both grit and suspended solids from wastewater. An hydrocyclone can
potentially remove as much solids as a primary clarifier.
3.3.4 DISADVANTAGES
Grit removal systems increase the head-loss through a wastewater treatment plant, which could be
problematic if head-loss is an issue. This could require additional pumping to compensate for the head-
loss. The following paragraphs describe the specific disadvantages of different types of grit removal
systems.
Potentially harmful volatile organics and odours may be released from the aerated grit chamber. Aerated
grit chambers also require more power than other grit removal processes, and maintenance and control
of the aeration system requires additional labour.
1. Vortex grit removal systems are usually of a proprietary design, which makes modifications difficult
2. Paddles tend to collect rags
3. Vortex units usually require deep excavation due to their depth, increasing construction costs,
especially if unrippable rock is present
4. The grit sump tends to clog and occasionally requires high-pressure agitation using water or air to
loosen grit compacted in the sump.
1. Detritus tanks have difficulty achieving uniform flow distribution over a wide range of flows because
the inlet baffles cannot be adjusted
2. This type of removal system removes large quantities of organic material, especially at low flows,
and thus requires grit washing and classifying
3. Grit may be lost in shallow installations (less than 0.9 m) due to the agitation created by the rake arm
associated with this system.
3.3.4.4 Horizontal Flow Grit Chamber
1. It is difficult to maintain a 0.3 m/s velocity over a wide range of flows

2. The submerged chain, flight equipment, and bearings for mechanical removal systems undergo
excessive wear
58
3. Channels without effective flow control will remove excessive amounts of organic material that
require grit washing and classifying
4. Head loss is high (typically 30 to 40% of flow depth)
5. High velocities may be generated at the channel bottom with the use of proportional weirs, leading to
bottom scour.
Hydrocyclones require energy because they use a pump to remove grit and suspended solids. Coarse
screening is required ahead of these units to remove sticks, rags, and plastics.
3.3.5 DESIGN CRITERIA

With respect to grit removal systems, grit is traditionally defined as particles larger than 0.21 mm
(65 mesh) and with a specific gravity of greater than 2.65 (U.S. EPA, 1987). Equipment design was
traditionally based on removal of 95%of these particles. However, with the recent recognition that smaller
particles must be removed to avoid damaging downstream processes, many modern grit removal designs
are capable of removing up to 75% of 0.15 mm (100 mesh) material.
Aerated grit chambers are typically designed to remove particles of 70 mesh (0.21 mm) or larger, with a
detention period of two to five minutes at peak hourly flow. When wastewater flows into the grit chamber,
particles settle to the bottom according to their size, specific gravity, and the velocity of roll in the tank. A
velocity that is too high will result in lower grit removal efficiencies, while a velocity that is too low will
result in increased removal of organic materials. Proper adjustment of air velocity will result in nearly
100% removal of the desired particle size and a well-washed grit.
Design considerations for aerated grit chambers include the following (WEF 1998):
1. Air rates typically range from 0.3 to 0.7m3/min.m of tank length
2. A typical minimum hydraulic detention time at maximum instantaneous flow is two minutes
3. Typical length-to-width ratio is 2.5:1 to 5:1
4. Tank inlet and outlet are positioned so the flow is perpendicular to the spiral roll pattern
5. Baffles are used to dissipate energy and minimise short-circuiting.
Two designs of vortex grit units exist: chambers with flat bottoms and a small opening to collect grit; and
chambers with a sloping bottom and a large opening into the grit hopper. Flow into a vortex-type grit
system should be straight, smooth, and streamlined. The straight inlet channel length is typically seven
times the width of the inlet channel, or 4.6 m, whichever is greater. The ideal velocity range in the influent
59
is typically 0.6 to 0.9 m/s at 40 to 80% of peak flow. A minimum velocity of 0.15 m/s should be maintained
at all times, because lower velocities will not carry grit into the grit chamber (WEF, 1998).
Detritus tanks are designed to keep horizontal velocity and turbulence at a minimum while maintaining a
detention time of less than one minute. Proper operation of a detritus tank depends on well-distributed
flow into the settling basin. Allowances are made for inlet and outlet turbulence as well as short circuiting
by applying a safety factor of 2.0 to the calculated overflow rate.
3.3.5.4 Horizontal Flow Grit Chamber (Channels)
Horizontal flow grit chambers use proportional weirs or rectangular control sections to vary the depth of
flow and keep the velocity of the flow stream at a constant 0.3 m/s. The length of the grit chamber is
governed by the settling velocity of the target grit particles and the flow control section-depth relationship.
An allowance for inlet and outlet turbulence is added. The cross sectional area of the channel is
determined by the rate of flow and the number of channels. Allowances are made for grit storage and grit
removal equipment. Table 3.3.1 lists design criteria for horizontal flow grit chambers.
TABLE 3.3.1: Horizontal flow grit chamber design criteria

Design Criteria Range Typical
Detention time 40 – 90 s 60 s
Horizontal velocity 0.24 – 0.4 m/s 0.3 m/s

Settling velocity
50-mesh 2.8 – 3.1 m/min 2.9 m/min
100-mesh 0.6 –0.9 m/min 0.8 m/min
Headloss (% of channel depth) 30 – 40% 36%
Inlet and outlet length allowance 25 – 50% 30%

If the specific gravity of the grit is significantly less than 2.65, lower velocities should be used.
3.3.6 PERFORMANCE
Given the complexity of collection systems and types of materials that may be considered “grit,” the
quantity and characteristics of grit removed from wastewater will vary. Grit quantity is influenced by the
type and condition of the collection system, the characteristics of the drainage area, waste disposal
methods, the slope of the collection system, and the efficiency of the grit removal system. The quantity of
grit may vary from 0.004 to 0.21 m3/103 m3 (Crites and Tchobanoglous, 1998). The performance of a grit
removal system may be enhanced if actual plant data is used when designing a new grit removal system.
60
Section 3.2 on Screening should be consulted for additional information on quantities of grit requiring
removal.
3.3.7 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Collected grit must be removed from the chamber, dewatered, washed, and conveyed to a disposal site.
Some smaller plants use manual methods to remove grit, but grit removal is usually accomplished by an
automatic method. The four methods of automatic grit removal include inclined screw or tubular
conveyors, chain and bucket elevators, clamshell buckets, and air-lift or other means of pumping. A two-
step grit removal method is sometimes used, where grit is conveyed horizontally in a trough or channel to
a hopper, where it is then elevated from the hopper to another location.
Aerated grit chambers use a sloped tank bottom in which the air roll pattern sweeps grit along the bottom
to the low side of the chamber. A horizontal screw conveyor is typically used to convey settled grit to a
hopper at the head of the tank. Another method to remove grit from the chamber floor is a chain and flight
mechanism. Once removed from the chamber, grit is usually washed with a hydrocyclone or grit classifier
to ease handling and remove organic material. The grit is then conveyed directly to a truck, dumpster, or
storage hopper. From there, the grit is taken to a landfill or other disposal facility.
61
CHAPTER 4
4. ANAEROBIC TREATMENT
4.1 SEPTIC TANKS
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION
The process taking place in a septic tank is an anaerobic one and treatment is only partial. As the septic
tank provides for partial treatment of sewage only, it does not produce an effluent complying with the
General Authorisation limits for discharge to land or watercourse. Limited irrigation use of effluent is
permissible under certain circumstances, but generally septic tanks are used before soakaway systems
for small applications or as a preliminary or first stage before secondary aerobic treatment. In the latter
case the septic tank serves the purpose of largely removing the settleable solids in the sewage and
effects a partial reduction in the COD or BOD load entering the aerobic stage. No ammonia reduction
takes place through a septic tank and it is not infrequent for the ammonia to increase somewhat due to
breakdown and conversion of proteinaceous matter to free and ionised ammonia. The most important
parameters for design of septic tanks are the retention available for the settlement of solid matter and the
capacity provided for storage and partial degradation of the sludge.
In its most basic form a septic tank can be a single-compartment watertight tank with an inlet pipe
discharging below the surface and outlet pipe at the top water level baffled to prevent discharge of scum.
Normally however, even for single housing units, a two or even three compartment tank is provided. In a
two or three compartment tank, the compartments are separated by vertical walls with openings above
mid-water level so as to retain primary sludge or scum in the first compartment as far as possible.
The sizing of septic tanks is usually based on the frequency of de-sludging and the daily per-capita
contribution. For a small combined system the size of the tank will normally give a retention of 48 hours. A
sizing formula is used which is given below for larger developments.. However a minimum retention
period of 24 hours at ADWF should always be allowed for in the septic tank excluding the accumulated
sludge and scum.
4.1.2 COMBINED AND SEPARATE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

The two types of house drainage systems in general use are namely:
1. The separate or two-pipe system, whereby the kitchen and bathroom wastes bypass the septic tank
and are diverted to a separate soil percolating system
62
2. The combined system, whereby all the liquid household wastes are discharged to the septic tank and
then to a percolation system.
In either case the kitchen waste should pass through a grease trap before entering the drain. This grease
trap requires regular cleaning and maintenance that should not be neglected.
The separate system has the advantage that it offers a safety factor should failure of the kitchen/bath
waste percolation system occur. The volume of faecally polluted effluent is considerably less than the
combined volumes of waste water.
The combined system has the following advantages over the separate system:
1. Kitchen waste is pre-treated in the septic tank before discharge to the percolation system. The
deleterious effect of raw kitchen waste on the absorptive capacity of the soil is thereby prevented.
2. If the grease trap should be neglected, the combined system will deal with the fats more efficiently
than the percolation system of the separate system.
The combined system is invariably used on large installations. The recommendation for the fitting and
maintenance of grease traps stands, however, particularly for hotels, kitchens and restaurants. A two or
three compartment tank is preferable where the combined system is used.
4.1.3 CAPACITY OF SEPTIC TANK

The capacity should be sufficient to provide for storage of sludge and scum between desludging.
4.1.3.1 Single households and small communities up to 30 persons:
For combined systems a retention of 48 hours based on the estimated domestic waste water volume,
or 0.3 m3/person, whichever gives the larger tank size. The minimum recommended size for one
household is 2 m3.
For separate systems a retention of 0.15 m3/person is the minimum recommended.
4.1.3.2 Larger communities
It is recommended that multiple tank systems be used. A minimum retention period of 24 hours at ADWF
should be allowed for in the septic tank excluding the sludge and scum accumulated.
The septic tank volume is calculated as follows:
63
V = P (Q + 0.1 x S) …………………………………………………………(4.1)
Where
V = volume in m3 excluding freeboard,
Q = flow per capita per day in m3 (usually 130 or 150 l/hd.d),
S = years between desludging with 0.1 m3 being sludge accumulated in one year per person and a
maximum of 10 years being provided and
P = contributing population.
The formula given above is based on recommendations given in the CSIR Publication K86-1985 "A Guide
to the Use of Septic Tank Systems in South Africa".
Sludge and scum accumulation is a function of the desludging interval and could vary between 0.09 to
0.15 m3/hd.yr. (Refer the 0.1 m3 in the above formula). However, the volume of accumulated sludge and
scum reduces with time due to progressive digestion and compaction. It is thus roughly proportional to the
square root of the years of operation as indicated in the above formula.
Desludging of septic tanks should be carried out at the frequency given in Table 4.1.1 below:
TABLE 4.1.1: Desludging frequency for septic tanks.

Population Served Desludging Interval
Single Household 5 to 8 years
10 to 30 persons 2 years
50 to 200 persons 1 year
200 to 500 persons 6 months
However it may be appropriate in remote areas to install somewhat larger tanks requiring less frequent
desludging.
4.1.4 CONSTRUCTION OF SEPTIC TANKS

Septic tanks for single house units and small communities should have a depth of 1 to 2 m, but otherwise
the shape of the tank is relatively unimportant. Usually a length to breadth ratio of 3:1 to 4:1 is
recommended. The minimum dimension in any direction should be 0.7 m.
For larger installations the septic tank comprising not less than two compartments should have a length to
breadth ratio of 3:1 to 4:1 with a minimum water depth of 2 m. The second compartment should be
designed as a sedimentation tank with upflow velocities not exceeding 1.5 m/h at PDWF. In two-
64
compartment tanks the first compartment should be about two-thirds of the total capacity. In a three
compartment tank, the compartments should be roughly half, quarter, and quarter the total respectively.
The vertical leg of the inlet pipe, if a square junction pipe is used, should discharge 150 to 300 mm below
the surface to prevent blockage by the scum layer. Exit openings or pipes from the first chamber to the
second, and from the second to subsequent drains, should also be 150 to 300 mm below the surface,
with facilities for cleaning.
A septic tank requires periodic desludging and provision must therefore be made for this by incorporating
an adequately sized manhole to each compartment. Good access to all compartments should be
provided for scum and sludge removal. The septic tank should be situated where it is accessible to
vacuum tankers for sludge and scum removal.
When properly designed, the COD reduction through a septic tank improves with time. Accumulated
sludge should thereafter never be completely removed during de-sludging. At least 100 mm should
always be left in the tank as an inocculum. The first and final compartments are usually the only ones
which need regular desludging
For large tanks, particularly for communities in excess of 200 persons, two or three additional, but smaller
compartments than the first, may be included and the following appurtenances provided:
1. Multiple inlets in the first compartment.
2. Removable covers or manholes to permit easy access for cleaning or for mixing the tank contents.
3. Land or drying beds should be available for drying and disposal of the sludge.
4. Depending on topography hopper bottoms fitted with draw-off pipes valves, etc. should be provided
for regular sludge removal.
FIGURE 4.1.1: Septic tank before installation FIGURE 4.1.2: Partially installed septic tank
65
4.1.5 DISPOSAL OF SEPTIC TANK EFFLUENT
Septic tank effluent may not be discharged to a water course or irrigated on land where it is accessible to
humans or animals. Further treatment or other means of disposal are required.
The effluent may be further treated in stabilisation ponds, on biological filters, by the activated sludge
process, by a rotating biological contactor (RBC), or it can be disposed of by percolation into the soil. For
relatively small or spacious developments the latter is by far the most common.
4.1.6 LOCATION OF SEPTIC TANKS

Septic tanks should be located in firm soil, 2 to 5 m from buildings and boundaries, in accordance with by-
laws, but so as to facilitate:
1. Sludge removal by tanker
2. Possible connection of house drainage to a reticulation system at a later date.
4.1.7 LOCATION OF SOIL PERCOLATION SYSTEMS

Percolation systems for septic tank effluent should generally be located such that pollution of surface or
ground water is unlikely to occur. Spread of bacteriological pollution above the water table is normally
very limited (less than 3 m); but should the percolation system extend into the water table, widespread
contamination of ground water supplies can occur. Investigation into the geology of the site is therefore
strongly advised. Since percolation systems are subject to progressive failure, they should preferably be
located in such a way that they may be extended without disruption of the operating system.
4.1.8 SUITABILITY OF THE SOIL

There are no simple tests by means of which the suitability of a soil to absorb septic tank effluent can be
determined accurately. Indications can be obtained by visual inspection of the soil, i.e. whether it has a
sandy or clayey nature, or a percolation test may be carried out. The latter entails firstly the excavation of
a test hole 300 mm diameter at the depth of the proposed trenches. The ground should then be soaked
by adding water to the hole for at least four hours, after which the hole should be allowed to drain and
then be refilled with 150 mm of water. The time taken for the water to seep away should then be noted,
from which the average time for the water to drop 10 mm can be calculated. From this time, known as the
percolation time, an indication of the sidewall area to be provided in a percolation trench can be obtained
from the Table 4.1.2 below:
66
TABLE 4.1.2: Septic tank sidewall area required for different percolation times.
Percolation Time minutes/10 Rate of septic tank effluent
mm application to sidewall area of
percolation trench
l/m2.d
1 170
2 110
4 75
6 50
10 40
18 30
24 25
More than 24 Soil unsuitable for percolation
Note: Trench bottom area should be neglected since it gets clogged very rapidly.
4.1.9 PERCOLATION TRENCH CONSTRUCTION

Trenches are normally 1 to 2 m deep and 600 mm wide. After excavation the trench is filled with broken
stone (12 mm to 75 mm) up to about 150 mm from the top and covered with galvanised iron or fibre
cement sheets and backfilled with soil. Distribution of effluent may be effected by placing open jointed
agricultural pipes in the top of the broken stone. Where trenches are constructed adjacent to each other,
the distance between them should be at least twice the depth of the deepest trench.
In very sandy soil, honeycomb walls may be built to support the trench sides. It is beneficial for
percolation trenches to have a resting period. This can be achieved by providing the required area in two
or more trenches and by using them in rotation.
67
4.2 ANAEROBIC PONDS
4.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Waste stabilisation ponds have been used extensively for the treatment of municipal and industrial
wastewaters. Anaerobic ponds are single-stage, continuous-flow, anaerobic reactors operating at ambient
temperatures and low volumetric organic loading as a pretreatment method. On a wastewater
management scheme the zero-energy demand of a waste stabilisation pond series for the effective
removal of organic and microbiological loading remains a valuable tool for sustainable development.
4.2.2 MECHANISM OF TREATMENT AND ADVANTAGES

Anaerobic bacteria degrade organic materials in the absence of oxygen and produce methane and
carbon dioxide. Benefits include a reduction of total bio-solids volume of up to 50-80% and a final waste
sludge that is biologically stable can serve as rich humus for agriculture when the pond requires de-
sludging after a period of several years.
Advantages of the process include:

1. No, or very low, energy demand
2. Low investment costs
3. Low space requirements
4. Is applicable at small as well as large scale
5. Low production of excess sludge, which is well stabilised
6. Low nitrogen and phosphorus requirements
7. A high loading capacity (5 to 10 times that of aerobic treatment)
4.2.3 POND DESIGN

Anaerobic ponds are deep treatment ponds that exclude oxygen and encourage the growth of bacteria,
which break down the effluent. The anaerobic pond acts like an uncovered septic tank. Sludge is
deposited on the bottom and a crust forms on the surface. Anaerobic ponds are commonly 2 to 5 m deep
and receive a high organic loading (usually > 100 g BOD/m3.d equivalent to > 3000 kg/ha.d for a depth of
3 m).
Anaerobic ponds can be satisfactorily designed, and without risk of odour nuisance, on the basis of
volumetric BOD loading, Bv (g/m3 .d), which is given by Equation (4.2):
Bv = Li Q / Vp ………………………………………………………..(4.2)
68
Where:
Li = influent BOD, mg/l (g/m3 )
Q = flow (m3/d)
Vp = anaerobic pond volume (m3)
Loadings of 100 g BOD/m3.d up to 400 g BOD/m3.d are practiced, but odour generation can occur above
200 g BOD/m3.d. It is therefore beneficial to provide for recycle of final aerobic effluent back to the head
of a highly loaded anaerobic pond at about 0.5:1 when treating strong wastes.
These loadings are high relative to the amount of oxygen entering the pond, which maintains anaerobic
conditions at the pond surface. Anaerobic ponds do not contain algae, although occasionally a thin film of
mainly Chlamydomonas can be seen at the surface. They work well in warm climates and can attain 60-
85% BOD removal even at relatively short retention times. Retention times of up to 4 days may be
required for strong wastes but usually 1 to 2 days is sufficient (for a BOD of up to 300 mg/l, one day is
sufficient at temperatures >20°C).
4.2.4 PERFORMANCE
Anaerobic ponds reduce N, P, K and pathogenic microorganisms by sludge formation and the release of
ammonia into the air. As a complete process, the anaerobic pond serves to:
1. Separate out solid from dissolved material allowing the solids to settle as a bottom sludge
2. Dissolve organic material further
3. Break down biodegradable organic material
4. Store undigested material and non-degradable solids as bottom sludge.
They therefore serve as a good first stage for aerobic treatment either in the form of oxidation ponds or as
a mechanical plant. Incorporation of an anaerobic pond at the head of a pond system reduces the size of
the Primary Aerobic Pond (which is the capacity limiting unit) by about 50% or more. Normally, a single
anaerobic pond in each treatment train is sufficient if the strength of the influent wastewater is less than
1000 mg/l BOD. However it may often be preferable to split the anaerobic pond volume in two so that two
units can work in parallel, giving the flexibility to take one unit off line at a time for sludge removal
purposes. Careful selection of loadings will avoid overload conditions with one pond on line, and under
loaded conditions with two on line.
In the past designers have been cautious about incorporating anaerobic ponds into a design, in case
they create odour. However, recent work suggests that maximum design volumetric loadings may be
increased to 300 g BOD/m3.d at 20°C without odour nuisance. The option of recycle of aerobic effluent is
also available. Furthermore, Mara and Pearson (1986) propose an alternative limit of a maximum
69
sulphate volumetric loading rate of 500 g SO4 /m3.d (equivalent to 170 g S/m3.d) in order to avoid odour
nuisance which will favour areas with low conductivities in their water supply.
Strong ammonia inhibition in anaerobic ponds can occur at concentrations >80 mg NH3-N/l and may
impact significantly on COD and BOD reduction, reducing this to as low as 10% in primary anaerobic
ponds
Table 4.2.1 below shows the expected BOD removal at a typical loading for various retention times, but is
presented as a rough guide. Performance tends to be site-specific in many cases.
TABLE 4.2.1: BOD removals in anaerobic ponds loaded at 250 g BOD/m3.d (Mara, 1976).
Retention Time (Days) BOD Removal %
1 50
2.5 60
5 70
70
4.3 ANAEROBIC CONTACTORS
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Anaerobic biological treatment of wastewaters has gained considerable recognition in recent years. In
some cases, the anaerobic processes currently being used have been shown to be more cost effective
treatment alternatives than the more commonly used aerobic treatment processes, particularly where
highly concentrated organic wastes are concerned. Anaerobic treatment is being repeatedly proposed as
an alternative to aerobic treatment for high-strength effluents with COD concentrations greater than or
equal to 1000 mg/l. Use of an anaerobic treatment alternative offers many advantages, including reduced
energy requirements. Also, because methane is produced during this process, anaerobic treatment can
often be a net energy producer.
Biomass production is generally between 10 and 20% of that of activated sludge. Anaerobic treatment
also greatly reduces the requirements for nitrogen and phosphorus, imposes minimum constraints of food
to microorganism (F/M) control, and generally has a lower sensitivity toward heavy metal poisoning.
4.3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

During the methane fermentation process, the methane bacteria are limited in the quantity of energy they
can obtain from substrate fermentation, because the majority of the substrate energy is lost in the
methane gas produced. As a result, the rate of growth is restricted. In addition, the rate of substrate use
per unit of organism is relatively low. The combination of these two factors tends to restrict the overall rate
of substrate use by methane bacteria. Therefore optimum environmental conditions are necessary for
satisfactory rates of methane fermentation to occur.
Optimum methane fermentation has generally been found to occur between the pH range of 6.0 to 8.5 but
drops rapidly outside this range. Values of pH below 6 or above 8.5 have been found to be restrictive and
somewhat toxic to methane bacteria. For proper pH control, sufficient alkalinity is essential because it
acts as a buffer to the system. Alkalinity is produced from the breakdown of organic material and, at a
typical fermentation pH around 7.0, is present primarily in the form of bicarbonates.
The optimum temperature for methane fermentation is in the range of 30 to 35°C. As the temperature
drops below this range for a given hydraulic retention time (HRT), the quantity of substrate removed from
the system decreases. Unless HRT is increased at temperatures below 2O°C, anaerobic treatment is
usually not feasible because biomass will be removed from the system faster than it is being produced
and eventually all the biomass will be lost.
71
4.3.3 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
An anaerobic contact process consists of a heated digestion tank followed by a settling tank which
removes the active biological suspended solids from the effluent flow and returns them to the digestion
tank to increase the solids contact. The process involves two parts:
1. A contact portion where the raw waste is intimately mixed with a previously developed anaerobic
sludge culture
2. A separation portion where the activated sludge particles are separated from the treated liquor and
recycled to the contact unit.
Typical industrial wastes which have been treated with an anaerobic contact process are:
 Waste maize starch
 Whisky distillery
 Cotton kiering
 Citrus
 Brewery
 Starch gluten
 Wine
 Yeast
 Molasses
 Meat packing
 Potato starch
Wastewater enters an anaerobic reactor that is normally maintained at a temperature range of 35 to

37°C, although ambient temperatures are acceptable in warm climates. The readily biodegradable BOD
in the influent is metabolised and sludge, methane, and carbon dioxide are produced. After leaving the
anaerobic reactor, the treated wastewater enters a clarifier or sludge separator, where most of the solids
are separated and recycled to the anaerobic reactor. The effluent from the reactor tends to be saturated
with carbon dioxide and methane, which releases into the atmosphere and can cause flotation of the
solids in the clarifier. For this reason a vacuum degasser is often used preceding the clarifier. Recycle of
the clarifier underflow stream allows a high microorganism concentration to be maintained in the reactor,
thereby reducing process retention time.
A commonly used second stage to the anaerobic contact process is a conventional activated sludge plant
where further degradation of the waste occurs. Excess sludge from the aerobic treatment process is
digested in the anaerobic reactor which reduces the total excess sludge production and results in a higher
yield of methane.
72
4.3.4 PERFORMANCE
Typically, BOD treatment efficiencies of 80% to 90% are achieved in the anaerobic stage. The remaining
organic material is then degraded a further 80% to 90% in the second aerobic stage, resulting in a total
BOD reduction between 95% and 99% percent. Table 4.3.1 below represents performance data from
various applications of the anaerobic contact process.
TABLE 4.3.1: Anaerobic contact process performance data from various applications.
Type of Waste Hydraulic Digestion BOD of Raw BOD Load BOD
3
Retention Temperature Waste mg/l kg/m .d Removal
Days °C %
Maize Starch 3.3 23 6 280 1.77 88
Whisky Distillery 6.2 33 25 000 4.01 95
Cotton Kiering 1.3 30 1 600 1.19 67
Citrus 1.3 33 4 600 3.43 87
Brewery 2.3 3 900 2.04 96
Starch Gluten 3.8 35 14 000 1.61 80
Wine 2.0 33 23 400 11.72 85
Yeast 2.0 33 11 900 5.97 65
Molasses 3.8 33 32 800 8.76 69
Meat Packing 1.3 33 2 000 1.77 95
Meat Packing 0.5 33 1 380 2.50 91
Meat Packing 0.5 35 1 430 2.63 95
Meat Packing 0.5 29 1 310 2.44 94
Meat Packing 0.5 24 1 110 2.10 91
Potato Starch 2.2 23 0.77 52
Potato Starch 1.3 24 1.93 43
4.3.5 DESIGN
From Table 4.3.1 above it can be inferred that the performance of anaerobic contact is highly dependent
on the waste being treated. As a rule of thumb, hydraulic retentions of about 1.5 days or longer are
reasonably safe with solids retention times of 40 to 60 days. With occasional exceptions, BOD loadings of
about 2 kg/m3.d would be acceptable. The process is temperature dependent and unheated reactors
should be somewhat more conservatively sized.
The success of the anaerobic contact process rests on the separation of the anaerobic solids in the
clarifier after the reactor. Unless effective vacuum degassing is provided the solids will tend to float over
the discharge weir of the clarifier and be lost from the system. As the anaerobic sludge is slow-growing
73
this can soon lead to process failure. Very low surface loadings should also be used when designing the
clarifier. Typical rise rates are 0.3 to 0.4 m/h.
74
4.4 ANAEROBIC BAFFLED CONTACTORS
4.4.1 INTRODUCTION
An Anaerobic Baffled Reactor, or ABR, in common with most anaerobic processes, is a design approach
which can significantly reduce primary sludge production. The ABR design is based around the creation
of a simple compartmentalised reactor design which can be free standing or in some cases has been
installed inside an existing primary basin. In the latter case the compartmental design encourages
anaerobic biological degradation of the primary sludge in situ, thereby reducing the amount of sludge
activity within the primary tank.
As with the anaerobic contact process the key to the successful operation of an ABR is to separate the
solids retention times (SRT) from the hydraulic retention times (HRT), thus making it possible to
anaerobically treat wastewaters at relatively short retention times (4 to 10 hours). ABRs can thus be
viewed as an attractive alternative to aerobic treatment.
The benefits associated with ABR technology include:

1. Treatment of moderate to low strength wastes in a primary stage tank: Previous work indicates that
COD removal efficiencies of the order of 50 - 80% can be expected. This will provide significant
benefits in terms of reducing the loadings on the secondary aerobic treatment plant.
2. Reduced sludge production: The long solids residence time in the ABR will produce significant in situ
degradation of the primary sludge solids. Furthermore, due to the significantly decreased load on the
secondary treatment plant, minimal secondary sludge would be expected. Results to date indicate a
reduction in sludge production of between 30 - 50% can be realised.
3. Low operating cost: The operating costs of an ABR are expected to be of a similar order to those of
operating a primary settlement tank. The ABR can be regarded as a low cost treatment option,
especially when compared to the high energy costs associated with conventional activated sludge
secondary treatment.
4. Robust to shock loads: As outlined below, previous work has indicated that the ABR is a stable
process which is robust to both organic and hydraulic shock loads.
4.4.2 LAYOUT
Anaerobic baffled reactors are basically tanks with dividing internal baffles to create a series of
compartments to approximate to plug flow. The tanks are usually rectangular and have vertical baffles to
create successive up and down flow patterns. Solids formed during the process settle to the bottom of the
tank and the water passes through what eventually is essentially an anaerobic sludge blanket at alternate
passes. The process is therefore suspended growth rather than attached growth as in an anaerobic
submerged filter.
75
4.4.3 DESIGN
Although many benefits are claimed for the anaerobic baffled reactor, its design criteria are not well
established and what information is available suggests similar loadings to be applicable as for other
anaerobic processes such as UASB reactors, and anaerobic contactors. Hydraulic retention times vary
from about 6 hours to 2 days and COD loadings range between 3 and 10 kg COD/m3.d. The crux of
successful high rate anaerobic treatment is the retention of the anaerobic organisms in the system,
whether on fixed film or in a suspension or in a granular bed. Solids retentions of 40 to 60 days or even
longer are required for good COD removals.
As for submerged anaerobic filters, facilities for gas (methane) draw-off should be provided as well as
drains for excess solids at suitable points.
76
CHAPTER 5
5. PONDS AND WETLANDS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Waste stabilisation ponds are large shallow basins enclosed by earthen embankments in which raw
sewage is treated by natural processes involving both algae and bacteria. Because of the use of natural
processes, the rate of oxidation is slow and as a result, long hydraulic retention times are employed,
retentions of 30 to 50 days being normal.
Ponds have considerable advantages, particularly regarding costs and maintenance requirements and
the adequate removal of faecal bacteria, over other methods of treating the sewage from communities of
more than about 100 people. Ponds are the most important method of sewage treatment in hot climates
where sufficient land is normally available and where the temperature is most favourable for their
operation.
There are three major types of pond relying on natural processes:

1. Facultative
2. Maturation
3. Anaerobic ponds
In addition to this, aerated lagoons are ponds fitted with mechanical aeration devices that enable
smaller units to be constructed.
A variation on maturation ponds is the construction of a maturation river as the last maturation unit in
the treatment sequence. This is essentially a maturation pond with dividing walls to ensure plug flow
and eliminate short-circuiting. Apart from assisting bacterial die-off, this also greatly reduces the
concentration of phyto-plankton (algae) in the final effluent.
5.1.1 TREATMENT SEQUENCES

It is not normal, and is also not good engineering practice, to install a single pond for treatment of effluent.
Ponds are normally constructed in series and follow certain sequences. The simplest sequence is a
facultative pond followed by a secondary pond and two or more maturation ponds. The facultative pond is
sized on the BOD load entering the pond and is usually 30 to 50 days retention. The secondary pond
allows biological purification reactions to go further to completion and is often about 10 to 15 days
77
retention. The maturation ponds are smaller ponds of about 5 days retention connected in series to assist
bacterial (E. coli) die-off.
If the wastewater is strong, one may have one or two anaerobic ponds at the head of the system
followed usually by a somewhat smaller facultative pond, a secondary pond and two or more
maturation ponds.
If land is scarce or expensive one may have an optional anaerobic pond sequence followed by an
aerated lagoon which is usually much smaller than a normal facultative pond, followed in turn by a
secondary pond and maturation ponds. The inclusion of a maturation river is an option as the final
unit in any of these treatment sequences.
5.1.2 EFFLUENT QUALITY

Pond systems tend to produce very stable effluents that do not change much in quality from day to day,
due to the long retention in the system. The effluent quality is usually very good, although ammonia
reduction is a problem in winter in colder areas. The suspended solids content of the effluent tends to be
on the high side unless a maturation river is specified as the final treatment unit, and the effluent may not
meet discharge standards in respect of suspended solids and ammonia at certain times.
The effluent from pond systems is often irrigated, which is a highly suitable disposal route. If the system is
carefully designed, a pond system effluent would be preferable in many cases to an effluent from a
mechanical plant that is not well operated.
78
5.2 FACULTATIVE PONDS
5.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Facultative ponds are the most commonly constructed type of pond. They normally receive raw sewage
or sewage that which has received only preliminary treatment. They are, however, becoming increasingly
used to treat the settled effluent from septic tanks and anaerobic pre-treatment ponds.
The term ‘facultative’ refers to a mixture of aerobic and anaerobic conditions, and in a facultative pond
aerobic conditions are maintained in the upper layers while anaerobic conditions exist towards the
bottom. Although some of the oxygen required to keep the upper layers aerobic comes from re-aeration
through the surface, most of it is supplied by the photosynthetic activity of the algae that grow naturally in
the pond where considerable quantities of both nutrients and incident light energy are available. Indeed,
so profuse is the growth of algae that the pond content is often green in colour. The pond bacteria utilise
this ‘algal’ oxygen to oxidise the organic waste matter. One of the major end-products of bacterial
metabolism is carbon dioxide which is readily utilised by the algae during photosynthesis as their demand
for it exceeds its supply from the atmosphere. Thus there is an association of mutual benefit (‘symbiosis’)
between the algae and bacteria in the pond. Since photosynthesis is a light-dependent activity there is a
diurnal variation in the amount of dissolved oxygen present in the pond, and a similar fluctuation in the
level of the ‘oxypause’ (the point below the surface at which the dissolved oxygen concentration becomes
zero) occurs.
The pH of the pond content also follows a daily cycle, increasing with photosynthesis to a maximum
which may be as high as 10. This happens because at peak demand, algae remove CO2 from solution
more rapidly than it is replaced by bacterial respiration. As a result the bicarbonate ions present
dissociate to provide more CO 2 , increasing the pH, through their consumption
5.2.2 MIXING
Wind and heat are the two factors of major importance which influence the degree of mixing that
occurs within a pond. Mixing fulfils a number of vital functions in a pond: it minimises hydraulic
short-circuiting and the formation of stagnant regions and it ensures a reasonably uniform vertical
distribution of BOD, algae and oxygen. Mixing is the only means by which the large numbers of
non-motile algae can be carried up into the zone of effective light penetration (the ‘photic’ zone).
Since the photic zone comprises only the top 150 to 300 mm of the pond, much of the pond
contents would remain in permanent darkness if mixing did not occur. Mixing is also responsible for
the transportation of the oxygen produced in the photic zone to the bottom layers of the pond.
Good mixing thus increases the safe BOD load that can be applied to a pond.
79
Wind is the most important factor in mixing. The depth to which wind-induced mixing is effective is
largely determined by the distance the wind is in contact with the water (the ‘fetch’). An
unobstructed contact length of about 100 m is required for maximum mixing by wind action. The
importance of wind action has been demonstrated by an experiment in Zambia where a well-
operating pond was totally fenced off by a wind-proof enclosure. Within three weeks the pond had
gone anaerobic.
5.2.3 SLUDGE LAYER

As the sewage enters the pond most of the solids settle to the bottom to form a sludge layer. At
temperatures greater than 15°C intense anaerobic digestion of the sludge solids occurs; as a result, the
thickness of the sludge layer depth is rarely more than about 250 mm and often much less. Desludging is
only rarely required, possibly once every 10 to 15 years, and many ponds operate much longer without
desludging being necessary.
At temperatures greater than 22°C the evolution of methane gas is often sufficiently rapid to buoy sludge
particles up to the surface where drifting sludge mats are formed. These must be removed (together with
any other floating debris or scum) so that they do not prevent the penetration of light into the photic zone.
The soluble products of fermentation diffuse into the bulk liquid of the pond where they are oxidised
further. The seasonal variation of the rate of fermentation (which increases approximately sevenfold with
each 5°C rise in temperature) explains why the COD in the pond often remains ostensibly constant
throughout the year in spite of the changes in temperature. During summer the degradation rate is high
and, from the theory, a low equilibrium COD in the pond is established. However, the COD load received
from the sludge is high. During winter the degradation rate is low, establishing a relatively high equilibrium
COD in the pond, but a low COD load is received from the sludge. The two processes, operating
simultaneously, tend to cancel out, and decrease the cyclic variation of pond COD.
5.2.4 DEPTH
The recommended depth for a facultative pond is 1.0 to 1.5 m. Pond depths less than 1.0 m do not
prevent the emergence of vegetation. This must be avoided as otherwise the pond becomes an ideal
breeding ground for mosquitoes and midges. With depths greater than 1.5 m the oxypause is too near the
surface, with the result that the pond is predominantly anaerobic rather than predominantly aerobic. This
is undesirable, as the pond would have an unacceptably low factor of safety in normal operation and so
be less able to cope with a fluctuating load or a sudden slug of heavy pollution.
In arid climates, evaporation rates are high and water losses should be minimised by increasing the depth
to about 2 m and thus reducing the surface area. In cold climates (e.g. at high altitude) similar depths are
80
used so as to preserve as much of the thermal energy of the influent sewage as possible. These
considerations are usually more important in these extremes of climate than those concerned with the
position of the oxypause.
5.2.5 TEMPERATURE
A hot climate is ideal for pond operation. Solar radiation is intense and as a result, pond temperatures are
high and there is more than an adequate intensity of light. The long daylight hours enable algal
photosynthesis to occur for extended periods and so provide a reserve of dissolved oxygen for use during
the night. In order to ensure that the pond works satisfactorily at all times, it must be designed for the
worst (i.e. coldest) conditions. The mean temperature of the coldest month is commonly used as the
design temperature.
5.2.6 ADVANTAGES OF PONDS.

The major disadvantage of ponds is that they require much larger areas of land than other forms of
sewage treatment. However, in many countries, especially tropical developing countries, this is
rarely a disadvantage of any importance since sufficient land is normally available at relatively low
cost.
Some advantages of ponds are:

1. They can achieve any required degree of purification at the lowest cost and with the minimum
of maintenance by unskilled operators.
This has been demonstrated in many studies but obviously the lowest cost aspect would not
necessarily hold in highly developed countries where land may be scarce and expensive.
2. The removaI of pathogens is considerably greater than that in other methods of sewage
treatment,
The effluent from a series of three ponds usually contains less than 5 000 E. coli/100 ml whereas
the final effluent from a conventional biofilter works (humus tank effluent) typically contains about
5 000 000 E. coli/100 ml and from an activated sludge plant about 240 000 E. coli/100 ml. Cysts
and ova of intestinal parasites, which are commonly present in conventional effluents, are not
found in maturation pond effluent. The pond habitat is fortunately also unsuitable for the growth of
the snail hosts of parasitic nematode worms such as Schistosoma spp. and Clonorchra sinertsis.
3. They are well able to withstand both organic and hydraulic shock loads.
The long retention times (20-30 d in facultative ponds receiving raw sewage) ensure that there is
always sufficient dilution available for short shock overloads.
81
4. They can effectively treat a wide variety of industrial and agricultural wastes.
Wastes that are readily biodegradable (such as those from dairies. slaughter houses and food-
processing factories) have been successfully treated with domestic sewage in facultative ponds.
Anaerobic ponds are particularly advantageous for strong wastes that are to be treated alone.
5. They are tolerant of heavy metals

The high pH of the pond causes toxic heavy metals to precipitate as hvdroxides and are so
removed into the sludge layer. Experiments conducted in Israel showed that a heavy metal
concentration of 30 mg/l (6 mg/l each of cadmium, hexavalent chrome, copper, nickel and zinc) did
not affect pond performance, but that 60 mg/l did. Thus a facultative pond normally operating
above pH 8 should be able to tolerate the heavy metals in municipal sewage for a considerable
period of time before their accumulation in the sludge laver would affect its performance.
6. They can easily be designed so that the degree of treatment is readily altered.
By designing the pond outlet structure so that the top water level can be varied, the retention time
and hence the degree of treatment can be altered. This can be a useful device when a pond
receives a seasonal waste (e.g. a food-processing waste) in addition to its normal sewage flow.
7. The method of construction is such that, should at some future date the land be
required for some other purpose, it can easily be reclaimed.
All that is required is the removal of the pond inlet and outlet structures and of the paving slabs at
top water level. The ground should then be levelled. The sale of former pond land will usually yield
a substantial fixed property profit to the municipality.
8. The algae produced in the pond are a potential source of high-protein food.
Fish have been successfully grown in maturation ponds. The sale of fish can bring in substantial revenue
and so reduce the running costs of the treatment works. Ducks may also be reared on maturation ponds.
5.2.7 DESIGN PRELIMINARIES

The design of waste stabilisation ponds is part rational and part empirical. The depth is selected with due
regard to the site and to the considerations given above. The range of depths most commonly used for
facultative ponds is 1 to 1.5 m. The length and breadth are usually in the ratio 2 to 3 to 1
5.2.8 DESIGN OF FACULTATIVE PONDS.
5.2.8.1 South African Experience
Early work, largely by the National Institute of Water Research (NIWR), an Institute of the CSIR, produced
design criteria which related the BOD load on a primary pond to the surface area required to produce
82
sufficient natural oxygenation to avoid anaerobic conditions. On this basis ponds can be designed on
criteria of kg BOD/ha.d, with the safe operating range generally lying between 120 and 180 kg BOD/ha.d.
The lower loadings are applicable to cooler areas of South Africa, and the higher loadings to the warmer
sub-tropical parts. These loading criteria are based on winter temperatures and can safely be used when
a quick estimate of a primary (facultative) pond area is required.
Work carried out by G. V. R. Marais and co-workers of the University of Cape Town and published in the
60’s and 70’s developed a more comprehensive model of pond behaviour.
Based on actual operating experience of two ponds, one in a tropical climate in Zambia, and one in a cold
climate in Canada, and assuming solids deposition in winter, and organic breakdown of accumulated
solids in summer, with good mixing of pond contents, it was found that the effluent BOD concentration
changed very little throughout the year. The rate constant in the developed model was relatively
independent of temperature in the range 10ºC to 32ºC and also over a fairly wide range of retention
times.
In this model the effluent BOD becomes limiting as too high an effluent BOD will increase the probability
of anaerobic conditions occurring in the pond. This is typically in the range 50 to 70 mg/l, and a figure of
55 to 60 mg/l is often assumed.
The equation for pond retention (typically for a 1.5 m deep pond) is
R = ( Pi / Po – 1) / Ke ………………………………………………………..(5.1)
where R - pond retention (days)

Pi - influent BOD (mg/l)
Po - effluent BOD (mg/l)
Ke - equivalence rate constant = 0.11 (for variation in the range 10 – 32ºC)
5.2.8.2 Worked Example
Task - Size a primary facultative pond for a population of 2 000 people living on the Highveld
Sewage load
Assume a sewage volume contribution of 150 l/cap.d (Section 2.3. Table 2.3.1)
Design volume = 2 000 x 150/1000 = 300 kl/d
Assume a per capita BOD load of 65 g/cap.d (Section 2.5. Table 2.5.1)
Design BOD load = 2 000 x 65/1000 = 130 kg/d
BOD concentration = 130/300 x 1000 = 433 mg/l
83
Pond Size based on NIWR Loadings
Select a BOD loading of 120 kg/ha.d
Select a pond depth of 1.5 m
Pond area = 130/120 = 1.08 Ha = 10 833 m2
Pond volume = 10 833 x 1.5 = 16 250 m3
Retention = 16 250 /300 = 54 days
Pond Size based on Marais Design sequence

Select an effluent BOD of 60 mg/l
Retention = (433/60-1) /0.11 = 66.7 days
Pond volume = 300 x 66.7 = 20 015 m3
Assume depth of 1.5 m
Area = 20015/1.5 = 13 343 m2
The Marais design sequence gives a somewhat larger pond size. As this is the more conservative, and is
also the more rigorous approach it would probably be advisable to go with the larger unit.
5.2.9 OTHER CRITERIA
5.2.9.1 First order kinetics
The simplest approach to the rational design of facultative ponds is to assume that they are completely
mixed reactors in which BOD removal follows first order kinetics.
L 1

Li 1  k1t * ……………………………………………………..(5.2)
Rearranging:
 L 1
t*    1 ………………………………………………………(5.3)
 Li  k1
substituting for t* gives:
Q (LI/L - 1)
A= …………………………………………………….. (5.4)
D k1
84
Work in South Africa has suggested that in order to maintain the pond contents predominantly aerobic
(rather than predominantly anaerobic) L should be in the range 50 to 70 mg/l for pond depths of 1 to
1,5 m. The value of k 1 is about 0.3 d-' at 20 °C and its variation with temperature is described by the
following equation:
k1 = 0.3(1.05)T-20 ……………………………………………………...(5.5)
Substitution of this equation into Equation (5.4) and selection of Le as 60 mg/l gives the following design
equation for A:
A= Q(L i - 60) ……………………………………………………...(5.6)

T-20
18 D(1.05)
Where:
L - BOD (i = incoming; e = exit)
T - Temperature (taken as the mean temperature of the coldest month)
A - Pond area (ha)
D - Pond Depth (m)
Q - Flow (m3/d)
5.2.9.2 McGarry and Pescod empirical procedure
An analysis of operational data from many facultative ponds all over the world (Figure 5.2.1) showed that
the maximum BOD surface loading that could be applied to a facultative pond before it failed (i.e. became
completely anaerobic) was related to the mean monthly ambient air temperature (this being taken as the
most convenient measure of climate for which records exist) as follows:
λ = 11.2 (1.054)T …………………………………………………………(5.7)
where:
λ = maximum BOD loading, (kg/ha.d)
T = temperature, °C.
However, ponds are not normally designed to operate just at their point of failure. Therefore the
introduction of a safety factor for design purposes would be required. For example Equation (5.7) could
be modified to:
λd = 7.5 (1.054)T …………………………………………………………(5.8)

where λd is the design loading, kg/ha.d.
85
An alternative design equation for λ d is the straight line relationship shown in Figure 5.2.1:
λd = 20 T - 120 ……………………………………………………(5.9)
where T is in ºC.
The design equation for A is then simply obtained from equation (5.4) as:
A= LiQ ……………………………………………………...(5.10)
2T - 12
The degree of BOD removed in facultative ponds was found to be related

to the BODs loading as follows:
λr = 0.725 λs + 10.75 ……………………………………………………...(5.11)
Where:
λr = BOD removal (kg/ha.d)
λs = BOD load (kg/ha.d)
Equation (5.9), if restricted to temperatures between 5°C and 30°C is probably as realistic a design
equation as any other and it has the advantage of simplicity of form.
5.2.9.3 Mara Empirical Equation
In a more recent publication (1987) Mara gives the following global design equation
λs = 350(1.107 – 0.002T)T-25 …………………………………………………………(5.12)
5.2.9.4 WORKED EXAMPLE
Task - Size a primary facultative pond for a population of 2 000 people living on the Highveld
Sewage load
Assume a per capita BOD load of 65 g/cap.d (Section 2.5. Table 2.5.1)
Design BOD load = 2 000 x 65/1000 = 130 kg/d
BOD concentration = 130/300 x 1000 = 433 mg/l
86
Pond Size from First order kinetics
Assume depth of 1.5 m
Select minimum temperature of 10°C
From equation (ii) A = [300(433/60-1)]/ [1.5 x 0.3(1.05)T-20] = 7 970 m2
Pond volume = 7970 x 1.5 = 11 954 m3
Retention = 11 954/300 = 40 days
Pond size from Empirical data equations

Temperature in °F = 10 x 1.8 +32 = 50
Loading from equation (v) = 7.5 (1,054)50 = 104 kg/Ha.d
Pond area (A) = 130/104 x 10 000 = 12 500 m2
Pond volume = 12 500 x 1.5 = 18 750 m3
Retention = 18 750 /300 = 63 days
Loading from equation (vi) = 20 x 10 – 120 = 80 kg/Ha.d

Pond area (A) = 130/80 x 10 000 = 16 250 m2
Pond volume = 16 250 x 1.5 = 24 375 m3
Retention = 24 375 /300 = 81 days
Loading from equation (vii) = 350(1.107 – 0.002 x 10)10-25 = 100 kg/ha.d

Pond area (A) = 130/100 x 10000 = 13 000 m2
Pond volume = 13 000 x 1.5 = 19 500 m3
Retention = 19 500/300 = 65 days
The Marais sequence, the McGarry and Pescod curve [Equation (v)], and the Mara global design
empirical equation [equation (vii)], all give very similar results and would probably give the best design
sizing.
5.2.10 2.8.3 RECIRCULATION.

The design loadings given above can be exceeded by about 30% in areas with mild winters by
recirculation of final pond effluent at about 0.5:1 to the head of the facultative pond. This has the effect of
preventing or delaying the onset of anaerobic conditions predominating in winter on heavily loaded ponds
and is a means of assisting systems which are becoming overloaded.
87
5.3 MATURATION PONDS
5.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Maturation ponds are used as a second stage to facultative ponds and secondary ponds which are used
for COD reduction. Their main function is the destruction of pathogens. Faecal bacteria and viruses die
off reasonably quickly owing to what is to them an inhospitable environment. The cysts and ova of
intestinal parasites have a relative density of about 1.1 and as a result of the long retention times they
settle to the bottom of the pond where they eventually die. The removal of BOD in maturation ponds is
small: two ponds in series, each with a retention time of 7 d, are required to reduce the BOD from about
50-70 mg/l to less than 25 mg/l.
Maturation ponds are wholly

aerobic and are able to maintain
aerobic conditions at depths of
up to 3 m. However, most often,
the depth of a maturation pond
is taken as the same as that of
the associated facultative pond
(1 to 1.5 m). This is advisable,
as well as usually being
convenient, since the
destruction of viruses is better
in shallow ponds than in deep
ones.
FIGURE 5.3.1: Typical maturation pond
The effectiveness of maturation ponds in removing pathogens is conveniently assessed by the removal of
E. coli. With proper design, removals greater than 99.99% can be achieved. In these circumstances no
difficulty should be experienced in satisfying an effluent standard of less than 5000 E. coli /100 ml.
5.3.2 DESIGN
5.3.2.1 COD and BOD Removal
To produce an effluent with a BOD of less than 25 mg/l it has been found that 2 maturation ponds in
series, each with a retention time of 7 d, are required. This assumes that the BOD of the influent (i.e. of
the facultative or secondary pond effluent) is not more than about 75 mg/l. COD is not necessarily a good
88
indicator for pond effluent quality as the prevalence of algae gives rise to spuriously high readings. If
using COD it is advisable to measure COD on a filtered sample when assessing pond effluents.
5.3.2.2 Bacterial reduction
The reduction of faecal bacteria in a pond (anaerobic, facultative or maturation) has been found to follow
first order kinetics. The appropriate version of equation:
…………………................................................(5.13)
Where Ne = number of E. coli/100 ml of effluent

Ni = number of E. coli/100 ml of influent
Kb = first order rate constant for FC removal, d-'.
For n ponds in series equation (5.13) becomes:
…………………................................................(5.14)
where t* = retention time in the nth pond
The value of Kb is extremely temperature sensitive: it is given by the equation:
…………………............................................... (15.15)
Where Kb(t) = the value of Kb at T(ºC.)
A reasonable design value of Ni is 4 x 107 FC/100 ml; this is slightly higher than average values normally
found in practice. The best design procedure is to calculate the retention time in the facultative pond and
determine the value of Ne from Equation (15.3) which results from having two maturation ponds each with
t* = 7 d. If this value of Ne is unacceptable, then three or more maturation ponds each with t* = 5 d are
chosen and Ne recalculated on this basis.
89
Although E. coli are commonly used to indicate the removal of faecal organisms in a series of ponds,
there is evidence that some pathogenic bacteria do not die off as quickly as do E. coli. For example, a
species of salmonella was found to have a K b value of 0.8 d-1 in the same pond as E. coli with a Kb value
of 2.0 d-1. Also drug-resistant coliforms are known to die off more slowly than those without resistance
genes.
5.3.2.3 Worked Example
Task - Design a maturation pond system to produce a final effluent with an E. coli count of less than
1 000/100 ml for a population of 2 000 persons.
Sewage volume and pond sizing

Select pond unit size of 5 day retention
Select a depth of 1.5 m
Pond volume for a retention of 5 days = 5 x 300 = 1 500 m3
Pond area for a retention of 5 days = 1 500/1.5 = 1 000 m2
Calculation of bacterial die-off in winter

Assume minimum temperature of 12°C
Kb = 2.6 (1.19)12-20 = 0.65 d-1
E Coli after first pond = 4 x 107/(1 + 0.65 x 5) = 9.4 x 106 E. coli/100 ml
E Coli after second pond = 9.4 x 106 / (1 + 0.65 x 5) = 2.2 x 106 E. coli/100 ml
After third pond = 5.2 x 105 E. coli/100 ml
After fourth pond = 1.2 x 105 E. coli/100 ml
After fifth pond = 28 800 E. coli/100 ml
After sixth pond = 6 800 E. coli/100 ml
After seventh pond = 1 600 E. coli/100 ml
Calculation of bacterial die-off in summer

Assume temperature of 26°C
Kb = 2.6(1.19)26-20 = 7.38 d-1
E Coli after first pond = 4 x 107/(1 + 7.38 x 5) = 1.06 x 106 E. coli/100 ml
E Coli after second pond = 1.06 x 106 / (1 + 0.65 x 5) = 27 850 E. coli/100 ml
After third pond = 734 E. coli/100 ml
Comment
90
As can be seen from the calculations the E. coli die-off is very strongly temperature-dependent. One
would need 8 maturation ponds in winter but only three in summer to get below 1000 E. coli/100ml. In
practice 8 ponds would be uneconomical to build and one would normally construct three or at most four
ponds, allowing the E. coli count to increase somewhat in the few colder months.
91
5.4 MATURATION RIVERS
5.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Maturation rivers are essentially maturation ponds fitted with flow baffles to prevent short-circuiting and
ensure plug flow. The pond is normally divided into a number of channels in multiple forward and return
passes, to ensure a reasonable forward velocity and prevent back-mixing.
Although maturation rivers have been installed as tertiary treatment at a number of mechanical plants,
their success has been variable due to accumulation of solids, particularly in the first pass. For this
reason it is recommended that they only be used as the final pond in a series of two or more, whether
preceded by a mechanical plant or by a pond system.
Maturation rivers are suitable for bacterial die-off, but their main advantage is that the absence of short-
circuiting and back-mixing, and maintenance of plug flow conditions, eliminates the re-inoculation of
incoming water with algae and the final effluent from the system therefore has a low algal count and a
relatively low suspended solids.
5.4.2 DESIGN
For similar reasons as those pertaining to ponds, maturation rivers should not be less than 1 m deep and
the normal recommendations of a 1 to 1.5 m depth applies. The shape of the pond should suit the land
and a limited number of long passes is equally acceptable as a larger number of short passes. For cost
reasons the width of the channel is important as narrow channels would imply a large number of dividing
walls, and very wide channels would allow back mixing.
Design criteria are not that well established but most maturation rivers constructed to date have had
approximately a 2 day (48 hour) retention (longer retentions involve higher cost and may give algae long
enough to increase in numbers), with a channel forward velocity of 1 to 2 mm/s (3.6 to 7.2 m/h).
The dividing walls need not be watertight or load-bearing. Prefabricated concrete fencing has been used
successfully.
92
5.5 AERATED LAGOONS
5.5.1 INTRODUCTION
Aerated lagoons are mechanically aerated wastewater treatment ponds. These are completely mixed
wastewater treatment ponds utilising either surface-type aerators, submerged propeller, or turbine-type
aerators. The principal source of oxygen is furnished by mechanical aeration rather than by
photosynthesis. The purifying organisms which develop in an aerated lagoon are typical of an activated
sludge process rather than a naturally oxygenated pond. For this reason some literature classes aerated
lagoons as an activated sludge variant rather than a pond variant.
The solids carry-over from the aerated lagoon must be removed by a clarification process following its
treatment in the aerated pond. This is usually achieved by passing the effluent into one or more
maturation ponds. As the system approximates to a completely mixed system the concentration of
suspended solids in the lagoon effluent is approximately equal to that of the bulk contents of the lagoon.
The advantage of using an aerated lagoon over a natural primary pond is that a much smaller primary
pond unit will be required. A primary facultative pond in South Africa typically has an effective
oxygenation capacity of 120 to 180 kg/d.ha. The same amount of oxygen could be supplied by a
mechanical surface aerator of about 7 kW. The size of the primary pond would then be governed by COD
or BOD removal kinetics rather than natural oxygen dissolution rates.
There are still many natural primary facultative ponds in existence as these have no power requirements
and no need for mechanical maintenance. They are also aesthetically pleasing in that the ponds are an
attraction for bird life. A pond system is an attractive treatment option in a semi-rural environment.
However it may be worth considering an aerated lagoon as a primary pond particularly if sufficient
suitable land is unavailable or too expensive for a naturally oxygenated facultative pond.
5.5.2 DESIGN PARAMETERS
5.5.2.1 Retention
Aerated lagoons can treat either raw wastewater [usually after preliminary treatment (Ch 3)], or settled
wastewater e.g. anaerobic pond effluent. BOD removals above 90% are achievable at retention times of
2.5 to 7 days. Retention times of less than about 2.5 days do not allow sufficient time for full development
of the purifying activated sludge type organisms.
The upper limitation on sizing these ponds will be the ability to maintain aerobic conditions and to
maintain the effectiveness of the microorganisms by mixing. Large ponds would tend to require an
93
excessive number of aerators. The aerated aerobic ponds should be designed to keep active biological
solids in suspension and maintain a minimum dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration of 2.0 mg/l.
5.5.2.2 Mixing
Mechanical aerators can be designed to provide either complete mixing of solids, including oxygen
dispersion, or just to provide uniformly dispersed oxygen. In the latter case some solids deposition will
occur in the basin.
The power level required to maintain solids in suspension is about 4 to 6 W/m3, and to disperse oxygen
uniformly throughout the basin is about 1.5 to 3 W/m3 respectively. A mixing velocity (average velocity of
any given particle in the pond) greater than 0.2 m/s should be maintained in the basin to prevent solids
deposition.
Mixing energy input varies with the size of the aeration unit. Table 5.5.1 below gives an approximation as
to the mixing energy for oxygen dispersion from various sized aerators
TABLE 5.5.1: Estimation of mixing energy

for oxygen dispersion from various sized aerators.
Size of Aerators (kW) Mixing Energy (W/m3)
75 3
37 3.6
15 4.2
It can be seen that mixing energy improves with decreasing size of aerator. From a process point of view
one would therefore prefer a larger number of small aerators to a lesser number of large aerators. This
would also enable the aerators to cover the lagoon area better. Large aerators also require deeper ponds.
The final selection would be based on the economics of land area required versus increased cost of
mechanical equipment.
5.5.2.3 Oxygenation Capacity
The total aeration capacity required will depend on the total COD or BOD load based either on population
per capita contribution or on sewage volume and strength. Due to the large volume of the pond relative to
daily flow no large peak oxygenation factors are required but the aeration efficiency of small floating
aerators is lower than those used for activated sludge plants. An installed aerator power of 1.0 kW per kg
COD.h is suggested (1 kW/24 kg COD.d or 2 kW/24 kg BOD.d). This should then be checked against the
mixing energy criteria above and increased, if necessary.
94
5.5.3 BOD REMOVAL EFFICIENCY FOR SIZING OF POND
The BOD removal efficiency in an aerated pond is a function of temperature and detention time in the
basin. Table 5.5.2 below lists the calculated efficiencies for combinations of different temperatures and
detention times (based on an empirical equation).
Table 5.5.2 can be used as a guideline and selection should be based on the average winter temperature
for the coldest month and the number of maturation ponds planned to follow the aerated pond. In no case
should there be less than two following cells and the more ponds the greater the bacterial die-off. The
design sequence for bacterial die-off in maturation ponds is presented in Section 5.3. From BOD removal
kinetics for a system of an aerated lagoon and two maturation ponds for a raw sewage BOD of 300 mg/l,
one would get to an effluent BOD of 15 mg/l with a 95% overall removal which is probably about where
purification would be adequate. Lower effluent standards may be applicable in the case of irrigation of
certain crops.
TABLE 5.5.2: Calculated efficiencies at different temperatures and detention times

Temperature (°C) Percent BOD Removal for Various Detention Times (Days)
2 3 4 6 8 10
4 12 16 21 28 35 40
6 15 20 25 34 40 46
8 18 25 30 40 47 52
10 22 30 36 46 53 59
12 27 35 42 52 59 64
14 32 41 48 58 65 70
16 38 47 55 64 71 75
18 44 54 61 70 76 80
20 50 60 67 75 80 85
22 53 63 69 77 83 85
24 55 65 71 79 83 86
26 58 67 73 79 85 87
28 61 70 75 82 86 88
30 63 72 77 84 87 90
32 66 74 79 85 88 90
34 68 76 81 86 89 91
36 70 78 82 88 90 92
38 72 80 84 89 91 93
95
5.6 ARTIFICIAL WETLANDS AND REEDBEDS
5.6.1 INTRODUCTION
The potential of artificial or constructed wetlands as a reliable and fundamental process for the
secondary treatment of wastewater and for nutrient removal has received considerable attention during
the past twenty years. The discharge of wastewaters into constructed wetlands may be considered a
viable alternative treatment option, particularly suited to small and medium sized communities in
sparsely populated and developing areas. It is generally accepted by researchers that wetland systems
have considerable potential and may offer a number of advantages compared to conventional wastewater
treatment options:
1. Low operating cost
2. Low energy requirements
3. Low maintenance requirements
4. Can be established close to the site of wastewater production
5. Can be established by relatively untrained personnel
6. Robust process able to withstand a wide range of operating conditions
7. Environmentally acceptable offering considerable wildlife conservation opportunity
8. Can readily be integrated into existing forms of effluent treatment
5.6.2 DESCRIPTION OF BASIC LAYOUT

A constructed wetland consists of a shallow, often lined excavation, (depending upon acceptance of
seepage to the ground system) containing a bed of porous soil, gravel or ash, in which emergent aquatic
vegetation is planted (commonly Phragmites Australis).
The depth of the bed is generally 0.3 to 1.0 m deep and is constructed with a peripheral embankment at
least 0.5 m high above the bed to contain storm conditions and accumulation of vegetation and influent
solids.
Earlier beds were usually constructed at an incline of 2 to 8% where a soil media was used to ensure
adequate hydraulic gradient to encourage passage of the effluent through the bed. Gravel and ash beds
may, however, be constructed essentially level as long as the length to width ratio is adequate, in relation
to the influent flow.
The selection of the permeable media represents the dominant factor in ensuring the desired hydraulic
path, surface or subsurface, and consequently the treatment efficiency and reliability. It also forms the
dominant cost factor for the wetland, particularly if a gravel or ash is required and has to be imported to
the site. However, it has been identified that it is rarely possible to compensate for poor permeability by
96
incorporating an incline. An incline can promote surface ponding and short-circuiting thereby diminishing
treatment efficiency.
Many units have been constructed on the 'root-zone' principles developed in West Germany whereby the
wastewater passes horizontally through the media in which the plants are established. Other systems
incorporate surface flow, comparable to natural wetlands, or vertical flow (upflow and downflow) through
the media, or combinations of individual wetland units to optimise the removal of pollutants
(modularisation of systems).
Practical application rates for the treatment of municipal wastewaters range from 40 to 200 m3/
ha.d for hydraulic loading and 30 to 400 kg BOD/ha.d for organic load.
FIGURE 5.6.1: Artificial reedbed under FIGURE 5.6.2: The same artificial reedbed two
construction years later
5.6.3 TREATMENT MECHANISMS

There is still a great deal to be learnt and understood concerning the very complex reactions taking place
within an artificial wetland system. Design criteria are at this stage very tentative and the required effluent
quality objectives may not be met at the design loading rates. Experience overseas in this regard has
been most erratic.
Despite the imponderables, artificial wetland systems nevertheless have a place in sewage treatment
technology. They are not suitable for treating raw sewage, but can be used successfully to treat raw
sewage that has either passed through an anaerobic pond system or some form of primary treatment i.e.
with septic tanks. The construction should whenever possible be appropriate making maximum use of
local materials and resources.
97
Factors not taken into account in the design of these pond and wetland systems are the water losses
which will occur to the main soil body. These losses may be very significant where the ponds are
constructed over semi-permeable materials of very low natural moisture content. Initial filling of the
systems may take many months or even years in saturating the local soil body. In European practice use
has been made of geomembranes to line the pond systems. In the local situation this would become
prohibitively expensive and could not be justified unless the effluent has a high economic value.
Although the aquatic plants are the most obvious biological component of the wetland ecosystem, the
actual purification is accomplished through a combination of biological, physical and chemical interactions
between the plants, the media and the microbiological community. The primary role of the plants is to
provide surfaces for bacterial growth, the filtration of solids, the translocation of oxygen to the rhizosphere
and improvement of the soil's permeability.
In addition to biological processes, wetland systems are capable of removing significant amounts of
pollutants by physico-chemical mechanisms. Ion exchange and precipitation processes within soil and
ash media will result in a substantial reduction in certain ions. For example, co-precipitation of phosphate
with iron, aluminium and calcium can dramatically reduce phosphate levels. Heavy metals may be
precipitated with sulphide in zones where sulphate reduction occurs and the formation of water-insoluble
organo-metallic compounds may also represent an active mechanism for pollutant removal.
5.6.4 COD (AND BOD) REMOVAL

The COD (BOD) associated with settleable solids in wastewater is removed by sedimentation. The
colloidal and soluble COD remaining in solution is removed as a result of the metabolic activity of micro-
organisms that are suspended in the water column, attached to the sediments and to the roots and stems
of the aquatic plants. Conceptually, wetland systems are slow-rate, horizontal-flow trickling-filters with
built-in secondary clarification in which plants supplement rocks or other media as bacterial support
structure, as well as transmitting oxygen into the wastewater system.
The rate of biodegradation of various organic substances depends on temperature, oxygen concentration
(gradients and profiles), pH, nutrient availability, substrate concentration and the presence of potential
toxins. The character of any organic compound will also affect its biodegradation rate so that within the
readily biodegradable fraction, rates of degradation vary widely.
The most readily-biodegradable substances such as protein, sugar and starch are metabolised very
rapidly, while fat, wax, cellulose, lignins, phenols and cyanides decompose more slowly, and sometimes
incompletely. As a result, the time taken for wastewater to flow through a wetland determines which
organic compounds are present at their outflow. While the readily biodegradable portions of wastewaters
are decomposed rapidly, less readily biodegradable fractions may be incorporated into the organic
98
sediment to be anaerobically degraded over an extended period extending the overall retention time
available for pollutant removal by microorganism degradation.
The removal of BOD, TOC and COD on both natural and artificial wetlands and on overland flow systems
can most easily be described as a first order function of the form:
…………………………………………………………(5.16)
Where:
= concentration remaining at the time t, (mg/l)
= concentration at time t = 0 (mg/l)
= specific removal rate constant for given constituent at 20 °C (d-1)
= detention time in wetland, (d)
Such a relationship may also apply to the removal of pathogenic microorganisms, certain trace organics,
and heavy metals.
If it is assumed that 95% of the BOD in primary wastewater is removed in 10 days, the value of k (which is
temperature dependent) is of the order of 0.3 d-1, according to North American conditions. This requires
re-evaluation under long term Southern African conditions, but may be assumed, in general, to be lower
as a consequence of a more conducive climatic environment.
The effect of temperature can be modelled with sufficient accuracy using the following expression.
………………………………………………………..(5.17)
where
= removal rate constant at temperature T (d-1)
= removal rate constant at 20 °C (d-1)
= temperature coefficient, 1.05 to 1.08
= temperature, (°C) of the water in the wetland
The significance of the above equation for cold regions is that the area of most wetlands must be
increased by a factor of two or more during the winter to achieve the same level of treatment. As it is
99
assumed that the bacteria attached to the plant stems and humus are responsible for treatment, the fact
that the wetland plants may be dormant or die in the winter is of little concern with respect to BOD
removal unless the physical plant support structure is lost.
5.6.5 SOLIDS REMOVAL

Wetland systems have long hydraulic residence times. Consequently, virtually all settleable and floatable
solids of wastewater origins are removed. Colloidal solids are removed, at least either by bacterial growth
(which results in the settling of some colloidal solids and the microbial decay of others) or collisions
(inertial and Brownian) which result in adsorption to other solids (plants, pond bottom and suspended
solids).
The annual build-up of solids within the system has been observed to be very low, reflecting efficient
mineralisation and degradation mechanisms. The inlet areas, however, may require additional attention
where high loadings per unit area are evident. In horizontal systems, solids removal occurs predominantly
in the initial 12 to 20% of the wetland area. The remaining area may be important for the removal of solids
which are produced by the system, including those precipitated as insoluble salts.
The root structure of plants such as Phragmites also provides infiltration pathways through the upper
layers of the bed thereby ensuring that the surface of the filter bed does not clog up.
5.6.6 NITROGEN
There are two pathways by which wetlands can be used for nitrogen removal from wastewater:
1. Nitrogen can be stored (assimilated or adsorbed) in the system.
2. Nitrogen can be removed from the system through denitrification and ammonia volatilisation.
Leaching and runoff can also remove nitrogen from a wetland but these are not desirable pathways for
wastewater treatment.
Storage of nitrogen in a wetland is a temporary measure in terms of wastewater treatment. Regardless of

whether nitrogen is assimilated into biomass or absorbed onto the soil, the maximum capacity of the
system will be reached sooner or later. When nitrogen is assimilated into biomass it is frequently returned
to the sediments through biomass senescence and die-off.
Harvesting plants to remove nitrogen is inefficient. Herskowitz (1988) reported harvested material to
account for less than 10% of nitrogen removed whilst Gersberg et al. (1985) reported harvesting to
account for 12% to 16%. Assuming favourable conditions, the maximum nitrogen removal rate of this
mechanism is approximately 6 kg/ha.d. To achieve this, approximately 2.25 t (dry weight) of plant
100
biomass would have to be harvested per hectare per day, representing a significant solid waste handling
and disposal problem (Stowell et al., 1981).
A neutral pH is usually maintained in artificial wetlands. Ammonia volatilisation is therefore not likely to be
a significant pathway for nitrogen removal under normal circumstances Volatilisation of ammonia may
occur.if the pH is raised to 8 or more as a result of CO2 uptake by submerged plants during
photosynthesis,. The nitrogen removal potential of this mechanism is seasonal and inconsistent and can
best be estimated for a particular locale by determining the nitrogen loss from local stabilisation pond
systems. Volatilisation of NH3 can result in nitrogen removal rates as high as 22 kg/ha.d. A concomitant
treatment benefit of removing nitrogen by NH3 volatilisation is that insoluble metal phosphate precipitates
are also formed at elevated pH.
Biological nitrification and denitrification are the key processes for long-term nitrogen removal from a
wetland. These are two sequential processes which co-exist in many ecosystems where heterogeneous
aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic microsites exist. Under conditions where dissolved organic carbon is not
limiting, (required for denitrification) the factor most limiting nitrogen removal is the supply of oxygen
which is necessary to sustain nitrification. In this regard, the ability of an aquatic plant to translocate O2
from the shoot to the root, and thereby establish an oxidised rhizosphere is an important factor.
The nitrification potential is also limited by water temperature and BOD fluxes, which cause alternative
demands to be made on that oxygen. A simplistic (and thus somewhat inaccurate) description of this
interaction is that any oxygen flux in excess of the BOD flux will be used to nitrify ammonia if the water is
sufficiently warm (nitrification virtually ceases at water temperatures below 10° C).
A guideline for summer nitrogen removal is 9 to 11 kg/ha.d, although figures as high as 44 and 54 kg/ha.d
have been reported. Winter nitrogen removals (or releases) will be site-specific and a function of climate
and plant species.
In a new wetland, optimum nitrification and ammonia reduction reactions will not occur until optimum
oxygen transfer is occurring. This will be when the vegetation has 'matured' (i.e. growing densely above
the surface and forming a dense root/rhizome system within the substrate). The vegetation usually takes
about two to four years to reach this stage depending on the initial plant density. A new system cannot be
expected to meet stringent ammonia or nitrogen limits until the vegetation has ‘matured’, unless
alternative methods are employed to enhance the nitrification reaction. The addition of oxygen to the
wastewater either by mechanical means or by changing the configuration of the system is such an
alternative.
101
5.6.7 PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL
Phosphorus removal in a wetland is achieved through plant uptake and the biological and physico-
chemical storage of phosphorus in the sediments. These latter mechanisms are the more significant in
most wetland systems and must be properly considered in designing the wetland.
5.6.7.1 Plant Uptake
The initial removal of dissolved inorganic phosphorus from water under natural loading levels is due
largely to microbial and aquatic uptake and the geochemical adsorption by aluminium and iron minerals in
the soil. The microbial pool is small and quickly becomes saturated even where luxury phosphate can be
accomplished under aerobic conditions by species such as Acinetobacter.
Aquatic plants supplied with sewage effluent tend to show increased growth, and usually have increased
tissue P concentrations. As a result, they have the potential to remove significant quantities of P from
wastewater under low-loaded conditions. Uptake values vary considerably between plant species, and
the actual amount taken up in any wetland will depend on a number of factors. These include standing
crop of the plants, age of the plants and nutrient status of the water. For the principal wetland system
plants, P removal may be expected to be of the order of 60 to 180 kg/ha per annum as plant assimilation.
5.6.7.2 Biological and Physico-Chemical Storage
Algal communities associated with the surface waters may also remove considerable quantities of P from
wastewater though the growth is erratic and removal of algae from the water phase represents a
significant problem. P absorbed in rooted emergent vegetation and algae is released back into the water
body and sediments after tissue death. Richardson (1985) suggests between 35 - 75% of the plant
phosphorus is rapidly released on plant senescence. Thus, vegetation only serves as a short term sink for
phosphorus unless the biomass is harvested.
5.6.7.3 Chemical Binding Reactions
In utilising soil-based wetland systems for effluent treatment it has been observed that soils have the
capacity to regain, and in some cases enhance, their adsorptive capacities after apparently having
reached saturation and subsequently been allowed to rest. This characteristic has an important bearing
on the system design and operation for phosphate removal from wastewaters. The explanation behind
the phenomenon is related to the slow dissolution of aluminium and iron compounds to create new sites
for adsorption of phosphate with time.
Average soils can be expected to contain from 2 to 4% iron and from 5 to 7.5% aluminium. Thus if all iron
and aluminium were dissolved and converted to iron and aluminium phosphates, nearly 1 000 tons of P
could be precipitated per hectare (1 hectare area x 1 m deep). However, under normal conditions, i.e.
102
near neutral pH, and moderate temperatures, iron and aluminium are both slow to dissolve, and only a
fraction of the possible capacity of the soil to precipitate P will be realised in the short term.
5.6.8 PATHOGEN REMOVAL

There is little information available on the long term fate of biological indicators of pollution such as total
coliform bacteria in wetlands although it is recognised that wetlands offer a unique combination of
physical, chemical and biological factors which contribute to inactivation and removal of both pathogenic
viruses and bacteria. In addition to filtration through the media and the attached biofilm, physical removal
factors include sedimentation, aggregation and inactivation by ultraviolet radiation (UV). Chemical factors
include oxidation, exposure to biocides which may be excreted by plants, and adsorption to organic
matter and the biofilm. Biological removal mechanisms include antibiosis, ingestion by nematodes or
ciliates, attack by lytic bacteria (or viruses), and natural die-off.
5.6.9 DESIGN OF ARTIFICIAL WETLANDS

The criteria presented are for the application of primary or secondary effluent. (As discussed previously
treatment of raw sewage is not advisable). The corresponding organic loading rates for a given
wastewater can be derived from the hydraulic loading rates. Where primary effluent is applied it was
assumed that the removal of suspended solids (SS) and BOD or COD are of principal concern. Where
secondary effluent is applied it was assumed that nitrogen control is of prime concern, although some
phosphorus would be removed for this particular data.
Kickuth (1983) has calculated that the wetland system design can simply be created from knowledge of
the BOD loading where the area of a bed (A) is derived from the equation:
Where:
= plan area of reed bed (m2)
= constant = 5.2
= the average flow rate of sewage (m3/d)
= the average BOD of the influent (mg/l)
= the average BOD of the effluent (mg/l)
The value of K = 5.2 relates to the removal of BOD from sewage in a bed which is to be 0.6 m deep and
operated at a minimum temperature of 8°C.
103
For wastewaters that are more difficult to biodegrade and for lower temperatures the value of K will be
greater, up to 14 or 15.
For domestic sewage this tends to produce an area of approximately 2.2 m2/p.e. This seems to be
optimistic, however, and many European systems are designed between 3 to 5 m2/p.e, which implies a K
value of about 11, or are built in low-risk situations where the effluent quality is not critical. In practice, the
wetland sizing should be determined as a consideration of both the effluent organic and volumetric loads,
rather than a person equivalent basis. It is recommended that a COD loading of approximately
270 kg COD/ha.d should represent a conservative basis for evaluating the wetland basis of design.
5.6.10 PRETREATMENT
Pretreatment of wastewater before it enters the system is advantageous, but it does not necessarily mean
that the reed-bed can be reduced in size according to COD removal in the pretreatment stage. Raw
sewage should not be loaded directly onto a reed-bed where odour and blockage problems may result.
1. Pretreatment may involve any combination of the following:
2. Screening
3. Septic tanks
4. Localised digesters
5. Anaerobic lagoons
6. Facultative and aerated ponds
7. Conventional secondary treatment processes.
In the case of agricultural, industrial, and mine effluents specific attention should be paid to pretreatment
requirements such as toxic material removal, pH correction (to an extent if required) and quality balancing
(recycle), and ease of startup.
5.6.11 WETLAND APPURTENANCES AND OTHER PHYSICAL

FEATURES
5.6.11.1 Slope
In practice systems have been constructed with gradients of up to 8% although experience in Europe has
demonstrated that it is rarely possible to compensate for inadequate permeability by incorporating a slope
into the design. Additionally a sloping surface causes further problems e.g. surface ponding of effluent,
odour generation and erosion, uneven growth of reeds and most importantly poor effluent quality and
difficulty in controlling competing weed growth by the preferred procedure of periodically flooding the bed.
104
Systems in Europe are being designed with the minimum slope needed to allow the water to pass through
the bed (calculated from the D'Arcy's Law equation) and to use a level surface to permit complete flooding
for weed control, with hydraulic gradient control via adjustment of the level at which the final effluent is
drawn from the wetland profile
5.6.11.2 Bed Depth
The depth of the artificial wetland system is determined by the economics of media availability and
construction rather than the expected long term depth penetration of the plant root system, which may be
greater than 1.5 m. The bed depths are typically 0.6 m, although depths of between 0.3 and 1.5 m have
been used creating a shallow, horizontal filter arrangement. It has been accepted in most of the UK and
European systems that a depth of approximately 0.6 m is desirable. This is based on:
1. The statement that beyond 0.6 m root growth starts to weaken
2. Thinner beds may suffer from freezing during extended winter-periods.
5.6.11.3 Feed Distribution
The incoming wastewater needs to be distributed in the inlet zone into the main media throughout its
depth. This is particularly important to reduce the potential for short-circuiting, ponding, stagnation in dead
zones and surface flow during the initial establishment period, whilst reed rhizome structure is growing.
For the horizontal subsurface flow systems the feed should be introduced across the whole width of the
influent area. In order to improve the distribution an inlet zone filled with 60 - 100 mm stones 1 to 2 m
wide can be constructed.
Where horizontal flow systems are to be operated in series an efficient distribution system at the inlet of
each cell must be constructed. Simple openings or weirs in the divider dykes are unlikely to achieve
satisfactory flow regimes. In some of the more recently built systems in the UK and the USA, a simple
pipe with a series of adjustable T-pieces has been used, to replace expensive castellated weirs.
Final effluent from subsurface flow systems can be collected into an outlet trench and flow out via a pipe,
the discharge level of which should be capable of variation. During normal operation, the level of water
would be maintained about 10 to 50 mm below the top of the bed to minimise potential for surface
ponding and odour generation/release, and encourage mineralisation and composting of accumulating
plant and bacterial humus. Periodically the level will be raised to flood the bed for weed control purposes.
In the case of vertical flow systems the influent can be introduced from central channels to the surface of
the bed, using herring-bone agricultural piping over the surface, spray systems or contoured channels
crisscrossing the surface to approximate even distribution across the whole area. The alternative is to
create a single inlet zone similar in form to that of the horizontal flow systems and allow a layer of liquor to
remain on the surface (5 - 10 cm). This will effectively form a combination of the horizontal and vertical
105
flow systems, since a proportion of the inlet area will be performing the majority of the treatment
(particularly filtering action) as effluent percolates through the system.
5.6.11.4 Baffles
Baffles may be required to control distribution of surface flow. Baffles may be created from stone/gravel,
hay bales, loop or planks to improve flow distribution and penetration.
5.6.11.5 Embankments and Verges
The embankments should provide for at least 500 mm above the media level to accommodate sludge and
straw accumulation before the top layer of composted sludge (peat) needs to be removed.
The slopes of embankments would be dictated by normal engineering practice for small dams. Depending
on the construction material and compaction, embankment slopes should be at least 1:2 (usually 1:3).
Fringes may be designed to prevent ingress of vegetation with stone pitching, soil-cement or grassing.
106
CHAPTER 6
6. SEDIMENTATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Sedimentation is fundamental to efficient sewage treatment practice. It is not confined to any one method
of treatment but is common to all and, by the use of gravity, is the least expensive method of separating
suspended matter from the liquid. In principle it consists of reducing the velocity of the flowing liquid
sufficiently to allow suspended particles of higher specific gravity to separate from the main body of the
liquid and settle on the floor of the tank as a sludge which may then be removed.
A distinction is made between the removal of heavy inorganic solids such as grit, which is accomplished
at the head of works in grit channels and detritors, and the settling of lighter solids, mostly organic, as
sludges in primary or secondary sedimentation tanks.
Primary sedimentation tanks remove the grosser suspended solids from the raw sewage, normally
reducing the suspended solids (SS) by between 40% and 60%, and the oxygen demand (BOD or COD)
by 30% to 35%.
Secondary sedimentation tanks (humus tanks) remove the excess bacterial slimes which are sloughed off
the media in biological filters, rotating biological contactors (RBC’s), and submerged media rectors.
Clarifiers settle the activated sludge out of the mixed liquor from an activated sludge aeration tank and
return the sludge to the aeration tank.
The roles of humus tanks and clarifiers are quite different. The former operates at higher surface loadings
and is associated with a low mass of sludge solids. The latter operates at relatively low surface loadings
and handles high masses of sludge solids so that solids flux becomes relevant.
6.2 PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS

A sedimentation tank is defined as a tank in which sewage or treated effluent is retained long enough to
bring about sedimentation of suspended matter but short enough to prevent anaerobic decomposition.
107
The fine organic material in sewage or treated effluent is susceptible to a degree of flocculation which
results in the formation of flocs with settling velocities which permit their removal under quasi-quiescent
conditions. The rate of flocculation is a function of both the suspended solids concentration and the action
of complex physical, physicochemical and biological processes.
Other factors which have an influence on the efficiency of the sedimentation process are temperature,
and accompanying thermal currents, the characteristics of the liquid and solids, and the physical
characteristics of the sedimentation tank design.
It is essential that the physical characteristics of a sedimentation tank ensure that short-circuiting or
dispersion (the phenomenon of unequal times of passage for different portions of the same stream
entering continuous flow tanks) is reduced to a minimum. Short-circuiting in primary tanks results in poor
settling efficiency. This in turn places a heavier burden on succeeding treatment processes, such as
biological filters or activated sludge units, and thus can cause operational problems. In secondary tanks it
leads to unacceptably high suspended solids contents in the effluents, and loss of solids from activated
sludge processes.
Short-circuiting can be minimised by quiescent settling which in turn can be enhanced by the provision of
a stilling box at the inlet to a tank. The latter, as the name implies, should provide for efficient dissipation
of the kinetic energy of the incoming liquid.
6.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DESIGN

6.3.1 BASIC GUIDE
Multiple units capable of independent operation should be provided for plants having an average design
capacity greater than 1 Ml/d unless temporary removal of a single unit from service for repairs will not
result in an adverse effect to the quality of the receiving stream. Clarifiers should be arranged to facilitate
operating flexibility and maintenance, assure continuity of treatment, and ease of installation of future
units.
Provision should be made for dewatering and bypassing each unit independently. The bypass should
provide for redistribution of the wastewater to an appropriate point in the remaining process units. Due
consideration should be given to the possible need for hydrostatic pressure relief devices to prevent
structure flotation especially in areas of high water table.
Flow distribution arrangements should be provided such as to ensure that multiple tanks receive flow in
proportion to their design capacities. The anticipated flow pattern should be considered in the selection of
108
clarifier configurations and location and type of inlets and outlets. In some of the more difficult
applications the use of computerised fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis may be beneficial.
6.3.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
6.3.2.1 Performance
Unless laboratory and/or pilot plant data are available, primary settling should be assumed to remove
about one-third (30% to 35%) of the influent COD and between 50% and 60% of the influent suspended
solids.
It is not recommended to return waste activated sludge (WAS) to the primary sedimentation tanks (PST’s)
as these are designed at more than double the surface loading of activated sludge clarifiers. The end
result is that the WAS overflows the PST and goes back to the aeration tank, thus going around in circles.
This sludge should be wasted to a separate thickener unit.
6.3.2.2 Inlets
Inlets should be designed to dissipate the inlet velocity, to distribute the flow uniformly and to prevent
short-circuiting. Provisions should be made for removal of floating materials in inlet structures having
submerged ports.
6.3.2.3 Dimensions
The minimum distance from the influent inlet to effluent weirs should be at least 3 m for all tank
configurations unless special provisions are made to prevent short-circuiting. The side-water depth (SWD)
of mechanically cleaned tanks should not be less than 2 m for primary clarifiers and those following fixed
film reactors. Final activated sludge clarifiers should have side-water depths of at least 3 to 3.5 m. If depth
limitations due to ground conditions are less than the minimum recommended, the overflow rate should
be reduced by 0.15 m/h. for each 300 mm of SWD under that recommended for clarifiers. It is preferable
that the sludge collector scraping mechanism be at least 2 m below the water level.
6.3.2.4 Channels
Inlet channels should be designed to maintain a velocity of at least 0.3 m/s at one-half design flow. Where
minimum velocities are less, provisions should be made for the re-suspending of the solids. Corner fillets
or channelling should be provided to eliminate corner pockets and dead ends. The width of effluent
channels should be at least 300 mm. The bottom of the channels at the outlet structures should be at
least equal to, or above, the water levels of the downstream treatment units. The effluent channel and
discharge pipe-work should be sized to prevent weir submergence at the peak hourly flow. The bottom of
109
effluent channels should be at least 300 mm below water levels maintained in the clarifiers, except for
small package plants.
6.3.2.5 Baffling and Scum Removal
Scum baffles should be provided around all PST’s with a flow capacity of greater than 1 Ml/d. The baffles
should be located at the water surface to intercept all floating materials and scum. Baffles should extend
at least 75 mm above the weir plate elevation and 300 mm below the water surface. Stilling chamber
diameters should not be less than 20% of the tank diameter and should have a depth of 55 to 65% of the
SWD. The maximum inlet velocity to a centre inlet well should not exceed 1 m/s. The outflow velocity
should not exceed 4.5m per minute.
6.3.2.6 Submerged Surfaces
The topside of beams, troughs or similar construction components shall have a minimum slope of 1.4
vertical to 1 horizontal; the underside of such components shall have a slope of 1-to-1 to prevent the
accumulation of scum and solids.
6.3.2.7 Weirs
Weir plates shall be adjustable for levelling and sealed against the effluent channel. Weirs should be
located to optimise actual hydraulic detention time and minimise short circuiting. Circular tanks, with
centre-feed inlets, should be provided with a full weir. Weirs should be of the saw-tooth or serpentine type
to allow for better weir overflow and flow distribution.
6.3.2.8 Weir Loadings
Hydraulic loading criteria in tank design should be based on the sum of plant inflow and recycle rates
Weir loadings should not exceed 7.5 m3/h per metre weir length for primary, intermediate or final
sedimentation, at peak hourly flows on small plants (less than 500 kl/d) unless select design parameters
are considered; (such as, depth, surface area, detention time, horizontal and/or vertical velocities, solids
density) when higher weir loadings may be applied. Weir loadings at peak hourly flows in intermediate
sized plants (with average design flows typically 0.5 to 5 Ml/d) should not exceed 10 m3/h.m of weir
length for primary and intermediate clarifiers, and on larger plants should not exceed 15 m3/h.m of weir
length. The weir loading on activated sludge clarifiers should not exceed 10 m3/h.m of weir length.
110
6.3.3 DESIGN OF PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION TANKS
Sedimentation tanks are generally

circular in plan unless this is
precluded by site constraints.
Rectangular tanks require special
care in the arrangement of inlets,
outlets and sludge removal, and
weir loadings are often a limiting
factor
FIGURE 6.3.1: Typical primary settling tank (courtesy eWISA)
The following criteria should be adhered to when designing primary sedimentation tanks:
Primary Tanks:
Dortmund type tanks Parameters

Slop of cone Not less than 60° to horizontal
Depth of cylindrical section Usually 15% of tank diameter, but not less than
0.6 m
Diameter of stilling box To give a downward velocity in the box at
PDWF of 40 to 50 m/h
Level of stilling box below level of cylindrical To be as steep as possible provided the
section of tank upward velocity through the horizontal annulus
at PDWF is not more than 5 m/h
Depth of scum board below TWL 300 to 400 mm
Distance between scum board and overflow Maximum of 300 mm
weir
Hydraulic head of sludge draw-off Minimum of 2 m
Diameter of sludge lines 150 to 200 mm
Retention period of PDWF Minimum of 1.5h
Upward velocity at ADWF Maximum of 1.2 m/h*
Upward velocity at PDWF Maximum of 2.4m/h*
* Use whichever criterion gives the largest diameter tank
111
Note: Re-circulated effluent should preferably not pass through primary sedimentation tanks, but if
provided for in the design, should be allowed for in calculating the upward velocity.
Scraped Rotating Bridge type tanks Parameters

Depth of stilling box below TWL Not less than 65% side wall depth
Depth of scum board below TWL
i. without mechanical skimmer Minimum of 500 mm
ii with mechanical skimmer Minimum of 300 mm

weir
Overflow weir loading at PDWF Typically 7.5 m3/h per m (small plant)
6.3.4 DESIGN OF SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION (HUMUS) TANKS

Sedimentation tanks are generally circular in plan unless this is precluded by site constraints. Rectangular
tanks require special care in the arrangement of inlets, outlets and sludge removal.
FIGURE 6.3.2: Typical secondary sedimentation tanks
112
The following criteria should be adhered to when designing secondary sedimentation tanks:
Dortmund type tanks Parameters

Slop of cone Not less than 60° to horizontal
Depth of cylindrical section Usually 15% of tank diameter, but not less than
0.6 m
Diameter of stilling box To give a downward velocity in the box at
PDWF of 40 to 50 m/h
Level of stilling box below level of cylindrical To be as steep as possible provided the
section of tank upward velocity through the horizontal annulus
at PDWF is not more than 5 m/h
Depth of scum board below TWL 300 to 400 mm
weir
Hydraulic head of humus draw-off Minimum of 1 m
Diameter of sludge lines 150 to 200 mm
Upward velocity at PWDF Maximum of 1.5m/h*
Scraped Rotating Bridge type tanks Parameters

Depth of stilling box below TWL Not less than 65% side wall depth
Depth of scum board below TWL
i. without mechanical skimmer Minimum of 500 mm
ii with mechanical skimmer Minimum of 300 mm

weir
Overflow weir loading and PDWF Typically 7.5 m3/h per m (small plant)
Retention period of PDWF plus recirculated
flow Minimum of 1.5h
113
Note: Re-circulated effluent, if provided for in the design, should be allowed for in calculating the upward
velocity.
6.3.5 DESIGN OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE CLARIFIERS.

The design of clarifiers follows the same principles as for Humus Tanks except that the limiting surface
loadings are lower (maximum 1.0 m/h at peak flow), and the solids flux on the floor of the tank may
become limiting (not more than about 7 kg/m2.d ). This is described in greater detail below.
6.3.5.1 Detention Time
Nominal detention periods should be in the 2 to 3 hour range at the average design flow rate including
consideration for recirculation. Detention periods in clarifiers vary with surface-loading rates and side-
water depths. The detention periods for final clarifiers following various activated sludge processes should
be adjusted to between 2 and 4 hours dependent upon the type of process, design flow, recirculation rate,
and surface-loading rate.
6.3.5.2 Surface-Loading Rates
Surface-loading rates for final clarifiers following activated sludge processes, such as: conventional, step
aeration, contact stabilisation or the carbonaceous stage of separate-stage nitrification, shall not exceed
1.2 m/h Surface-loading rates for final clarifiers following an extended aeration process shall not exceed
1.0 m/h at peak hourly flow. Surface-loading rates for final clarifiers following separate-stage nitrification
shall not exceed 1.0 m/h at peak hourly flow.
6.3.5.3 Solids Loading Rate (solids flux)
The solids loading rate (solids flux), excluding chemical additives applied to final clarifiers, shall not
exceed 5 kg/m2.h at peak flow rate with 100% recirculation. Clarifiers following an extended aeration
process or an oxidation ditch should not exceed this loading rate. The solids loading rate for final clarifiers
following most activated sludge processes shall not exceed 8 kg/m2.h at peak hourly flow. The designer
should assure that the clarifier area provided is equal to the greater of that required by surface-loading or
by solids loading rates based on the maximum sludge volume index (SVI) anticipated and mixed-liquor
suspended solids (MLSS).
The solids-loading rate for an activated-sludge clarifier may be computed by dividing the total solids
applied by the surface area of the tank as follows:
Surface Loading Rate (kg/m2.h) = MLSS (p+r) . Q/A ……………………………………..(6.1)
114
Where:
MLSS = kg/m3
p = peak flow factor
r = recycle ratio (usually 1:1)
Q = average flow per hour (m3/h)
A = surface area (horizontal floor area) of tank (m2)
6.3.5.4 Sludge Storage
The floors of circular clarifiers shall be sloped at about (1:12) to form an inverted cone to a central sludge
hopper. Simple mechanical collectors are recommended over the suction or siphon type for nutrient
removal plants or where denitrification occurs in the aeration tank since rapid recirculation of solids is not
required. Suction lift or siphon removal of sludge from flat-bottomed tanks is preferred where rapid
removal of sludge is desirable (no denitrification and high temperatures).
The sludge or settled solids in clarifiers shall be scraped or drawn to a hopper or sump appropriately
located for removal. The minimum slope of the side walls of sludge hoppers shall be 1.7 vertical to 1.0
horizontal. Hopper bottoms shall have a maximum dimension of 600 mm. Hopper walls shall be smooth
with rounded corners. Extra depth sludge hoppers for sludge thickening are not advisable.
6.4 CONCLUSION
Besides ensuring that sedimentation tanks are sized in accordance with the loading criteria set out above,
it is essential that such elements as the inlet, stilling box, scum board, weirs and launders and sludge
draw-off lines are correctly designed in accordance with the criteria laid down. Adjustable weirs should be
installed so as to obtain a uniform overflow of settled sewage at all points around the tank. Arrangements
should be provided for cleaning sludge draw-off pipes. The sludge draw-off point should be easily
accessible for sampling and observation during sludge draw-off periods.
6.5 WORKED EXAMPLES

Task - Design a primary sedimentation tank arrangement, and an activated sludge clarifier arrangement
for a 10 Ml/d works
Hydraulic Load
Assume a peak flow factor of 2.5
Average hourly flow rate = 10 x 1000/24 = 417 m3/h
Peak hourly flow rate = 10 x 1000 x 2.5/24 = 1042 m3/h
115
Primary Sedimentation Tank (PST)
Select a maximum surface loading (Upflow rate) at peak flow of 2.2 m/h
Area of sedimentation tank(s) = 1042/2.2 = 474 m2
The works is larger than 500 kl/d so at least two PST’s should be provided to give a degree of standby.
Select two tanks for reason of economy
Area per tank = 474/2 = 237 m2
Diameter of tank = (237/π)0,5 x 2 = 17,37 (say) 17.5 m
Check weir loading = (1042/2)/(17.5 x π) = 9.5 m3/m.h (which is OK)
Select Sidewater depth (SWD) of 2.5 m
Stilling chamber diameter @ 20% of diameter = 17.5 x 0.2 = 3.5 m
Stilling chamber depth @ 65% of SWD = 2.5 x 0.65 = 1.625 m.
Check outflow velocity from stilling chamber = [(1042/2)/60] / π x (3.5/2)2 = 0.9 m/min (which is OK)
Weirs, baffles, and channels to be as specified above
Activated sludge clarifier

Select a maximum surface loading (upflow rate) of 1 m/h
Area of clarifiers = 1042/1 = 1042 m2
The works is larger than 500 kl/d so at least two clarifiers should be provided to give a degree of standby.
Select two tanks for reason of economy
Area per tank = 1042/2 = 521 m2
Diameter of tank = (521/π)0,5 x 2 = 25.7 (say) 26 m
Check weir loading = (1042/2)/(26 x π) = 6.4 m3/m.h (which is OK)
Select Sidewater depth (SWD) of 3.0 m
Stilling chamber diameter @ 20% of diameter = 26 x 0.2 = 5.2 m
Stilling chamber depth @ 65% of SWD = 3.0 x 0.65 = 1.95 m.
Check outflow velocity from stilling chamber = [(1042/2)/60] / π x (5.2/2)2 = 0.4 m/min (which is OK)
Check solids flux - assume MLSS of 4 000 mg/l and a return activated sludge ratio of 1:1 (on average
flow)
Peak solids load on clarifier = (1042 + 417) x 4000/1000 = 5 835 kg/h
Solids flux = 5835/(521 x 2) = 5.6 kg/m2.h (which is satisfactory)
Weirs, baffles, and channels to be as specified above
116
CHAPTER 7
7. ACTIVATED SLUDGE
7.1 ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES
7.1.1 INTRODUCTION
The activated sludge process effects oxidation of organic compounds similar to a biological filter but
whereas sewage trickles over a packed bed in a biofilter, the activated sludge process necessitates that
oxygen is introduced by mechanical means into the liquid. In the biological filter, the purifying micro-
organisms are attached to the media as a relatively thin film, but in the activated sludge process these
micro-organisms are suspended in the liquid as an 'active' sludge.
The process comprises a reactor basin in which micro-organisms are suspended in the sewage, oxygen
is introduced by mechanical means and bio-chemical reactions take place by which organic pollutants are
removed from the sewage. The suspended active sludge is separated from the effluent in a clarifier and is
returned to the reactor. The mass of active sludge continually grows and sludge has to be wasted from
the system from time to time to maintain the correct balance.
FIGURE 7.1.1: Typical activated sludge reactor basin (eWISA)
It should be clearly understood that the active sludge is a living microbial culture which develops in the
process. This active sludge is not composed of the sludge which is introduced with the sewage, but grows
as a result of the organic 'food' present in the influent. The composition and characteristics of this active
sludge are determined by various factors such as the composition of the sewage, the retention time in the
reactor, aeration rates and patterns and the average age of the sludge.
117
7.1.2 VARIANTS OF THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
The two basic types of activated sludge process are Conventional Activated Sludge where the process
comprises treatment of settled sewage, and Extended Aeration where the feed is raw or unsettled
sewage.
Conventional activated sludge is normally used for larger plants, usually 10 Ml/d and larger. This is
because primary settlement of sewage necessitates the provision of primary sedimentation tanks and
separate sludge treatment and disposal, and this only becomes economically justifiable on larger plants.
Extended aeration tends to be used on smaller plants usually less than 10 Ml/d. The extended aeration
process is simple consisting of an aeration tank and a settling tank (clarifier) for the liquid treatment and
on a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) plant only an aeration tank is required.
All activated sludge plants generate waste activated sludge, however, and the provision of lagoons, or
drying beds, or mechanical de-watering equipment is also required.
There are several variants on the basic process, among which are plug flow and completely mixed
aeration tanks, oxidation ditches, biological nutrient removal processes, membrane reactors, and
sequencing batch reactor (SBR) systems which operate in a partially batch mode. There are also variants
based on the mode of aeration such as coarse or fine bubble diffused air plants, high or low speed turbine
aerators, horizontal shaft aeration paddles and discs, or submerged turbine aerators. The plants can also
be distinguished by the loading regime applied where they may operate as highly loaded low sludge age
plants without nitrification all the way to lightly loaded plants (usually of the extended aeration type) with
very long sludge ages (over 60 days) where there is little waste sludge production.
7.1.3 PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS

In the past 20 years the understanding of the activated sludge process has been greatly advanced. Work
done by many researchers in this country notably at the University of Cape Town, and by others overseas
has led to the development of models as powerful aids to process design which can be loaded onto
computers and which can size the reactors, the air requirements and the various aerobic, anoxic, and
anaerobic compartments required.
Full presentation of these models is beyond the scope of this manual. Training and experience is needed
to use the models and to select suitable values for the various coefficients used therein. As an aid to
understanding, some of the concepts are discussed below. However the design basis presented in this
manual will be the traditional empirical method as this is regarded as more appropriate for the non-
118
specialist who does not carry out designs routinely. Use of the models is encouraged for specialists who
have the necessary background training and facilities to carry out pilot studies where appropriate
7.1.3.1 Components of Wastewater
Wastewater strength is expressed as oxygen demand i.e. the amount of oxygen required per unit volume
of wastewater to break down all the organic compounds present. Oxygen demand is usually measured as
COD or BOD. Not all COD is biodegradable however, and therefore either the BOD or the biodegradable
fraction of the COD is the significant parameter for design. This manual uses COD in its criteria, but if
another source is used which expresses loadings in terms of BOD, the relationship between COD and
BOD as set out in Chapter 2.5 may be applied for domestic sewage.
The organic component of sewage measured as COD may be divided into three parts:
(i) the biodegradable fraction, which can be utilised by the bacteria in the activated sludge process
(ii) the non-biodegradable particulate fraction which will form part of the sludge mass within the reactor
being settled and returned from the clarifier and discharged with the waste activated sludge
(iii) the non-biodegradable soluble fraction which will be passed through the process unchanged.
7.1.3.2 Activated Sludge Mass
The mass of activated sludge in the reactor comprises four components:

(i) the mass of live organisms (biomass) which constitutes the reactive fraction of the sludge
(ii) the endogenous residue resulting from the decay of live biomass. This residue represents
approximately 20% of the original live biomass.
(iii) the non-biodegradable organic mass fraction
(iv) the non-volatile or mineral mass.
(i), (ii) and (iii) together provide the total volatile mass in the reactor which is referred to as the mixed
liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS). The addition of (d) provides the total mass of mixed liquor
suspended solids (MLSS). Both the MLVSS and the MLSS are expressed as kg/m3 or, in terms of
concentration, as mg/l. Normally the MLSS is only slightly greater than the MLVSS and they are often
used interchangeably.
7.1.3.3 Waste Activated Sludge
The difference between the rate of growth of bacteria and the rate at which they die or decay is the
surplus sludge generated from the biodegradable sewage fraction, to which must be added the mass of
non-biodegradable material accumulated each day. In order to maintain steady state conditions this
quantity, less the mass of sludge lost in the final effluent, must be wasted at regular intervals.
119
7.1.3.4 Nitrification / Denitrification
Nitrification is the biological process whereby nitrogenous compounds are converted to nitrates. The
process takes place in two stages, firstly the conversion of ammonia to nitrites by the bacterial species
Nitrosomonas and secondly the conversion of nitrites to nitrates by the bacterial species Nitrobacter. The
growth rate of Nitrosomonas is far slower than that of Nitrobacter and the former reaction is therefore the
rate-limiting step in the conversion process. As the DWAF effluent discharge regulations set a limit on the
ammonia content, this generally means that activated sludge plants should be designed for nitrification.
The rate of reaction of nitrifying bacteria is highly temperature dependent and furthermore they require a
dissolved oxygen concentration of at least 1 mg/l in order to perform efficiently. This often means that
nitrification is a critical factor in the design and operation of activated sludge plants. Nitrification also
results in the formation of nitric acid, which reacts with, and reduces, the alkalinity in the wastewater. A
low alkalinity causes a severe drop in pH and the addition of alkali (lime or soda ash) is often necessary
in such cases.
Denitrification is the biological process where nitrates are reduced to nitrogen gas. This will only occur
under conditions where no dissolved oxygen is present for microbial metabolism. Certain of the
organisms then utilise the oxygen in the nitrate ion instead of free dissolved oxygen thereby producing
nitrogen gas. This implies the existence of anoxic conditions (no dissolved oxygen present but nitrate
present). This is distinguished from anaerobic conditions where there is no nitrate or dissolved oxygen
present. The process of denitrification also recovers some of the alkalinity and it is often possible to avoid
the need to add alkali to the process by encouraging adequate levels of denitrification.
Facilities for denitrification are often built in to the design of activated sludge plants by the provision of an
anoxic zone or the use of timers to programme the aerators. This is particularly the case for biological
nutrient removal (BNR) plants where the effluent has to comply with maximum nitrate and phosphorus
standards. The design of BNR plants is effectively outside the scope of this manual as it generally makes
use of the design models discussed above. However a mixed anoxic chamber with a retention of (say) 3
to 6 hours can be added to the head of the aeration tank to reduce nitrogen sufficiently in most cases for
alkalinity conservation purposes.
7.1.3.5 Phosphorus
Nitrogen and particularly phosphorus (phosphate) are the nutrients involved in eutrophication of lakes,
dams, and rivers and phosphorus, usually as inorganic phosphate is the limiting nutrient. For this reason
DWAF has set fairly stringent phosphate limits on wastewater effluents (1.0 mg/l) in designated sensitive
catchments, and this in turn led to the interest in BNR plants discussed above.
120
Activated sludge is inherently better suited to BNR than fixed film processes such as biological filters, as
the process is more easily modified. However BNR is not always successful in that the limits are often not
complied with, and supplementary metal salt addition is then necessary. Metal salt addition is therefore
normally provided as a matter of course.
Biological phosphorus removal is achieved by the provision of anaerobic zones in the aeration tank
sequence and there are varying process configurations. Anaerobic zones are distinguished from anoxic
zones in that the former have no oxygen (DO) or nitrate, whereas the latter have no DO but have nitrate
present. In the anaerobic zone the activated sludge releases phosphate into the liquid. In the subsequent
aerated zone the phosphate is taken up again together with the phosphate in the incoming wastewater
thus removing it from the effluent.
The process is not stable in that subsequent anaerobic conditions can release phosphate again so that
care is needed in the design of clarifiers and sludge dewatering to prevent excessive unaerated retention
times. It is partly for this reason that the phosphate is often fixed in the sludge by the addition of metal
salts.
The design of BNR plants is a specialised field and best left to experienced design practitioners. However
the addition of metal salts is a relatively simple addition to the process and is covered in Chapter 11.
7.1.3.6 Return Activated Sludge
In order to retain the required level of activated sludge solids in the reactor the sludge which settles in the
clarifier needs to be returned continuously to the aeration tank, with the rate being governed by the
settleability of the sludge and the mean solids concentration required in the reactor.
7.1.3.7 Sludge Settleability
The sludge volume index (SVI) or the stirred specific volume index (SSVI) provides the information on
both the settling and thickening properties of the sludge. The SSVI is defined as the volume occupied by
1 g of sludge after 30 minutes of settling in a gently stirred (1 rpm) settling column at a standard initial
concentration of 3.5 g/l MLSS. The SVI which is easier to use in the field is the volume occupied by 1 g of
activated sludge after settling for 30 minutes in a 1 litre measuring cylinder.
In both cases the test is independent of settling column size, although for convenience SSVI data is
normally measured in a 1000 ml graduated column or measuring cylinder, i.e.:
SVI or SSVI = V/X (ml/g) …………………………………………………………(7.1)
Where
121
V = settled sludge volume in ml in a 1000 ml column
X = mixed liquor concentration (g/l).
A good settling sludge will have an SVI of about 100 ml/g or less. SVI’s in the 200 to 300 ml/g levels can
cause settling problems in clarifiers. Adequate oxygen supply is one of the important factors in ensuring a
good settling sludge.
7.1.3.8 Oxygen Demand
The quantity of oxygen required for synthesis of bacteria and for endogenous respiration is known as the
carbonaceous oxygen demand and is dependent upon sludge age and COD loading. The oxygen
demand for synthesis is proportional to the amount of biodegradable material present in the incoming
sewage, while the endogenous demand is proportional to the mass of active sludge (i.e. sludge age). The
oxygen requirement for nitrification is directly proportional to the quantity of ammonia converted to nitrate.
7.1.3.9 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
As indicated above a minimum dissolved oxygen concentration of 1 mg/l is required for nitrification. For
efficient oxygen transfer a lower value is desirable but for good settling sludges, somewhat higher values
are preferable. In practice plants are generally operated with a DO concentration of between 0.5 and
2 mg/l.
7.1.3.10 Primary Settlement
The provision of primary sedimentation tanks is not essential for the operation of activated sludge plants.
As mentioned previously this decision is normally based on the size of the works. The lower power
requirement and reactor volume of a plant incorporating primary sedimentation should be compared with
the additional cost of providing sedimentation tanks and digesters. Primary sedimentation is generally not
justifiable for smaller works.
7.1.3.11 Plug Flow and Completely Mixed Reactors
A plug flow system is one in which the length to width ratio is in the order of 3:1 or greater. In this system
there is theoretically no longitudinal mixing and it is assumed that the sewage progresses through the
reactor as a plug. In a completely mixed reactor sewage entering the reactor is assumed to be uniformly
dispersed throughout the basin within a short time scale. In a plug flow system the oxygen demand
reduces along the length of the reactors and the rate of aeration may thus be reduced accordingly. In a
completely mixed system the oxygen demand is assumed to be uniform throughout the reactor.
7.1.3.12 Oxidation Ditches
Oxidation ditches are examples of plug flow reactors with high recycle and a feature of oxidation ditches
is the high occurrence of denitrification. The dissolved oxygen level is highest at the aerator and
122
decreases as the distance from the aerator increases. If the dissolved oxygen level falls to near zero in
before the mixed liquor reaches the next aerator, anoxic conditions develop and denitrification may occur.
While the design data used for fully mixed systems may be applied to oxidation ditches, the presence of
an anoxic zone has a significant effect on the process kinetics. The minimum sludge age for nitrification
refers only to the aerated fraction of the mixed liquor and therefore, if denitrification is to occur, the
required anoxic capacity must be added to the aerobic volume to provide the total volume. Because the
anoxic zone cannot be clearly defined the final design of oxidation ditches remains empirical. Oxidation
ditches generally treat screened unsettled sewage.
7.1.4.1 Sludge Age and Solids Loading Rate
This is the primary parameter in determining plant design as it affects all other variables. Activated sludge
plants in South Africa generally operate at long sludge ages (approximately 15 days or greater), at which
nitrification is generally assured and a relatively stable sludge generated. For minimal sludge production
on small plants sludge ages of 30 days or even longer may be employed. Loading rates are inversely
related to sludge age, i.e. a high sludge loading rate is associated with a low sludge age and vice versa.
Permissible loading may thus be assessed in terms of Sludge Loading Rate (kg COD/day.kg MLSS),
according to the values given in Table 7.1.1 below.
TABLE 7.1.1: Approximate relationship between sludge age yield factor for new biomass
produced per unit of COD loading and loading rate.
Sludge Age Sludge Loading Rate Sludge Growth Index Recommended
(Days) (Kg COD/kg MLSS.d) (kg MLSS/kg COD) Sludge Density
Settled Raw Sewage (kg MLSS/m3)
Sewage
30 0.154 0.22 0.23 5.0
25 0.174 0.23 0.25 4.4
20 0.200 0.25 0.27 3.9
15 0.242 0.28 0.31 3.5
10 0.312 0.32 0.36 3.3
5 0.506 0.40 0.45 3.2
7.1.4.2 Activated Sludge Mass
The total mass of activated sludge required depends on the sludge age (or solids loading rate), the
minimum reactor temperature and the biodegradable fraction of the incoming sewage. This mass of
active sludge comprises not only that which is contained in the (aerobic) reactor, but also that in the final
123
clarifier and the sludge return system. Design procedures result in a more conservative design, if the
mass of the active sludge in the reactor only is taken into account.
Sludge age will determine the yield factor for new biomass produced per unit of COD loading, while at the
same time limiting the loading rate. The approximate relationships between these three parameters are
given in Table 7.1.2 above:
The sludge mass in the system will then be equal to the product of the sludge age, the yield factor and
loading in kg COD per day.
7.1.4.3 Reactor Volume
In present day designs the reactor volume is not a primary design parameter but is determined by the
required sludge mass divided by the design MLSS. Thus if the total sludge mass is Mt (kg) and the total
mixed liquor solids concentration is Xt (kg/m3) the reactor volume (VR) may be expressed as:
VR = Mt / Xt (m3) …………………………………………………………(7.2)
Equally the reactor volume may be expressed in terms of volatile solids - i.e.
VR = Mv / Xv (m3) …………………………………………………………(7.3)
Most models and the empirical procedure presented in this manual assume that reactor volume is a
purely a function of the sludge mass (as determined from the COD load and the sludge loading rate which
is in turn related to the sludge age) and the selected mixed liquor suspended solids concentration (sludge
density). There are practical constraints which need to be borne in mind.
Firstly, there is a limit on the achievable MLSS. When using a clarifier this is often in the range of 5000 to
6000 mg/l (5 to 6 kg/m3). In practice some plants can operate at higher MLSS values if the sludge settles
particularly well but often there will be settling problems in the clarifier due to high solids flux loadings. It is
therefore not advisable to design on high MLSS values for the aeration tank.
Secondly, although most design models assume homogeneity of the substrate this is not the case for
most wastewaters. Wastewater is a complex mixture of compounds which have a varying degree of
biodegradability ranging from highly and rapidly biodegradable to compounds which are almost
intractable and degrade very slowly. The models work for domestic sewage in the range of loadings
normally applied but care is needed when extrapolating to industrial wastes in particular. It is not possible
to fully treat some wastewaters in tanks with short aeration times. Many older design criteria therefore
selected aeration tanks based on retention time, typically 12 to 18 hours for conventional activated
sludge, and 18 to 24 hours for extended aeration. These criteria were purely empirical but were based on
124
experience. In similar vein some older criteria set limits on volumetric loading (kg COD or BOD/m3 of tank
volume per day). These were typically 1.1 kg COD/m3.d for conventional and 0.65 kg COD/m3.d for
extended aeration. These also have the effect of limiting the loading on the tank and ensuring adequate
retention. There have been problems on some activated sludge plants with industrial effluents in the feed
where the retention time has been designed as low as 6 hours
The volume of sludge to be wasted each day (m3/d) is dependent on sludge age and is calculated as
follows:
(a) when wasting directly from the reactor:
Volume of reactor/Sludge age = Volume wasted (m3/d) ……………………………………(7.4)
(b) when wasting from the returned activated sludge stream:
(Volume of reactor x MLSS)/ (Sludge age x RSS) = volume wasted (m3/d) ……………….(7.5)
Where
RSS= Return Sludge Concentration (Clarifier underflow)
7.1.4.5 Nitrification
The relationship between the sludge age required for nitrification and the temperature is given by:
Rs = 3.05 x (1.127)20 – T ………………………………………………………...(7.6)
Where
Rs = the minimum sludge age required for nitrification
T = temperature (ºC) of the mixed liquor in the reactor.
7.1.4.6 Return Activated Sludge
If p is the ratio of returned sludge to wastewater flow, RSS the concentration of the solids in the returned
sludge and MLSS the mixed liquor concentration in the reactor then:
RSS = (1 + s) MLSS ………………………………………………………..(7.7)
125
Values of 's' in excess of 1.5 are seldom encountered and are typically in the range 0.8 to 1.3 with a value
of 1.0 being commonly selected. As indicated by the above equation increasing the recycle ratio would
provide a diminishing return.
FIGURE 7.1.2: Typical activated sludge flow diagram (eWISA)
7.1.4.7 Oxygen Requirements
The carbonaceous oxygenation requirement is a function of the strength of the sewage, measured as
either COD or BOD and sludge age (or sludge loading rate). Empirical values which may be used as an
alternative to other more mathematical approaches in use are given in Table 7.1.2 below:
TABLE 7.1.2: Empirical values to determine carbonaceous oxygen requirement

Sludge Loading Sludge Dissolved Oxygen Ratio of maximum Ratio of
Rate Age required for to mean minimum to
(kg COD applied (days) carbonaceous Oxygenation Rate mean
per day/ kg Oxidation Oxygenation
MLSS) (kg O2/kg COD Rate
removed
0.154 30 0.84 1.45 0.5
0.174 25 0.82 1.47 0.5
0.200 20 0.79 1.50 0.5
0.242 15 0.73 1.55 0.5
0.312 10 0.65 1.67 0.5
0.506 5 0.53 1.80 0.5
126
The oxygen demand for nitrification is directly proportional to the mass of nitrogeneous compounds
which are to be nitrified, the relationship being approximately 4.5 g O2 per 1 g TKN (Total Kjeldahl
nitrogen) or ammonia as N converted.
7.1.4.8 Capacity of Aeration Equipment
There are several different types of aeration equipment available. The transfer efficiency of the different
devices differs in accordance with such parameters as power intensity and reactor geometry but typical
figures for each type are given in Table 7.1.3 below. These figures represent the transfer efficiency into
clean water of low TDS at 20°C and at sea level, assuming zero residual DO and that the water contains
no surfactants or other ingredients that could influence the rate of oxygen transfer.
TABLE 7.1.3: Typical figures for oxygen transfer efficiency into clean water
for different types of aeration equipment
Type of Aeration Transfer Efficiency (kg oxygen/kWh)
Fine bubble diffused aeration 2.4 to 3.2
Low speed surface aeration 1.7 to 2.5
Submerged turbine aerators 1.4 to 2.0
High speed surface aeration 1.2 to 1.7
Coarse bubble aeration 0.7 to 1.4 (depending on tank depth)
Note: In Table 7.1.3 the power is 'shaft' and not 'motor' power.
The transfer efficiency of aerators operating in wastewater will be significantly lower than the above
figures due to the presence of surfactants and various other impurities. It is therefore necessary to apply
an appropriate factor to the specified "oxygenation capacity" in order to arrive at "oxygen input". This
factor is known as “” (the alpha factor) and can range from 0.4 up to about 0.9.  for diffused air is
lower than for mechanical aerators and can be in the range 0.4 up to about 0.7. For mechanical aerators
it is usually in the range 0.65 to 0.9 and is often assumed at 0.85. Oxygen input is also influenced by
altitude, temperature, residual DO and the positioning of aerators in the basin. The oxygen input is the
oxygenation capacity divided by the α factor.
Further corrections for oxygen solubility on site compared to standard conditions by a formula known as
Henry’s Law (or from tables) is also necessary, as well as correction to the oxygen solution driving force
for the minimum specified DO concentration in the tank. If the solubility of oxygen on site is 7.5 mg/l and a
minimum DO of 1.5 mg/l is specified, then the correction factors to the oxygen input will be roughly 9.0 /
7.5 (increase) for solubility and 7.5 / (7.5-1.5) (another increase) for driving force.
127
In addition to this, factors need to be put in for mechanical efficiency of motor and gearbox as well as
power factor effects. The net effect of all the correction factors together can be an increase of 50% to
even a doubling of the originally calculated oxygen requirement.
7.1.5 WORKED EXAMPLE

Task Design an extended aeration activated sludge plant for a 10 Ml/d works treating predominately
domestic sewage at an altitude of 600 m above sea level.
Wastewater Load
Assume a wastewater COD of 650 mg/l (= 0.65 kg/kl)
Assume ammonia (TKN) of 0.12 x COD = 0.078 kg/kl)
COD load = 10 000 x 0.65 = 6 500 kg/d
Ammonia load = 10 000 x 0.078 = 780 kg/d
Aeration Tank Sizing
Select a sludge age of 20 days
From Table 8.1 sludge growth coefficient = 0.27 kg MLSS/kg COD
Sludge produced = 6 500 x 0.27 = 1 755 kg/d
Total sludge in system = 1 755 x 20 = 35 100 kg
Select a MLSS of 4 000 mg/l (4.0 kg/m3)
Reactor volume = 35 100/4 = 8 775 (say) 9 000 m3
Select two parallel aeration lines with each tank containing three slow speed aerators in series. (This
gives more process flexibility than a single tank with six aerators. The choice of number of aerators is a
compromise between the increased cost of a larger number of aerators and the process inflexibility of too
few aerators. Very small plants will only have one or two aerators – large plants can have 15 or more).
Volume per reactor = 4 500 m3
Select tank depth of 4,0 m - area = 4 500/4 = 1 125 m2
Dimensions of each aerator compartment = (1 125/3)0,5 = 19.36 (say) 19.5 m
Aeration reactors dimensions = 58.5 x 19.5 x 4.0 m (two tanks each with three aeration compartments).
Oxygen Requirements (aerator sizing)

From Table 8.2 - Oxygen requirement for COD load for a 20 day sludge age
= 6 500 x 0.79 x 1.50 = 7 703 kg/d
Oxygen required for ammonia oxidation = 780 x 4.5 = 3 510 kg/d
Total oxygen required = 7 703 + 3 510 = 11 213 kg/d = 467,2 kg/h
Oxygen required per aerator = 467.2/6 = 77.9 kg/h
Specify a minimum dissolved oxygen (DO) in aeration tank of 1.5 mg/l
Barometric pressure at sea level = 1 017 mBar
Barometric pressure at 600m elevation (or measured on site) = 950 mBar
128
Oxygen solubility at sea level at 20º C = 9.0 mg/l (from tables)
Oxygen solubility at 600 m = 9.0 x 950/1 017 = 8.4 mg/l
Correction factor for site solubility = 9.0/8.4 = 1.071
Correction factor for minimum DO in aeration tank = 8.4/(8.4 – 1.5) = 1.217
Assume transfer efficiency of 2.0 kg oxygen/kWh for slow speed aerators into clean water under standard
conditions and an alpha factor of 0.85 for transfer into mixed liquor
Aerator power required = 77.9/(2.0 x 0.85) x 1.071 x 1.217 = 59.7 (say) 60 kW per aerator and 60 x 6
= 360 kW for all six aerators.
In specifying aerators it should be borne in mind that allowance should be made for motor and gearbox
efficiency. It is common practice to specify a service factor of 2.0 for the gearboxes and to allow 10 to
15% additional motor capacity (say 67 kW motors in the present case).
129
7.2 SEQUENCING BATCH REACTORS (SBR)
7.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) is a fill-and-draw activated sludge system for wastewater treatment.
In this system, wastewater is added to a single ‘batch’ reactor, treated to remove undesirable
components, and then discharged. Equalisation, aeration, and clarification can all be achieved using a
single batch reactor. SBR systems have been successfully used to treat both municipal and industrial
wastewater. They are suited to wastewater treatment applications characterised by low or intermittent
flow conditions.
The unit processes of the SBR and conventional activated sludge systems are the same. A 1986 USEPA
report summarised this by stating that “the SBR is no more than an activated sludge system which
operates in time rather than in space”. The difference between the two technologies is that the SBR
performs equalisation, biological treatment, and secondary clarification in a single tank using a timed
control sequence. In a conventional activated sludge system, these unit processes would be
accomplished by using separate tanks.

Influent wastewater generally passes through screens and grit removal prior to the SBR. It is possible to
have primary sedimentation before the SBR but most SBR plants are of relatively low capacity where
PST’s and separate sludge treatment facilities are not warranted. In any event one of the attractions of
the SBR plant is its operational simplicity and this is counteracted by the installation of primary
sedimentation and sludge treatment.
The wastewater then enters a partially filled reactor, containing biomass, which is acclimated to the
wastewater constituents during preceding cycles. Once the reactor is full, it behaves like a conventional
activated sludge system. The aerator may operate while the tank is filling but once full, there is no inflow
or outflow until the decant cycle starts.
The aeration and mixing is then discontinued after the biological reactions are complete, the biomass
settles, and the treated supernatant is decanted. Excess biomass can be wasted at any time during the
cycle. In the absence of a clarifier there is no need for return activated sludge (RAS) pumps.
An SBR serves as an equalisation basin when the vessel is filling with wastewater, enabling the system to
tolerate peak flows or peak loads in the influent and to equalise them in the batch reactor. However
unless there is more than one SBR tank at the installation, some form of wastewater holding tank is
preferable to hold the wastewater during the settlement and decant parts of the cycle.
130
7.2.3 APPLICABILITY
SBRs are typically used at flow rates of 10 Ml/d or less and most are significantly smaller than this being
typically of large package plant size. The more sophisticated operation required at larger SBR plants
tends to discourage the use of these plants for large flow rates.
As these systems have a relatively small footprint, they are useful for areas where the available land is
limited. In addition, cycles within the system can be easily modified for accommodating nutrient removal if
necessary. This makes SBR’s flexible in operation.
7.2.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES.

Some advantages and disadvantages of SBR’s are listed below:
7.2.4.1 Advantages
1. Equalisation, biological treatment, and secondary clarification can be achieved in a single reactor
vessel
2. Operating flexibility and control
3. Minimal footprint
4. Potential capital cost savings by eliminating clarifiers and other equipment.
1. A higher level of mechanical sophistication is required (compared to conventional systems),

especially for larger systems, in terms of timing units and controls
2. Higher level of maintenance (compared to conventional systems) associated with more sophisticated
controls, automated switches, and automated valves
3. Potential of discharging floating or settled sludge during the decant phase with some SBR
configurations
4. Potential plugging of aeration devices during some operating cycles, depending on the aeration
system used by the manufacturer
5. Potential requirement for equalisation before and after the SBR, depending on the upstream and
downstream processes.
7.2.5 DESIGN
The process is essentially an activated sludge plant and the design guidelines particularly for extended
aeration are relevant. However as a batch type process the loadings and retentions apply somewhat
differently. Table 7.2.1 below gives figures adapted from typical American practice as a cross-check.
131
Once the key design parameters are determined, the number of cycles per day, number of basins, decant
volume, reactor size, and detention times can be calculated. Additionally, the aeration equipment,
decanting, and associated piping can then be sized. Other site specific information is needed to size the
aeration equipment, such as site elevation above mean sea level, wastewater temperature, and total
dissolved solids concentration.
TABLE 7.2.1: Key design parameters for a conventionally loaded SBR

Municipal Industrial
Sludge loading rate (F:M) (kg COD/kg MLSS.d) 0.15 – 0.4 0.15 – 0.6
Treatment cycle duration (hours) 6.0 – 18 4.0 - 24
Typical low water level MLSS (mg/l) 2 000 – 2 500 2 000 – 4 000
Hydraulic Retention Time (hours) 10 – 30 Varies
The operation of an SBR is based on the fill-and-draw principle, which consists of the following five basic
steps: Idle, Fill, React, Settle, and Draw. More than one operating strategy is possible during most of
these steps. For industrial wastewater applications, treatability studies are typically required to determine
the optimum operating sequence. For most municipal wastewater treatment plants, treatability studies are
not required to determine the operating sequence because municipal wastewater flow rates and
characteristic variations are usually predictable and most municipal designers will follow conservative
design approaches.
Construction of SBR systems can typically require a smaller footprint than conventional activated sludge
systems. The SBR never requires secondary clarifiers. The size of the SBR tanks themselves will be site
specific. Normally, however, the SBR system is advantageous if space is limited at the proposed site.
A few case studies are presented in the Table 7.2.2 below to provide general sizing estimates at different
flow rates. Sizing of these systems is site specific and these case studies do not reflect every system at
that size. Also these reflect American practice where wastewater strengths are low. If directly applied to
local conditions an increase in tank size of 50% to 100% would be needed in most cases to
accommodate the limitation on biological loading rates.
132
TABLE 7.2.2: Case studies for several SBR installations.
3
Flow (m /d) No. of Reactors Volume (m3)
45 1 80
375 2 260
4 500 2 3 400
3 750 2 1 780
5 200 2 2 550
5 450 2 3 560
15 800 4 5 800
19 300 4 5 100
SBR manufacturers should be consulted for recommendations on tanks and equipment. It is typical to use
a complete SBR system recommended and supplied by a single SBR manufacturer. It is possible,
however, for an engineer to design an SBR system, as all required tanks, equipment, and controls are
available through different manufacturers. However this approach is not typical of SBR installations,
because of the level of sophistication of the instrumentation and controls associated with these systems.
The SBR tank is typically constructed with steel or concrete. For industrial applications, steel tanks coated
for corrosion control are most common, while concrete tanks are the most common for treatment of
domestic wastewater.
Significant operating flexibility is associated with SBR systems. For a BNR plant, the aerated mode and
the mixed mode (anoxic conditions) can be alternated to achieve nitrification and denitrification. In
addition, these modes can ultimately be used to achieve an anaerobic condition where phosphorus
removal can occur.
133
7.3 MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS (MBR)
7.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Membrane bioreactors are a recent innovation in wastewater treatment and make use of the activated
sludge process in a modified form. In this type of plant the clarifier is replaced by semi-porous
membranes arranged in sheets or tubes in the aeration reactor. The treated effluent passes through the
membrane whilst the activated sludge is left behind. This avoids the need for a clarifier and sludge return
pumps but is not always significantly cheaper as the membranes can be expensive. However it is a
beneficial process for upgrading plants which are overloaded as it can operate at very high MLSS
concentrations and short liquid retention times. It is also useful where compactness is an important
consideration.
The MBR process utilises microporous membranes for solid/liquid separation in lieu of secondary
clarifiers. This very compact arrangement produces a microfiltration/ultrafiltration (MF/UF) quality effluent
suitable for reuse applications or as a high quality feed water source for reverse osmosis treatment.
Indicative output quality of MF/UF systems include SS <1mg/l, turbidity <0.2 NTU and up to 4 log removal
of virus (depending on the membrane nominal pore size). In addition, it provides a barrier to certain
chlorine resistant pathogens such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia.
The MBR process is an emerging advanced wastewater treatment technology that has been successfully
applied at an ever increasing number of locations around the world. In addition to their steady increase in
number, MBR installations are also increasing in terms of scale. A number of plants with a treatment
capacity of around 5 to 10 Ml/d have been in operation for several years now whilst the next generation
(presently undergoing commissioning or under contract) have design capacities up to 45 Ml/d.

The MBR process has an aeration tank containing mixed liquor as is the case for other activated sludge
variants. A typical arrangement will include submerged membranes in the aerated portion of the
bioreactor, and an anoxic zone and internal mixed liquor recycle can be incorporated if required. As an
alternative some plants have used pressure membranes (rather than submerged membranes) external to
the bioreactor.
The wastewater enters the aeration tank where it is aerated as in a conventional process. The differences
are that the aeration time is usually much shorter than conventional activated sludge (typically 3 to 4
hours), and the MLSS (sludge solids concentration) much higher (typically 12 000 to 16 000 mg/l
compared to about one quarter of this for a conventional plant). A high rate of diffused air is required
134
through the membranes to scour them and to aerate the high concentration of activated sludge in the
tank.
The treated and clear effluent passes through the membranes usually by gravity, although some designs
use suction pumps, and this comprises the effluent from the process. The membranes are in the MF/UF
range with a typical pore size of 0.4 μm and are of the low pressure type. Most designs use flat sheet
membranes but there are hollow fibre and tubular designs available. Sludge is wasted from the reactor as
in a conventional process and the MBR system has the advantage that pre-thickening of the sludge for
dewatering is often not necessary
7.3.3 ADVANTAGES OF THE MBR SYSTEM

1. Secondary clarifiers and tertiary filtration processes are eliminated, thereby reducing plant footprint.
In certain instances, footprint can be further reduced because other process units such as digesters
or UV disinfection can also be eliminated/minimised (dependent upon governing regulations)
2. Unlike secondary clarifiers, the quality of solids separation is not dependent on the mixed liquor
suspended solids concentration or characteristics. Since elevated mixed liquor concentrations are
possible, the aeration basin volume can be reduced, further reducing the plant footprint.
3. No reliance upon achieving good sludge settleability is necessary, hence quite amenable to remote
operation
4. Can be designed with long sludge age, hence low sludge production
5. Produces a MF/UF quality effluent suitable for reuse applications or as a high quality feed water
source for Reverse Osmosis treatment. Indicative output quality of MF/UF systems include SS
<1mg/l, turbidity <0.2 NTU and up to 4 log removal of virus (depending on the membrane nominal
pore size). In addition, MF/UF provides a barrier to certain chlorine resistant pathogens such as
Cryptosporidium and Giardia.
6. The resultant small footprint can be a feature used to address issues of visual amenity, noise and
odour. Example MBR plants exist where the entire process is housed in a building designed to blend
in with its surrounding land use. This can reduce the buffer distance required between the plant and
the nearest neighbour and can increase the surrounding land values.
7.3.4 DISADVANTAGES OF MBR SYSTEMS

1. Membranes are prone to fouling and good design is necessary to prevent this as far as possible.
Also operation needs to be such as to minimise this.
2. Membrane life continues to improve but it can be expected that membrane replacement will be
needed at about 5 year intervals. This will entail significant cost.
3. Membranes operate best within a limited flux range and flow balancing is necessary on many plants.
135
7.3.5 COST COMPARISON – MBR VERSUS ALTERNATIVE
PROCESS TRAINS
A detailed holistic cost comparison may reveal reasonably comparable results between the cost of the
MBR option versus other advanced treatment options, especially if land value is considered. Furthermore,
whilst the costs for conventional technologies are slowly rising with labour costs and inflationary
pressures, the costs for all membrane equipment (both for direct filtration and MBR) has been falling
steadily during each of the last 10 years. Hence on a capital cost basis for any given project, the
likelihood of MBR becoming a favoured option is increasing with time. Designers are therefore advised to
continuously review and to explore the options as the improvement in membranes, their lower relative
cost, and the increasing cost of land may make the MBR option a preferred one on more occasions in the
future
7.3.6 DESIGN
The design of membrane plants is a specialised process and suitably experienced practitioners in the
field should be employed if a plant of this type is required. Any design received can then be assessed
according to the norms presented in this section.
136
7.4 DIFFUSED AIR
7.4.1 INTRODUCTION
In wastewater treatment processes, aeration introduces air into a liquid, providing an aerobic environment
for microbial degradation of organic matter. The purpose of aeration is two-fold:
1. To supply the required oxygen to the metabolising microorganisms; and
2. To provide mixing so that the microorganisms come into intimate contact with the dissolved and
suspended organic matter.
The two most common aeration systems are subsurface and mechanical. In a subsurface system, air is
introduced by diffusers or other devices submerged in the wastewater. A mechanical system agitates the
wastewater by various means (e.g. propellers, blades, or brushes) to introduce air from the atmosphere.
Fine pore diffusion (fine bubble aeration) is a subsurface form of aeration in which air is introduced in
the form of very small bubbles. Since the energy crisis in the early 1970’s, there has been increased
interest in fine pore diffusion of air as a competitive system due to its high oxygen transfer efficiency.
Smaller bubbles result in more bubble surface area per unit volume and greater oxygen transfer
efficiency.
Coarse bubble diffusion is simpler than fine bubble aeration in that air filtration to prevent blockages of
diffusers is not of serious concern. Fairly rudimentary filters can be used as the method of diffusion is
through orifices which may be simply holes in a lateral pipe or pipes on the tank floor. Coarse bubble
aeration is normally used on small plants where low capital cost is desired and the additional power cost
penalty is small
Oxygen transfer studies that were performed on fine pore ceramic dome diffusers in order to compare
results with the coarse bubble diffusers showed that the coarse bubble diffuser had an average standard
oxygen transfer efficiency under field conditions of 4.8% with an average alpha () of 0.55. In contrast,
the fine pore system has an average standard oxygen transfer efficiency under field conditions of about
9.5% and an average  of 0.4 during normal daytime high-load operation. Alpha is defined as the ratio of
KLa (volumetric mass transfer coefficient) of a clean diffuser in process water, to the KLa of the same
diffuser in clean water.
The amount of oxygen transferred is proportional to the depth of immersion, i.e. a 4 m deep tank will
transfer nearly twice as much oxygen from the same amount of air as would be achieved in a 2 m deep
tank which is why fine bubble diffusion is usually favoured for large plants where deep tanks are not out of
proportion. Even for coarse bubble diffusion the aeration tanks should be made as deep as is feasible to
optimise energy costs.
137
7.4.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FINE BUBBLE
DIFFUSION
Some advantages and disadvantages of various fine pore diffusers are listed below:
7.4.2.1 Advantages
1. Exhibit high oxygen transfer efficiencies

2. Exhibit high aeration efficiencies (mass oxygen transferred per unit power per unit time)
3. Can satisfy high oxygen demands
4. Are easily adaptable to existing basins for plant upgrades
5. Result in lower volatile organic compound emissions than nonporous diffusers or mechanical
aeration devices.
1. Fine pore diffusers are susceptible to chemical or biological fouling, which may impair transfer
efficiency and generate high head loss. As a result they require occasional cleaning which is a
reasonably costly and labour-intensive procedure.
2. Fine pore diffusers may be susceptible to chemical attack (especially perforated membranes).
Therefore, care must be exercised in the proper selection of material for a given wastewater.
3. Because of the high efficiencies of fine pore diffusers at low airflow rates, airflow distribution is critical
to their performance and selection of proper airflow control orifices is important
4. Because of the high efficiencies of fine pore diffusers, the required airflow in an aeration basin
(normally at the effluent end) may be dictated by mixing, not oxygen transfer
5. Aeration basin design must incorporate a means to easily dewater the tank for cleaning. In small
systems, where no redundancy of aeration tanks exists, an in-situ, non process-interruptive method
of cleaning must be considered.
6. Fine pore diffusers require sophisticated two or even three stage air filtration systems to avoid
clogging.
7.5
7.5.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COARSE BUBBLE
DIFFUSION
7.5.1.1 Advantages
1. Coarse bubble systems tend to be mechanically simple
138
2. Fairly basic air-filtration can be used
3. The diffusers can be simple orifices or holes in pipes
4. They are effectively clog-free
5. Can be modified or upgraded relatively easily
6. Mixing is usually effective.
1. Only really suited to small plants because of their low transfer efficiencies
2. The types of blowers usually used are not as reliable as fine bubble systems or mechanical diffusers
3. Single orifices are less flexible for air flow variation if operation in the turbulent regime (high
Reynolds numbers) is desired.
7.5.2 DIFFUSERS
In the past, various diffusion devices have been classified based on their oxygen transfer efficiencies as
either fine bubble or coarse bubble. Since it is difficult to clearly demarcate or define between fine and
coarse bubbles, diffused aeration systems have recently been classified based on the physical
characteristics of the equipment. Diffused aeration systems can be classified into three categories:
1. Porous (fine bubble) diffusers: Fine pore diffusers are mounted or screwed into the diffuser header
pipe (air manifold) that may run along the length or width of the tank or on a short manifold mounted
on a movable pipe (lift pipe). These diffusers come in various shapes and sizes, such as discs,
tubes, domes, and plates.
2. Nonporous (coarse bubble) diffusers: The common types of nonporous diffusers are fixed orifices
(perforated piping, spargers, and slotted tubes); valved orifices; and static tubes. The bubble size
from these diffusers is larger than the porous diffusers, thus reducing the oxygen transfer efficiency.
3. Other diffusion devices: These include jet aerators (which discharge a mixture of air and liquid
through a nozzle near the tank bottom); aspirators (mounted at the basin surface to supply a mixture
of air and water); and U tubes (where compressed air is discharged into the down leg of a deep
vertical shaft).
7.5.3 TYPES OF FINE PORE DIFFUSERS

Fine pore diffusers (discs, tubes, domes, and plates) are usually made from ceramics, plastics, or flexible
perforated membranes. Although many materials can be used to make fine pore diffusers, only the few
mentioned above are commonly used due to cost considerations, specific characteristics, market size,
and other factors.
139
Ceramic media diffusers have been in use for many years and have essentially become the standard for
comparison since, in the past, they were the primary media in the fine pore aeration market. Ceramic,
plastic, and flexible materials are resistant to the chemicals used in wastewater treatment.
Discussed below are common types of fine bubble diffusers. However, recent advances in technology
have resulted in some modifications to these types.
7.5.3.1 Disc diffusers
Disc diffusers are relatively flat and range from approximately 180 to 250 mm in diameter with
thicknesses of 13 to 19 mm. Materials for discs include ceramics, porous plastics, and perforated
membranes. Therefore, thicknesses vary, as do construction features. Currently, manufacturers provide
plenums or base plates that will accept all materials.
The disc is mounted on a plastic saddle-type base-plate, and either a centre bolt or a peripheral clamping
ring is used to secure the media and the holder together. More commonly, the disc is attached to the
holder via a screw-on retainer ring.
Disc diffusers are designed to have an airflow range of 0.25 to 1.5 l/s per diffuser.
7.5.3.2 Tube / flexible sheath diffusers
A typical tube diffuser is either a rigid ceramic or plastic hollow cylinder (tube) or a flexible membrane
secured by end plates in the shape of a tube. A tube diffuser has a media portion up to 2 m long. The
thickness of the diffuser varies, but the outside diameter is approximately 60 to 75 mm. The various
components of a tube diffuser are made of stainless steel or durable plastic. Threaded rods are used with
ceramic or porous plastic. The rod is threaded into the feed end of the holder with a hexagonal nut
secured on the rod to hold the assembly in place.
Air flows through tube diffusers are in the range of 1 to 5 l/s.
7.5.3.3 Dome diffusers
Made from ceramics or porous plastics, dome diffusers are typically circular, 180 mm in diameter, and
40 mm high. The media is about 15 mm thick on the edges and 19 mm on the horizontal or flat surface.
The dome diffuser is mounted on either a polyvinyl chloride or a steel saddle-type base plate.
The airflow rate for dome diffusers is usually 0.5 l/s with a range of 0.25 to 1 l/s.
140
7.5.3.4 Plate diffusers
Plate diffusers are flat and rectangular, and typically approximately 300 mm square, and 25 to 40 mm
thick. They are normally made from ceramic or membrane materials. Installation involves either grouting
the plates into recesses in the floor, cementing them into prefabricated holders, or clamping them into
metal holders. Air plenums run under the plates and supply air from headers. Plate diffusers have largely
been replaced by porous discs, domes, and tubes in new installations.
7.5.4 PERFORMANCE
The performance of diffused aeration systems under normal operating conditions is directly related to the
following parameters:
1. Fouling
2. Wastewater characteristics
3. Process type and flow regime
4. Loading conditions
5. Basin geometry
6. Diffuser type, size, shape, density, and airflow rate
7. Mixed liquor dissolved oxygen (DO) control and air supply flexibility
8. Mechanical integrity of the system
9. Operator expertise
10. The quality of the preventive operation and maintenance (O&M) program.
The wastewater characteristics that establish the oxygen demand placed on a fine pore aeration system
are the influent flow rate, chemical oxygen demand (COD) load, and ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) load.
The presence of constituents such as surfactants, dissolved solids, and suspended solids can affect
bubble shape and size and result in diminished oxygen transfer capability. In general, ceramic domes and
discs yield slightly higher clean water transfer efficiencies than typical porous plastic tubes or flexible
sheath tubes in a grid placement.
Good ceramic fine bubble systems can give an oxygen transfer efficiency of 20 - 22% into clean water.
However they are prone to clogging and in addition diffused air systems have low  factors (typically 0.4
to 0.6) which means proportionately lower efficiencies into mixed liquor (8 – 12%).
Porous plastic or membrane diffusers have lower transfer efficiencies into water in the range 12-18% and
are more resistant to clogging but the same caution regarding  factors applies.
141
Simple orifices typically have a transfer efficiency of about 8 – 10% into clean water and about 4% into
mixed liquor.
7.5.5 AIR FILTRATION

Good air filtration down to sub-micron particle-size is essential for fine bubble diffusers if clogging is to be
avoided and long term acceptable aeration efficiency is to be maintained. It is essential that diffusers be
kept clean through two or three stages of air filtration and that the system be maintained. Good preventive
maintenance can virtually eliminate air-side (blower filtration system) particulate fouling of fixed fine pore
diffusers.
7.5.6 COSTS
The aeration system consumes approximately 50 to 70% of the net power demand for a typical activated
sludge wastewater treatment plant. Therefore, the designer is responsible for selecting a system that will
meet the mixing and oxygen requirements for the process at the lowest cost possible. Once the
requirements for aeration are determined, comparative costs for different types of aeration systems can
be estimated and the final equipment configuration selected to best match the requirements of the job.
Construction cost items mainly consist of aeration basins, air piping and headers as appropriate, aeration
devices and their supports, air cleaning equipment, blowers, and buildings to house these items.
O&M costs are primarily for power, cleaning, and replacement. Operational costs are determined in part
by the oxygen transfer efficiency of the fine bubble aeration system being used, as well as the
characteristics of the influent wastewater.
142
7.6 MECHANICAL AERATION
7.6.1 INTRODUCTION
Surface aerators can be grouped into four general categories:
1. Radial flow turbine aerators, low speed
2. Axial flow turbine aerators, high speed
3. Aspirating devices
4. Horizontal rotors.
Each is used widely and has distinct advantages and disadvantages, depending on the application.
Surface aerators are float-,

bridge, or platform-mounted.
Platform and bridge designs
reduce torque and vibration
problems. Bridges should be
designed for at least four
times the maximum moment
(torque and impeller side
load) anticipated. The aerator
manufacturer can provide the
magnitude of this moment.
FIGURE 7.5.1: Typical bridge-mounted surface aerator
The efficiency and power consumption of platform- and bridge-mounted aerators are sensitive to changes
in the depth of impeller submergence. An increase in submergence results in increased load on the
impeller and an increase in power consumption, and can decrease gearbox life expectancy.
High-speed (radial and axial) surface aerators are most often float-mounted, providing flexibility in
spacing arrangements, the ability to increase oxygen input easily, and low cost.
Some surface aerators, usually for relatively deep tank applications, are equipped with submerged
draught tubes that tend to improve mixing by bringing liquid from the bottom of the tank up through the
tube and to the impeller. Draught tubes are used where tanks are deeper than 4 m, where mechanical
143
aerators alone might not provide enough mixing throughout the entire tank. This feature adds to the cost
of the system and will require additional power.
All the mixed liquor pumped through a draft tube is dispersed into the air. Without draft tubes, a portion of
the pumped fluid flows beneath the liquid surface and is not aerated (doughnut aeration pattern). Mixed
liquor pumped in either way creates liquid momentum that tends to circulate the mixed liquor directly
around the aerator.
Mechanical aerators provide point-source oxygen input and the pumped mixed liquor flows radially
outward from the aerator with decreasing velocity. Dissolved oxygen reaches its maximum near the
impeller blade where surface turbulence is greatest and decreases as fluid flows back below the surface
of the aeration tank toward the aerator.
The action of surface aeration devices, particularly splashing from high-speed units, can generate mists
with attendant health concerns and nuisance odours. Odours can result from insufficient oxygen supplied
by the aerator or influent wastewater containing sulphides or other volatiles. Splashing effects can be
minimised with proper geometric design of the aeration tank and use of deflector plates.
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 7.5.2: Some types of aerators: (a) standard surface aerator, (b) surface aerator with draft
tube, and (c) surface aerator with impellor
7.6.2 SLOW SPEED TURBINE SURFACE AERATORS (RADIAL

FLOW)
Slow speed surface aerators are probably the most common type of aeration in RSA. They are almost
invariably used on small to fairly large plants from 1 Ml/d upwards to about 80 Ml/d where diffused air has
not been selected as the (much less common) alternative. Diffused air becomes more common for really
144
large plants of 100 Ml/d capacity and upwards, where the lower specific power consumption and lesser
degree of mechanical complexity becomes significant.
Slow speed aerators are almost invariably bridge or platform mounted although there are designs for
floating units of this type. The aerators consist of a motor, a two or three stage reduction gearbox, and an
impeller which has a number of straight or curved axial vanes. The motor is usually a 1 450 rpm unit, and
the gearbox reduces the shaft speed of the impellor down to about 45 to 80 rpm, with larger units tending
to operate at slower speeds.
The power dissipation of this type of aerator can range from as low as about 2 kW to in excess of 100 kW
(wire to water). Efficiencies vary with size, rotational speed, altitude and impeller design but are of the
order of 1.7 to 2.2 kg O2/kWh into clean water, and 1.2 to 1.4 kg O2/kWh into mixed liquor under specified
site conditions. A well-designed and maintained slow speed aerator with a gearbox service factor of at
least 2.0 can have a service life of 15 to 30 years.
7.6.3 HIGH SPEED TURBINE SURFACE AERATORS (AXIAL FLOW)

High speed surface aerators are fairly common on small plants and are often used in aerated lagoons.
The aerators are simpler in construction than slow speed aerators in that they usually do not have
gearboxes and have impellers which are driven at motor speed. The motors are often six pole motors
which rotate at a nominal 900 rpm.
Rotor and bridge

support steelwork
Flexible coupling
Drive
Flexible motor
coupling
Water level
Gearbox
Rotor
Shrouded shaft bearing Splash plate

Chamber
suspended from bridge
drain
FIGURE 7.5.3: The layout of an horizontal shaft mechanical surface aerator
145
Air
Air
Bottom of Bottom of
Tank Tank
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.5.4: Submerged turbine aerators: (a) axial flow and (b) radial flow.
Most high speed aerators are float-mounted as they tend to be installed in plants where low cost and
simplicity are important. They are not as robust as slow speed aerators and tend to have a shorter service
life, typically 5 to 10 years, although there are units which have given better service.
These units range in size from around 1 kW to about 20 kW with most units being in the mid range. The
transfer efficiencies are lower than for low speed units, being typically 1.4 to 1.7 kg O2/kWh into clean
water and 0.8 to 1.2 kg O2/kWh into mixed liquor.
7.6.4 HORIZONTAL ROTORS

Horizontal rotors are normally installed on activated sludge plants of the oxidation ditch type. They can
have a span of up to 3 or 4 m and on large ditches it is common to have two rotors side by side with a
pedestal carrying the bearings of the non-drive ends of the rotors. The number of rotors installed on a
ditch usually ranges for 2 or 3 up to 8 or 9.
The rotors consist of a motor (normally 1 450 rpm) and a gearbox which drives the rotor. The rotor usually
consists of a rotating cage carrying several rows of paddles which both aerate the mixed liquor and also
impart a forward motion. Excessive forward motion reduces the power and hence oxygen input to the
water. For this reason many ditches have adjustable baffles to control the circulation rate in the ditch. As
an alternative to paddles, the rotor shafts may also carry a large number of vertical discs with holes
through them which also creates aeration and forward motion.
146
Horizontal rotors have motors ranging from a few kW up to about 20 kW. It is important to specify a high
service factor for the gearboxes as the paddles impart a cyclic stress on the units due to the beating
action on the water. The shafts are also prone to fatigue and need to be robustly designed of tubing
rather than solid construction to minimise bending between the bearings. Well-designed units can have a
satisfactory service life. The transfer efficiency is similar to high speed turbine aerators.
7.6.5 SUBMERGED AERATORS

Submerged aerators have characteristics of both mechanical aerators and diffused air in that the air is
introduced by mechanical means as bubbles usually at the bottom of the aeration tank or pond. The
design uses the higher solubility of oxygen at depth but requires more power to achieve the pressure
head at such depths, so that there is no major advantage to the designs from a transfer efficiency point of
view. The designs have the advantage of simplicity in some cases as they do not need floats or bridges
for mounting and are therefore well suited to ponds, small, and temporary plants.
7.6.5.1 Submerged Turbine Aerators
A submerged turbine aerator is similar to a submersible pump on the floor of the tank with a pipe
extending vertically to above the surface of the water through which air is drawn into the throat of the
impeller. The air is discharged as a bubble cloud into the tank with the carrier water and aerates the tank
contents. The efficiency into mixed liquor is of the order of 1kg O2/kWh.
7.6.5.2 Venturi Aerators
The venturi aerator is similar in concept, but in this case the recirculating pump delivery passes through a
venturi with air from the surface being drawn into the throat and again being discharged as a bubble cloud
into the tank. Transfer efficiency is similar.
7.6.5.3 Jet systems
Jet systems, which are placed on the floor of aeration tanks, combine liquid pumping with air
diffusion. The pumping system circulates mixed liquor in the aeration tank, ejecting it through a
nozzle assembly. Air, supplied from a blower, is introduced to the mixed liquor before its discharge
through the system’s nozzles.
147
7.7 MIXERS
7.7.1 INTRODUCTION
Mixers are used in a number of applications in wastewater treatment but most commonly in the activated
sludge process where the mixed liquor solids in the anoxic or anaerobic compartments of the aeration
tank need to be kept in suspension.
The choice of mixer should be made such that units which set up mixing patterns through relatively large
volumes should be selected rather than mixers which dissipate their energy in localised areas. An ideal
mixer would set up mixing currents which would keep all the mixed liquor solids in suspension throughout
the compartment. This is not easily achieved and many designs use a number of small mixers rather than
one large unit in order to achieve uniform energy dissipation throughout the tank.
There are a number of types of mixers which can be used. Turbine or paddle mixers were the typical
choice for the application originally, and are still widely used and selected. An alternative which has
become more attractive in recent years as mechanical reliability has improved is the use of submersible
mixers. As a third possibility, the use of pumped mixing either by submersible pumps or external pumps is
possible, and has been specified on a number of occasions due to experiences of mechanical unreliability
of many mixer designs.
7.7.2 DESIGN
The objective of mixing is to circulate the entire contents of the compartment. If the tank is square or
circular this can possibly be achieved by a single mixer. For a rectangular tank it would be more usual to
have two or more mixers for the duty.
Mixer design is a specialised field of its own and expert help from experienced suppliers should be sought
when specifying for a particular duty. However as a guide the equipment specified should comply with
certain norms:
1. The amount of energy for mixing would normally lie in the range of 6 to 10 W/m3
2. Energy inputs less than this could tend to allow settlement in the corners of the compartments and
more than 12 W/m3 would only be necessary for solids which settle quite rapidly
3. The mixers specified should produce mixing currents which can be directed and which have a wide
sphere of influence. High mixing energy in localised areas would not achieve the required objective.
4. The mixers should be mechanically reliable and capable of operating for a service life of typically 5 to
10 years if not longer
5. Removal, servicing, repair and replacement of mixers should be readily possible without interrupting
the process.
148
A number of principles have to be considered when selecting a mixer. To achieve bulk flow and mixing in
a tank, a minimum thrust is required, which varies from one application to the next. Most mixer application
failures are a result of insufficient thrust being generated in the tank to get the product into suspension.
This leads to ineffective mixing.
Equipment which operates 24 hours a day, such as mixers in wastewater treatment works, needs to be
highly efficient if the long-term costs are to be lowered. By analysing the kilowatt requirement in relation to
the thrust requirement for the best mixing, the most efficient solution can be found and energy costs
reduced.
7.7.3 IMPELLER MIXERS.

Impeller mixers are classified into three groups:
 Paddles.
 Turbines.
 Propellers.
The most common type of mixing device used for wastewater treatment is the rotating propeller mixer but
paddle and turbine mixers are also used.
7.7.3.1 Paddle and Turbine Mixers.
Generally, turbine mixers resemble multi-bladed paddle mixers with short blades turning at moderate to
slow speeds on a shaft typically located near the centre of the mixing chamber. The impeller may be
shrouded, semi-enclosed, or open. The diameter of the impeller is typically 30 to 50% of the diameter of
the mixing vessel.
Turbine mixers, especially in thin liquids, impart strong currents that persist throughout the vessel. Baffles
or diffuser rings must sometimes be used to prevent vortexes. Turbine mixers are typically mounted
vertically and in the centre of the mixing chamber, 50 to 100% of a diameter above the chamber floor.
7.7.3.2 Propeller Mixers
These mixers have high speed, low impellers and are generally used for thicker solutions. At full motor
speed, small propeller mixers revolve at about 1500 rpm, whereas larger mixers turn at 375 – 750 rpm.
Typically, propeller mixers are much smaller in diameter than either paddle or turbine mixers, rarely
exceeding 0.5 m in diameter, regardless of the size of the mixing vessel. Deep mixing vessels typically
149
require two or more propellers on the same shaft. Where top entry is required for a propeller mixer, the
mixer is mounted angled and off-centre.
7.7.4 SUBMERSIBLE MIXERS

Submersible mixers, which operate in a similar fashion to submersible pumps with submerged motor and
impeller, are finding more applications in the wastewater management sector.
The placement and direction of the mixer are important. Effective placement is essential to optimise the
mixer’s performance and the solution is often not as obvious as it may seem. Given the mobile nature of a
submersible mixer, positioning is made substantially easier and can be adjusted if the initial placement
requires fine-tuning.
Submersible mixers are generally attached to a guide bar and hoist, which eliminate much of the civil
construction associated with other types of mixers and offer related cost savings. Ease of insertion and
extraction make maintenance and inspection easier, and the mixers can be adjusted from one site to the
next, making it an easy retrofit option.
7.7.4.1 Pumped mixing
Pumped mixing can be achieved in two ways, either by submersible pumps at suitable points in the
bottom of the tank, or by external pumps with a piping system and using jets or nozzles for discharge to
set up the mixing currents.
Submersible pumps are lowest in cost as there is not much piping involved but the system is limited in
that there will only be a small number of mixing jets (usually one per pump) as a large number of pumps
becomes expensive. The delivery of the pumps should be set so as to give a coherent mixing pattern and
aimed to reach the surface of the tank about halfway between pumps for opposed deliveries, or two thirds
across the tank for parallel deliveries from one side of the tank.
External pumps are easier to service and maintain as they are external to the tank. It is possible to have
duty and standby pumps, and the pipe-work can be arranged to give a relatively large number of jets at
suitably close intervals in the tank. Generally a single row of jets is adequate and these are placed via
down-comers at or near the bottom of the tank along one of the long sides and spaced at about 1 to
1.5 m intervals with the nozzles aimed upwards to reach the surface about two thirds of the way across
the tank. The power dissipated by the pump should be about 10 W/m3.
150
CHAPTER 8
8. FIXED-FILM AEROBIC PROCESSES

8.1 HIGH RATE PLASTIC MEDIA FILTERS
8.1.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of high surface area plastic media over the past twenty years has significantly improved the
process performance and reliability of the traditional mineral media trickling filter for biological treatment of
wastewater. Recent developments in filter design have evolved from a better understanding of the basic
process fundamentals involved and from full-scale operational experiences. Improved performance is
related to the need to enhance both the active biomass surface area within the filter and the associated
substrate fluxes in and out of the biofilm.
Trickling filters, which can be more accurately described as non-submerged fixed film reactors
(FFR's), have been used to remove organic materials from wastewater since the beginning of the
last century. Operational simplicity, low energy requirements, and recent design innovations have
led to a resurgence of interest in the application of FFR technology particularly to the treatment of
industrial wastewater.
Improved performance of FFR systems has been related to a better understanding of the basic
process fundamentals involved and an awareness of the importance of biofilm growth control to
substrate removal.
During the last twenty years the development of lightweight plastic media with high surface area and
voidage characteristics has significantly improved the range of organic loadings that can be applied to the
media, together with the types of wastewaters which can be economically treated. This improved
performance arises from the higher effective surface area for biofilm activity provided by plastic media. Of
the fixed film treatment processes the high rate biofilter and the anaerobic filter are different from low rate
aerobic processes in that they are not intended to produce an effluent of adequate standard for final
disposal. The high rate biofilter is usually used as a pre-treatment process to reduce the COD of strong
effluents before discharge to sewer, or as the first stage of a two stage aerobic process.
High rate plastic media trickling filters have been installed as the first stage of a two stage biofiltration
plant, or to reduce the COD before a nitrifying activated sludge process.
151
There is no reason why high rate stone filters should not be designed and stone filters operating at high
loadings have been reported in the literature. However plastic media is lighter so that the support
structure is less expensive and has a higher voidage, permitting higher irrigation rates and hence higher
loadings.
There are two types of plastic media commonly employed, the self stacking which exerts no side forces
on the support structure, and the packed tower type which consists of patented rings with high surface
area that are contained within the tower. The interfacial areas and performance of both types are similar.
8.1.2 PERFORMANCE
The performance of high rate biofilters is relatively insensitive to load at relatively low loadings when they
tend to remove about 65% to 75% of the incoming COD or BOD. At high loadings the performance
decreases with increasing loading until the point is reached where there is the onset of flooding conditions
and/or deficiency in oxygen supply.
The filters produce humus sludge as normal at about 0.2 to 0.25 kg solids/kg COD removed. For high
strength effluents intermediate sedimentation may be advisable. It is possible with more dilute effluents to
pass the first stage effluent directly to the second stage biofilter without necessarily settling out solids
generated in the first stage.
8.1.3 DESIGN
Because of their light weight and good ventilation, plastic biofilters can be constructed deeper than stone
filters and media heights of 4 to 6 m are common and heights of 8 m to 12 m have been reported. The
biofilters are usually circular in plan with four, six, or eight arm rotating distributors. The feed to the filter
should be settled effluent or sewage, although fine mesh static or rotating screens of less than 0.5 mm
gap have been used to prepare the incoming wastewater in some applications.
Loading limitations are both hydraulic and biological. Hydraulic loadings of about 30 to 40 m3/m2.d are the
usual norm, although many filters are designed to operate at about one third of this to roughly double this
loading. A COD loading in the range 2-12 kg COD/m3.d is acceptable although most filters operate at less
than about 6 kg COD/m3.d. If the incoming COD concentration is greater than about 800 mg/l it is
advisable to recirculate the effluent to dilute the incoming stream.
The media usually has a specific surface area of about 100 to 120 m3/m2 so that this implies a COD load
of about 20 to 70 g COD/ m2.d. This contrasts with a rate of less than 10 g COD/ m2.d for low-rate filter
152
8.1.3.1 Air Requirements
The provision of air is a critical design feature in FFR performance. If adequate media voidage and
underdrain area are provided, then the difference in temperature between the ambient air and air in the
trickling filter will provide a natural draught which is often sufficient to provide the air for system
performance.
However, in situations where there is little or no difference in air and wastewater temperature, periods of
stagnant air flow can occur. Under these operational conditions the FFR will store organic material
resulting in a subsequent oxygen lag phase when natural draught is resumed. The effect of these periods
of stagnant air flow will depend on their frequency and duration, but could lead to biofilm accumulation
and ultimately the development of anaerobic conditions within the media bed.
Ventilation also becomes limiting at higher BOD or COD loadings and results reported in the literature
tend to indicate that forced-draught may be beneficial at COD loadings of greater than about 3.5 to
4kg COD/m3.d. Beds operating at high loadings which are deficient in natural ventilation may therefore
require forced-draught systems. Design of these is beyond the scope of this manual but design
sequences are available in the literature as in Metcalf and Eddy (2003).
8.1.3.2 Recirculation and Hydraulic Loading
The feed onto a high rate plastic media trickling filter should not have a COD of greater than
800 mg/l to 1 000 mg/l. Effluents stronger than this should be provided with an effluent recycle to
dilute the feed to bring it into an acceptable range. Recycle ratios of 0.5 to 1 up to 6 to 1 have been
used but experience has shown that the additional benefits become limited at higher ratios. Once the
media surfaces have been effectively wetted increasing the recycle rate further has minimal benefits.
High rate plastic media filters typically operate in the hydraulic loading range of 10 to 75 m3/m2.d
The minimum hydraulic application rate recommended by Dow Chemical from their pilot tests (WEF,
2000) is 0.5 l/m2.s (about 40 m3/m2.d). Shallow tower designs require recirculation to provide minimum
wetting rates above the minimum hydraulic application rate. Recirculation above this minimum rate
provided little benefit. However there are many filters operating successfully at loadings around 25 to
40 m3/m2.d and there are also filters operating at hydraulic loadings up to 140 m 3/m2.d
8.1.3.3 BOD and COD Loadings
Many of the design formulae are based on BOD loadings and concentrations. At the concentrations
obtaining in high rate filters the COD/BOD ratios for raw sewage (usually about 2.0) will be reasonably
applicable.
Germain applied the Schulze equation in 1966 to trickling filters with plastic packing (WEF, 2000) as
follows:
153
ln Se/S0 = -kD/qn ………………………………………………………..(8.1)
where
Se = BOD or COD concentration of settled filter effluent, mg/l (g/m3)
S0 = influent BOD or COD concentration to the filter, mg/l (g/m3)
k = wastewater treatability and packing coefficient, (l/.s)0,5 /m2 (based on n = 0.5)
D = packing depth, m
q = hydraulic application rate of primary effluent, excluding recirculation (l/m2.s)
n = constant characteristic of packing used
The value for n is normally assumed to be 0.50 and pilot-plant or full-scale plant influent and effluent
BOD concentration data are used to solve for k. Values for k were developed from more than 140 pilot-
plant studies by Dow Chemical Company with vertical plastic packing with a specific surface area of
about 90 m2/m3. Similar tests have been done by other suppliers for a variety of packings. Most of
these tests have been done with packing depths of 6.1 to 6.7 m.
It should be noted that the clarification design and dosing cycle and method can affect pilot-plant results
used to calculate a value for k (Daigger and Harrison, 1987). In summary, the value for k is affected by
many factors, including the wastewater characteristics, filter and clarifier design, and operating conditions.
The commonly accepted temperature correction for k is as follows:
kT = k20 (1.035)T-20 …………………………………………………………(8.2)

Table 8.1.1 Normalised Germain equation k20 values from pilot studies
Type of k20 value

wastewater (l/s) 0,5 /m2
Domestic 0.210
Fruit canning 0.181
Kraft mill 0.108
Meat packing 0.216
Pharmaceutical 0.221
Potato processing 0.351
Refinery 0.059
Sugar processing 0.165
Synthetic dairy 0.170
Textile mill 0.107
154
Task - Design a high rate plastic media filter as a first stage aerobic treatment stage for a small town
with a cold drink factory which is putting effluent containing sugar solution to sewer. The mixture of
domestic sewage and effluent has a COD of 2 000 mg/l and a volume of 2000 kl/d. A COD of not more
than 700 mg/l is required for the feed to the secondary treatment stage.
Trickling Filter Volume

COD Load = 2000 x 2000/1000 = 4 000 kg/d
COD or BOD removal required = 100 – (700/2000) = 65%
Select a k20 value of 0,180 (mixture of domestic and sugar) from Table 7.1.1
Assume a temperature of 15°C
k = 0.180 (1.035)15-20 = 0.152
Select a filter depth of 6.0 m
ln 700/2000 = - 0.152 x 6.0/q0,5
q0,5 = 0.912/1.0498 = 0.8687
q = 0.9321 (l/m2.s) = 80.5 m3/m2.d
This is on the high side. A lower irrigation rate is desired bearing in mind that recirculation of about 1:1
is required at a COD of 2000 mg/l
Select a filter depth of 4.0 m
ln 700/2000 = - 0.152 x 4.0/ q0,5
q0,5 = 0.608/1.0498 = 0.5792
q = 0.761 (l/m2.s) = 65.8 m3/m2.d
With recycle of 1:1 the irrigation rate will fall within the permissible range
Filter area = 2 000/65.8 = 30.4 m2
Diameter = (30.4/π)0,5 x 2 = 6.22 m
Volume = 30.4 x 4.0 = 121.6 (say) 120 m3
155
8.2 BIOLOGICAL (TRICKLING) FILTERS
8.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Biological filtration (Trickling Filter) provides
a unit process for wastewater treatment
which does not require sophisticated
technology and has relatively low power
and operating costs. A biological filter
(Biofilter) normally treats wastewater which
has been settled in a primary sedimentation
tank (PST) or a septic tank, and comprises
a bed of media, which may be a granular
material such as crushed stone, or synthetic
packing media which may be either
stackable or contained within a structure.
FIGURE 8.1.1: Typical trickling filter
Settled sewage is sprayed or trickled over the top surface of the bed, through which it percolates. The
filter is aerated either by natural draft or by forced ventilation to provide oxygen to the purification process.
Slime containing a large number of organisms forms on the surface of the media. As the sewage flows
over this slime a series of complex bio-chemical reactions take place by which organic material is
removed from the sewage. The organisms require oxygen and this is obtained from the air circulating in
the filter bed. Hence maximum ventilation should be provided. The slime increases in thickness until
eventually portions break away and are carried out of the bed in the effluent. This material is known as
'humus' which has to be separated from the effluent in a sedimentation tank. The effluent which has
passed through the filter is directed to collector drains by slopes in the floor and conveyed to a secondary
sedimentation tank (Humus Tank) where the solids are settled out. The clarified effluent is either
discharged or partly recycled through the biofilter to improve performance.
8.2.2.1 General
Oxidation of organic matter is achieved by microorganisms living in the slime growing on the surface of
the media. The active quantity of this bio-mass determines the work done in a filter. For a given quantity
of bio-mass the performance of a filter will depend largely upon:
1. The amount of organic matter fed to the bio-mass (loading rate) .
2. The maintenance of an adequate oxygen supply.
156
3. The temperature.
8.2.2.2 Micro-Organisms
While filter performance has generally been related to filter volume, the quantity of micro-organisms
present is primarily dependent upon the surface area of the media in the filter. The specific surface area
varies considerably with the size and type of material used. Synthetic media tend to have higher specific
surface areas than stone and for this reason filters with plastic media can be loaded at higher rates. The
removal of organic load appears to be dependent upon the surface area of the bacterial slime available to
the liquid, and the surface area of the media is representative of this factor.
Thick films tend to clog the filter and promote the development of anaerobic layers adjacent to the media
surface, thus reducing the microbial efficiency. For a particular filter, maximum efficiency is achieved with
thin films. High hydraulic loadings assist to this end, provided the organic load is not unduly increased
thereby. This points to the reason why filters using high recirculation ratios usually perform significantly
better than filters without recirculation.
While a certain surface area of media may be provided in a filter, only that portion of it which is wetted by
the applied liquid can be utilised. For best performance, therefore, a filter should be fully wetted.
Therefore below a certain value, peculiar to the media used, a low rate of hydraulic loading may limit filter
performance.
Different types of bacteria undertake the oxidation of carbonaceous and nitrogeneous material.
Nitrification can only take place in the presence of appreciable concentrations of dissolved oxygen and
therefore only commences once a certain degree of carbonaceous oxidation has taken place. Nitrifying
bacteria thus appear in the lower levels in a filter or in the secondary stage and can be displaced by high
loadings on a filter.
8.2.2.3 Ventilation
Ventilation of the filter to convey oxygen to the bacteria is of prime importance. Filters up to 4 m deep
have been found to have adequate self-ventilation without openings at intermediate depths. It is important
that an unrestricted flow of air is provided throughout the filter and attention to the number and size of
ventilation ports is necessary.
Natural ventilation is affected by one or more of the following:

1. The elevated temperature of sewage causes the biofilter to be warmer than ambient and hence
provides a convective chimney-stack effect for air to move upward through the media.
2. Winds sweeping across the surface of a filter have a venturi suction effect which again tends to
move air upwards through the media.
157
3. The flush of water downward through the filter tends to drag air with it. This factor will of course
oppose the two previous effects and may at times predominate.
8.2.2.4 Temperature
As the metabolic rate of the bacteria is temperature-dependent, lower temperatures reduce the efficiency
of biofilters. The effect of temperature is not straightforward, and is more marked in nitrification than in
carbonaceous oxidation. For a 40 mm broken rock media it has been reported that the BOD removal
reduced from 94% to 89% for a drop in sewage temperature from 17°C to 9°C. At the same time the
ammonia removal was reduced from 70% to 15%. Filters with a lower organic loading are less susceptible
to temperature effects than those where the load is heavy in relation to specific surface area of media.
8.2.2.5 Void Ratio
Whether using granular or synthetic media the desire for high efficiency is likely to lead to the choice of
material of high specific area. However this has the consequence that void space is reduced, and with
granular material of 40 mm size and smaller, or fine plastic media it is possible, particularly with strong
wastewaters, for the bio-mass growth to be such that it blocks the path of the liquid through the media,
thus causing the filter to pond. Choice of media must therefore be a compromise between maximum
surface area and maximum void space.
High hydraulic loading such as the use of high recirculation ratios may assist in preventing ponding and in
increasing filter efficiency by removing excess bio-mass and maintaining a thin film on the media.
However, with strong wastewater it is generally necessary to select media with a high percentage of
voids.
8.2.2.6 Recirculation
Recirculation of effluent is a useful method of applying high hydraulic loads to filters, particularly where
strong sewages are being treated, thereby fully wetting the media surface and scouring the bio-mass.
Where high strength sewage is applied to a filter, recirculation may also result in denitrification, with the
release of nitrogen gas to the atmosphere. It was formerly accepted that recirculation ratios of about 0.25
to 0.5:1 were most suitable and recirculation ratios seldom reached or exceeded 1:1. More recent
experience has shown that recycle ratios of up to 3:1 often have significant benefits. If humus tank
effluent is recycled back to the biofilter the recycle ratio must be incorporated into the hydraulic design of
the humus tank which significantly increases tank size and costs. It is therefore most economical to
recycle biological filter effluent from upstream of the humus tank and add it to the feed after the PST.
8.2.2.7 Single and Double Stage Filtration
Previously double-stage filtration was used where single-stage filtration would not produce an effluent of
adequate quality. The term was normally applied to two stages of stone media filters and sometimes the
158
two stages were identical and capable of being alternated as first and second stage. One would choose
double filtration if excessive bed depths were required for single stage filters which could be a cause of
ventilation problems. With the more recent development of synthetic plastic media, which are capable of
being operated at high loadings, it is now more usual to specify two-stage filtration with a high rate plastic
media filter as the first stage.
In both these methods of operation, provided adequate volume of media is available, highly nitrated
effluents may be obtained. Where a wastewater of low alkalinity is to be treated (such as is common in
SA’s coastal regions) a corrosive effluent may result. This can be ameliorated to some extent by the use
of recirculation but in many plants the addition of lime to increase alkalinity is practiced. Where two-stage
or double filtration is used, intermediate humus removal is desirable but not essential.
8.2.3.1 Load Assessment
The load applied to a filter is the rate at which substrate or nutrient is applied to the bio-mass on the
media and may be expressed as the product of strength and volume. This is expressed as grams COD or
BOD per cubic metre per day based on ADWF.
8.2.3.2 Design Loadings
Table 8.2.1 below is a guide to loading rates for biological filters to provide an acceptable quality effluent,
based on the following conditions:
1. Winter conditions implying one month in which the monthly average sewage temperature is 15°C
2. Media is crushed rock of 40 mm to 63 mm size
3. Analysis is of composite samples
4. The COD of a composite sample of settled sewage taken at regular intervals through the day does
not exceed 750 mg/l
5. Recirculation of at least 1:1 is practised.
Higher temperature, smaller size stone (within limits) and lower strength sewage are all factors which may
permit higher loadings to be used. However, the higher the quality sought in the final effluent, the less this
latitude in loading becomes. It should be noted that wide variations in the performance of biological filters
at similar organic loading rates occur and that the values cited in Table 8.2.1 and Table 8.2.2 are only
indicative.
Loading rates for biological filters in areas not subjected to severe winter conditions, where for example
the minimum monthly average sewage temperature is 18°C or above, may be increased by between 25
to 40% of the figures given in the Table 8.2.1 above. Biofilters are not efficient in ammonia removal in
159
winter and even at these loadings may not comply with the DWAF General Authorisation limit for
ammonia
TABLE 8.2.1: Guide for loading rates of biological filters
Design Loading
Filter Depth and g/m3.d
Mode of Operation
COD N/NH4
2 M single 200 16
2 M double 250 20
4 M single 250 20
4 M double 350 30
8.2.3.3 Dosing Siphon and Tank
See Section 8.2.4.6.
8.2.3.4 Distributors
The distributor should be designed for the PWWF plus recirculation at the design ratio.
FIGURE 8.2.1: Schematic of a biological trickling filter (eWISA)
8.2.4 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
8.2.4.1 Granular Filter Media
The choice of media is generally limited by what is available locally. For maximum treatment per volume
of filter, hard strong media with a high specific surface should be selected provided the void ratio is not
160
unacceptably reduced. Specific surface areas and void ratios have not been measured in the past so that
performance in relation to these parameters is not readily available. The current parameters, which are
empirical, are the surface characteristics of the media and its size. It is thought that for a given size and a
given loading, a media with an irregular and rough surface will produce a better effluent than one with a
comparatively smooth regular surface.
The following nominal sizes are recommended in works where no special strength problems arise:
1. Single stage filtration : 50 or 63 mm
2. Double stage filtration - Primary Filter : 50 or 63 mm, Secondary filter: 40 mm
Uniformity of media has been stressed in the past. However, some small range of grading may be
permissible in giving additional media surface. Table 8.2.2 below, based upon British Standard
Specification 1438:1971 "Media for Biological Percolating Filters", is presented as a guide.
TABLE 8.2.2: Media for biological filters from BSA 1438:1971
Nominal size
BS 410 Square % by mass passing
Hole Perforated Plate test Sieves
63 mm 50 mm 40 mm
Passing 75 mm 100 - -
Passing 63 mm 85 -100 - -
Passing 50 mm 0 - 35 85 - 100 100
Passing 37.5 mm 0-5 0 - 30 85 - 00
Passing 28 mm - - 0 - 40
Passing 20 mm - - 0-5
Media should be substantially free of fine material, particularly clays, and organic matter.
8.2.4.2 Plastic Media
A number of proprietary makes of plastic media are on the market, the characteristics of which should be
ascertained from the manufacturers. These generally have a very high void ratio and therefore have less
of a tendency to pond when strong wastes are treated on them. The economics of the use of materials
should be carefully considered. Experience has indicated that effluent treated on plastic filter media will
not generally nitrify but the use of plastic media is well suited to high rate primary filters operated at high
loadings.
161
8.2.4.3 Filter Aeration
An important feature in the design of biological filters is the provision for adequate aeration. This can be
achieved by covering the filter floor with suitable aeration tiles, with provision for air to enter the tiles from
a central channel, inlet chambers or through holes in the filter wall. Vent pipes inside the filter in lieu of
holes in the wall are undesirable but can be useful in supplementing air supply.
8.2.4.4 Distributors
The distributor should be so designed as to distribute sewage evenly over the filter surface. Particular
care should be taken to ensure that the distributor rotates at all times when sewage is being applied. If
flow is liable to be variable or intermittent a dosing siphon should be used to achieve this end.
Reaction-driven distributors frequently operate with a rotational speed of 40 to 60 seconds per revolution,
but slower speeds in the range 75 to 300 seconds per revolution have been found in practice not to have
materially affected effluent quality. The materials used for the centre column, distributor arms, etc., should
be durable and non-corrodible.
8.2.4.5 Depth of Filter
Biological filter plants have the advantage of being able to operate without the use of electric or diesel
power. Thus, where possible, the design of the works should be based on gravity flow and this may
determine the depth of filter with 2 m depth being the minimum. However, deeper filters are more
economical as will be seen in Table 8.2.1 of design loading rates.
8.2.4.6 Dosing Siphon Tanks
Dosing siphon tanks accommodate the siphon which will generally be supplied with the distributor. The
siphon should be of a durable non-corrodible material. In cases where the initial daily flow is only a
fraction of the design ADWF, the retention time in the dosing tank may exceed the recommended one
hour. In such a case it would be necessary to provide a temporary wall within the tank to reduce the tank
volume.
8.2.4.7 Potential Corrosion
A high degree of nitrification in effluent with a low alkalinity may be the cause of severe corrosion. This
may be overcome by either providing for denitrification by recirculation, or by adding lime to raise the
alkalinity.

Task - Design a biofilter plant for a 10 Ml/d works treating a strong sewage with a COD of approximately
800 mg/l.
162
Process Selection
The wastewater is strong and would be unlikely to achieve suitable effluent quality in a single stage of
treatment. Therefore select a two stage biofiltration process with the first stage comprising a high rate
plastic media filter, and the second stage a stone media biofiltration process with recirculation.
Biological load
COD of wastewater = 800 mg/l
Assume ammonia (TKN) concentration of 12% of COD - Concentration = 96 mg/l
Assume 35% COD reduction through primary sedimentation – Settled COD = 520 mg/l
COD load = 10 x 520 = 5 200 kg/d
Ammonia load = 10 x 96 = 960 kg/d
High Rate Plastic Media Biofilter

Select COD loading of 4 kg COD/m3.d
Filter volume = 5200/4 = 1 300 m3
Select filter height of 6 m
Area of filter = 217 m2 - Diameter = 16.6 (say) 17.0 m
COD strength is low enough not to need recirculation
Check irrigation rate = 10000/217 = 46 m3/m2.d
This is over the recommended limit of 30 m3/m2.d so the filter area needs to be increased and the height
reduced.
Select filter height of 4 m
Area of filter = 325 m2 - Diameter = 20.3 (say) 20.0 m
Check irrigation rate = 10 000/325 = 30.7 m3/m2.d which is OK
Hence a single high rate filter of 20 m diameter and 4.0 m height without recirculation is specified
Low Rate Biofiltration

Assume 65% COD removal in high rate filter and no ammonia removal
COD load = 5 200 x 0.35 = 1 820 kg/d
Ammonia load = 960 kg/d
Select a COD loading of 250 g/m3.d and an ammonia loading of 20 g/m3.d for single stage filtration on 4
m deep filters from Table 7.2.1
Filter volume based on COD = 1 820 x 1 000/250 = 7 280 m3.
Filter volume based on ammonia = 960 x 1000/20 = 48 000 m3
Had the loadings for double filtration been selected, the filter volumes would have been 5 200 m3 on
COD, and 32 000 m3 on ammonia. Had the ammonia/COD ratio been assumed to be 10%, the filter
volume on ammonia would then have been 26 700 m3. For a sewage of normal strength (COD of
163
600 mg/l and 10% TKN) the filter volume would further reduce to 20 000 m3. Thus, depending on the
assumptions made, the biofilter volume can range between 20 000 and 48 000 m3 which has huge cost
implications and illustrates the extreme sensitivity of the biofilter process to the requirement for
nitrification. It also shows the dangers inherent in designing on COD load alone. In practice one would
probably put in four biofilters of 4 m depth with a total volume of about 25 000 m3 and even this would be
an expensive option. This would comprise four filters of 45 m diameter and 4.0 m depth.
164
8.3 ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORS (RBC)
8.3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC) belongs to the family of aerobic biological attached-growth (fixed
film) wastewater treatment systems. The RBC may also be referred to as a Rotating Disc Process,
Rotating Biological Filter and Rotating Biological Surfaces.
FIGURE 8.3.1: Rotating bio contactor
The RBC is in effect an oxygen mass transfer device and generally consists of a large number of circular
discs spaced uniformly along the length of a shaft. The shaft is mounted across a trough above water
level such that approximately 40% of the disc area is submerged in the wastewater to be treated. The
discs are usually between 1 and 3.5 m in diameter and are manufactured of a material, or in a manner,
which gives a large surface area to void ratio. The contactor or rotor is rotated at between 1 to 5 rpm.
A biomass film 1 to 4 mm thick develops on the discs. As the contactor rotates, a film of wastewater
attaches to the biofilm and is carried through the air resulting in aeration of bio-film and wastewater, and
biological breakdown of the compounds in the wastewater thereby reducing COD and ammonia. Shearing
forces eventually cause excess biomass to be stripped intermittently from the rotating discs. To produce a
clear effluent the sloughed biomass is removed in a sedimentation tank, and the final effluent is
chlorinated.
165
RBCs are usually supplied in standard sizes with fixed surface area to trough volume for each particular
disc diameter, and are ideally suited to small plants treating domestic sewage. In general RBCs are used
in conjunction with septic tanks, in which case the latter precedes the RBC. RBCs are generally used to
treat settled sewage either from septic tanks, or from primary sedimentation tanks (PST’s), and may also
be used in conjunction with pond systems.
8.3.2.1 RBC with Septic Tank
When an RBC is used in conjunction with a septic tank, the septic tank and RBC form a unit and the
operation of the former has an effect on the performance of the latter. Some proprietary designs are
offered which incorporate the RBC unit into a single structure together with the septic and final
sedimentation tanks. For control purposes it is considered preferable if the septic tank is physically
separated from the RBC. Each process unit should then be considered individually, as well as in
combination.
The septic tank serves to remove, retain and partially stabilise floatable and settleable solids introduced
with the raw sewage and humus sludge. The latter is removed from the RBC effluent in the final
sedimentation tank, and is normally returned to the septic tank. The return of humus sludge may result in
limited denitrification. This can be further stimulated by recycling of the effluent from the final
sedimentation tank to the septic tank by increasing the underflow rate, and also generally improves the
treatment efficiency. If sufficiently conservatively designed the effluent after chlorination generally
complies with the General Authorisation limits.
8.3.2.2 Effect of Influent Substrate Concentration and Flow Rate on RBC

Performance
RBC’s are more sensitive to load than most other processes. For a fixed influent substrate concentration
the effluent substrate concentration increases almost linearly with increases in flow rate while the percen-
tage substrate removal decreases accordingly.
For a fixed flow rate the effluent substrate concentration will increase almost linearly with an increase in
influent substrate concentration. At low flow rates the percentage substrate removal is relatively
independent of the substrate concentration but at high flow rates the percentage substrate removal
decreases as the influent substrate concentration increases.
Because of this linearity between flow rate and effluent substrate concentration the term 'hydraulic
loading', defined as the influent flow rate divided by the total wetted contactor surface area, has been
used for the design of RBC’s as well as the more usual BOD or COD loadings.
166
8.3.3 DESIGN BASIS
8.3.3.1 Septic Tank
The sizing of septic tanks is usually based on the frequency of de-sludging and the daily per-capita
contribution. For an RBC system the size of septic tank should be calculated similarly. As for normal
septic tanks, a minimum retention period of 24 hours at ADWF should be allowed for in the septic tank
excluding the sludge and scum accumulated.
The septic tank should be designed according to the criteria given in the relevant section of this manual
(Chapter 4).
8.3.3.2 RBC Rotors
The RBC rotors can be designed on hydraulic loading but this assumes an average COD or BOD
concentration in the sewage feed. As the biological loading (COD and ammonia) is limiting it is preferable
to size the units on a biological loading basis.
8.3.3.3 Humus Tank
The sludge settles at similar rates to other fixed film processes and the design criteria given in the
relevant section of this manual are applicable.
8.3.3.4 RBC Design
Organic loading is the primary design parameter for the RBC process. This is generally expressed as the
organic loading per unit of media surface area per unit of time, (kg COD per m2 of disc area per day).
Wastewater temperatures above 14°C have minimal affect on organic removal and nitrification rates.
However, below 14°C various correction factors must be utilised to determine the needed additional
media surface area.
In determining design loading rates on RBC's, the following parameters are relevant:
1. Design flow rates and primary wastewater constituents
2. Total influent COD concentration
3. Soluble influent COD concentration
4. Percentage of total and soluble COD to be removed
5. Wastewater temperature
6. Primary effluent dissolved oxygen
7. Media arrangement, number of stages and surface area of media in each stage
8. Rotational velocity of the media
9. Retention time within the RBC tank(s)
10. Influent sulphide concentrations
167
11. Peak loading.
In addition to the above parameters, loading rates for nitrification will depend upon influent DO
concentration, influent ammonia nitrogen concentration and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), diurnal load
variations, pH and alkalinity, and the allowable effluent ammonia nitrogen concentration.
8.3.3.5 Loading Rates
When the peak to average flow ratio is 2.5 to 1.0 or less, average conditions can be considered for design
purposes. For higher flow ratios, flow and load equalisation should be considered. For average conditions
the allowable design loading should not exceed 30 g COD per m2 (some criteria allow as high as
100 g COD per m2) of disc media surface per day on the first stage shaft(s) of any treatment train. High
density media (closely spaced discs) should not be used for the first stage RBC's.
For peak conditions, the design loading shall not exceed 24 g COD per m2 of disc media surface per day
for the first high density media shaft(s) encountered after the first two shafts or rows of shafts in a
treatment train.
For average conditions for complete nitrification the overall system loading shall not exceed 6 g of soluble
COD per m2 of disc media surface per day (or say 10 g of total COD per m2 of disc media surface per
day). This soluble (filtered) COD loading to all shafts should be used to determine the total number of
shafts required.
Note:
1. The above criteria are based on US practice and local experience in meeting the General
Authorisation limit for ammonia. UK criteria allow up to 14 g COD per m2 of disc media surface per
day. As disc area is expensive one can design at loadings slightly above 10 g of total COD per m2 of
disc media surface per day using the UK criteria but in such a case conservative sizing of the septic
tank is recommended and provision should be made for recycle of secondary effluent for balancing
peaks and for denitrification.
2. For domestic sewage the criteria of 10 g of total COD per m2 of disc media surface per day is
roughly equivalent to the alternative criteria recommendation of 1 g ammonia per m2 of disc media
surface per day.
8.3.3.6 Effect of Staging
The arranging of discs in a series of stages has been shown to increase treatment efficiency significantly.
Different microbial biomass develops in each successive stage, adapted to the changed composition
resulting from successive stages of treatment. Carbonaceous oxidation of biodegradable COD occurs at
the initial stages followed by nitrification in the latter stages.
168
The RBC process exhibits, within limits, first order kinetics. The improved residence time distribution
obtained with staging increases the substrate removal rate. When more than two stages are provided the
required wetted area could be slightly reduced as shown in the Table 8.3.1 below:
TABLE 8.3.1: Reduction in wetted area of RBC when using more than two stages
No. of Stages Correction Factor
3 0.95
4 0.90
More than 4 0.86
8.3.3.7 Effect of Population, Size and Flow Variation
The design relationships given above have been determined for steady state conditions. If a pre-
determined constant quality effluent is required (such as the General Authorisation limits) provision
should be made either to balance the flow and the load by suitable recycling or a correction factor should
be used for sizing the RBC. Suggested correction factors used for domestic sewage are given in Table
8.3.2 below:
TABLE 8.3.2: Suggested correction factors for design of RBC’s for domestic sewage
Population Correction Factor
400 1.3
400-1500 1.3 to 1.1
1500-5000 1.1 to 1.0
Note:
Because of the balancing effect of septic tanks these factors should be used with circumspection on
properly designed septic tank/RBC systems.
8.3.3.8 Effect of Temperature
The temperature of sewage has little effect on RBC performance between 14°C and 30°C. A correction
factor for cold areas could be used as shown in Table 8.3.3 below.
169
TABLE 8.3.3: Suggested correction factors for design of RBC’s for domestic sewage (cold areas).
Temperature °C Correction Factor
14 1.00
12 1.05
10 1.15
8 1.30
6 1.40
8.3.3.9 Effect of Rotational Speed
The rotational speed is one of the few variables the designer can control. When this is increased, the
percentage substrate removal increases up to a limiting value determined by the particular RBC under
consideration. It has been reported that the percentage substrate removal increases with the rotational
speed raised to the 0.1 power, while the corresponding power required to rotate the contactors increases
at an exponential rate. As it is difficult to find a common basis for comparing the effect of different
rotational speeds on different diameter contactors, almost all RBC process studies have attempted to
maintain speeds of between 1 and 5 rpm, with little improvement noted at higher speeds.
8.3.3.10 Empirical Design Formula
The design parameters given above will enable an efficient design to be achieved. As a design check, the
following formula should ensure that a septic tank/RBC system treating domestic sewage will produce a
satisfactory effluent:
Disc area per capita = 7 m2 per person.
8.3.3.11 Recycling
Denitrification is often required to ensure complete nitrification, particularly on the Eastern and Southern
Coastal seaboards and elsewhere where the potable water is of low alkalinity. With a septic tank/RBC
system this may be achieved by recycling from the humus tank using the underflow line at about 0.5:1
through the septic tank with the recycle pump being controlled by a 24 hour timer. Suitable programming
also assists in reducing peak load factors on the RBC discs.
8.3.3.12 Practical Considerations
A simple inlet works as described should be provided on larger installations although grit removal is not
essential with septic tanks.
170
Extended power failures may cause drying of exposed sections of the discs resulting in an imbalance. On
subsequent start-up this may cause excessive torque resulting in gear stripping. Mechanical and
electrical equipment should be sized accordingly.
RBC’s are relatively capital intensive and are therefore more suited to steady sewage flow situations.

Task - Design an RBC plant for a housing estate with a projected population of 1 000 persons with an
effluent to comply with General Authorisation limits
Load Estimation
Assume a per capita contribution of 200 l/person per day (Chapter 2.3)
Volume of wastewater = 1 000 x 0.2 = 200 kl/d
Assume a per capita COD contribution of 130 g COD/person per day (Chapter 2.4)
COD load = 1 000 x 130/1 000 = 130 kg/d
Assume an ammonia content of 10% of COD (ex Table 2.2.1)
Ammonia load = 130 x 10/100 = 13 kg/d
Process Selection
Select a process comprising a septic tank followed by the RBC rotors, followed in turn by a sedimentation
(humus) tank to settle out humus solids. Humus tank underflow to be returned to the septic tank, together
with additional effluent recycle for denitrification and flow balancing purposes.
Septic tank Sizing

Using the formula given in Section 4.1.3.2 and allowing for 6 months intervals between desludging of the
septic tank the septic tank volume is given by
V = 1 000(0.2 + 0.1 x [0.5]0,5) = 270 m3
Select a two compartment tank with the first compartment twice the volume of the second compartment
and a depth of 2,2 m.
Tank dimensions = 19.2 x 6.4 x 2.2 with first compartment = 12.8 x 6.4 x 2.2 and second compartment
= 6.4 x 6.4 x 2.2
The tank should be fitted with the normal appurtenances as set out in Section 4.1.4
RBC Sizing
Assume 35% COD Reduction through septic tank
COD load onto RBC = 130 x 0.65 = 85 kg/d
Ammonia load = 13 kg/d
171
Select COD loading of 10 g/m2 of disc per day
Select ammonia loading of 1 g/m2 of disc per day
Disc area calculated on COD = 85 x 1 000/10 = 8 500 m2
Disc area calculated on ammonia = 13 x 1 000/1 = 13 000 m2
As is the case for biological filters the ammonia oxidation criteria are more stringent and result in a larger
plant. With effective recycling and warm winters it might be possible to specify a 10 000 m2 plant, but for
climates with cold winter temperatures the larger plant is safer.
Selecting 3 m discs - surface area per disc = π x 32/4 x 2 = 14 m2
Number of discs = 13 000/14 = 929 discs
One would probably specify 4 rotors with 240 discs or 6 rotors with 150 discs
Sizing of Humus Tank

Assuming that the peak flow reduces through the septic tank and rotor banks to a factor of less than 2,0 it
will be safe to size on average flow.
Select a surface loading (upflow rate) of 1.0 m/h on average flow (Section 6.1.4.10)
Tank area = (200/24)/1.0 = 8.33 m2
Tank diameter = 2 x (8.33/π)0,5 = 3.26 (say) 3.3 m
The tank should be set out according to the provisions of Section 6.1.4
172
8.4 SUBMERGED MEDIA REACTORS
8.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Submerged media reactors are fixed film reactors where the support media are submerged in the effluent
being treated and oxygen to the biofilms on the support media is supplied by aeration of the tank
contents. The process can be applicable on large or small scale plants, but in this country is most widely
used in package plants for small scale applications. The process provides a secondary aerobic treatment
stage for sewage which has been pre-settled in a sedimentation tank, or on small plants more usually in a
septic tank.
The effluent from the settling tank or septic tank is then conveyed to the aerobic reactor(s). The reactor is
either an upflow or downflow (co- or countercurrent to the air) unit with submerged fixed media which is
designed for a specific residence time, circulation rate, and biological loading. Air is introduced via coarse
or fine bubble diffusers, or eductors or venturis to maintain a sufficient oxygen level in the reactor. The
media may be either of the stackable self-supporting type or proprietary random pack rings.
The beds of media, onto which the biofilm

adheres, create an environment which
facilitates contact between the biomass and the
carbonaceous material, and has a high
tolerance to shock loads. Most suppliers claim
a higher biomass per unit volume than from
activated sludge but this is not always
supported by the literature where the published
figures for both types of plant are similar.
The reactor(s) are then followed by a settling or

humus tank to settle out solids sloughed off the
media, and the final effluent is then usually
disinfected and discharged.
FIGURE 8.4.1: Typical submerged media reactor
8.4.2 DESIGN
The package type plants are usually constructed using standard sized HDPE tanks or similar. This is not
favoured for the septic tank anaerobic stage where a single two-compartment concrete tank is preferred
to a multiplicity of smaller plastic tanks. However for single house or very small housing complexes a
design compromise may be necessary.
173
For the aerobic stage a plant with two or three plastic tanks or compartments may in fact be preferable.
There is evidence in the literature that nitrification organisms only establish in the biological slimes
attached to the media when the COD has been reduced to less than about 50 mg/l. As the carbonaceous
organisms predominate in the early stages of treatment, the provision of a three stage plant with the third
tank adapted to nitrifiers has significant benefits as regards effluent quality. Two lightly loaded tanks can
work satisfactorily, but single aerated media tanks are often unsuccessful. Again however, for very small
(single house) installations, a design compromise may be necessary.
The package plants are also fortuitously often designed with side stream venturis to draw in air to
swimming pool type recycle pumps. Thus when supplying air to the reactors, one is also introducing a
recycle stream that recycles the contents of a particular tank twice or three times per hour. This has
significant process benefits. For larger plants or tanks a suitable blower with coarse or medium bubble
diffusers is recommended together with a pumped recycle. As the tanks are seldom very deep the
transfer efficiencies are low. For design purposes it is recommended that an oxygen transfer efficiency of
no more than 3 to 4% be used with the usual estimation of oxygen requirements.
There is very little published information on design loadings for plants of this type. However, reasonably
good design criteria can be obtained from other fixed film processes. A COD loading of about 4 to
6 g COD/m2.d and an ammonia loading of not more than 1 g/m2.d are recommended. For typical media
with a specific surface area of 110 m2/m3, this relates to a COD load of 450 to 650 g COD/m3.d, and an
ammonia load of 100 g/m3.d.
The humus tank should be sized according to normal criteria. The sludge yield from this process is about
0.15 to 0.2 kg ds./kg COD. The underflow from the humus tank should be sized for about 0.5:1 relative to
feed and operated on a timer control to recycle effluent back to the septic tank. This assists in balancing
peak flows and loads and stimulates denitrification which assists in conservation of alkalinity.
Monitoring of a number of plants has shown that plants sized to the above criteria with suitably set
recycles will usually meet the South African COD and ammonia discharge standards.
174
CHAPTER 9
9. SLUDGE TREATMENT
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In a wastewater works there may be several types of sludges, depending on the processes selected. The
type of sludge and its characteristics play a large part in determining the type of treatment, dewatering,
and disposal.
9.1.1 TYPES OF SLUDGE

The following types of sludge are most likely to be encountered through the processes discussed in this
manual.
1. Septic tank sludge which comprises the accumulated solids settled out from the sewage over an
extended period of time (6 months up to about 5 years). The sludge is partially stabilised but is not fit
for drying beds or land application under normal circumstances. It can be composted but is usually
tankered away from small plants and disposed at large plants.
2. Primary Sludge which comprises the solids settled out of sewage in primary sedimentation tanks. It is
usually anaerobically digested but can be aerobically digested (not considered in this manual), or
heat treated (also not covered) or composted. It is sometimes dewatered and either incinerated or
taken to landfill.
3. Humus Sludge which comprises the biological solids or slimes sloughed off the media in a fixed film
process (biological filter, RBC, or submerged media reactor). On small plants it is usually fed back to
the septic tank, and on larger plants is combined with the primary sludge for combined treatment
4. Waste Activated Sludge is produced in the activated sludge process. It is low in energy and does not
digest well, although this is sometimes attempted. On small plants it is usually run to drying beds for
dewatering or occasionally to sludge lagoons. On larger plants it may be dewatered using dissolved
air flotation (DAF) or linear screens, belt presses or centrifuges.
175
9.2 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
9.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Treatment of sludge is an important part of the overall sewage treatment process and includes the
treatment of both primary sludges, which are produced during settlement of raw sewage; and secondary
sludges, which are derived from the settlement of humus sludge from biofilters or waste activated sludge.
There are a number of options available for sludge treatment, one of which is anaerobic digestion and
which is discussed in this section. Ultimately, the choice of treatment will depend on a number of factors
such as the volume of sludge to be treated, complexity of the plant, availability of land for disposal and
cost implications.
Since the mid 1990s most of the South Africa laws and regulations concerning the environment, potable
water and wastewater have been replaced or updated and this has impacted on the legal requirements
pertaining to wastewater sludge disposal. The Guidelines for the Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater
Sludges (WRC TT 261/06) should be consulted before undertaking the design of any sludge treatment
process. These documents can be obtained from the Water Research Commission, Pretoria.
9.2.2 SLUDGE THICKENERS

As the first step of sludge handling and digestion, the need for sludge thickeners to reduce the volume of
sludge should be considered.
The use of thickeners is advisable on works where thin sludges (<2% to 4%) are generated by the
primary sedimentation tanks (PST’s) or where automatic timed desludging of the PST’s is planned.
Gravity thickeners are then used to produce a thickened sludge of 5% to 7%, which limits the heat
requirements for the primary digester and increases the effective retention time.
,Particular attention should be given to the pumping and piping of the concentrated sludge when
considering and designing thickeners. Sludge retention should be limited to avoid premature possible
onset of anaerobic conditions in sewage sludge. Sewage sludge should be thickened to at least 5% solids
prior to transmission to digesters.
176
9.2.3 ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Sewage sludge may be rendered less noxious
by anaerobic or aerobic digestion under
controlled conditions. Anaerobic digestion is
by far the most common as it can be very
simple in concept with low specific power
requirements, and also has a much longer
history of use. If properly designed and
operated this process should produce a
stable, non-objectionable material unattractive
to house flies, and will also effect a reduction
in the solids content of the sludge.
FIGURE 9.2.1: Typical anaerobic digester (eWISA)
Digestion renders the sludge suitable for drying and (subject to usage restrictions) also suitable for
subsequent use as a fertiliser or soil conditioner.
The anaerobic digestion process consists of two distinct steps which are mutually dependent:
(i) In the absence of oxygen and given sufficient storage time, complex organic compounds are
decomposed by enzymes and micro-organisms to simpler and smaller organic compounds, and fatty-acid
forming bacteria convert these to volatile acids such as acetic, propionic and butyric acids
(ii) Given further storage and reaction time, these acids are then converted by methane-forming bacteria
to stable organic forms, with carbon dioxide and methane being liberated.
The process if operated correctly produces both fully oxidised and fully reduced carbon compounds. It is
slightly exothermic and very little sludge is metabolised. The sludge resulting from the process will have
been stabilised so that it is no longer putrefactive although approximately 60% of the volatile solids will
remain.
Greater efficiency can be obtained by heating the digester contents, but this is seldom practiced in small
works which are operated at ambient temperatures. There are in fact three regimes for anaerobic
digestion :
(i) Cold digestion which occurs at ambient temperatures
(ii) Mesophillic digestion where the sludge is heated to about 35 ºC (blood heat)
(iii) Thermophillic digestion where the sludge in the tanks is held at about 55 ºC.
As the temperature increases the required retention time diminishes through increased reacton rate, and
the digestion efficiency improves. Thermophillic sludge is also effectively pathogen-free.
177
The reaction rate is also increased by mixing in the digestion tank to ensure that raw sludge which is fed
to the digester is brought into good contact with the actively digesting sludge, so that it is contacted by the
active bacteria and micro-organisms.
The concentration of the raw sludge which is fed to a digester is an important factor. If the sludge is too
watery, i.e. the solids concentration is low, the effect will be to reduce the effective solids retention time in
the digester and a loss of efficiency will result. Also the heat requirements for thermophillic or mesophillic
operation will become excessive.
Sludge digestion can be divided into two phases. The function of the primary phase of digestion is to
advance the acid and methane phases as far as possible, while that of the second phase is to enable the
remainder of the process to be completed, but more importantly to allow for the remaining solids to be
concentrated. Smaller works generally combine both phases in a single digester.
Three distinct zones can generally be distinguished in a normal unmixed operating digester:
1. The lower zone of concentrated solids which may also contain grit passing the detritors.
2. A central zone of supernatant liquor which is relatively free of solid matter (the so-called middle third)
3. A layer of scum on the surface.
If two stage digestion is employed, active fermentation and mixing will occur in the primary digester. The
three zones [1 to 3 above] are then more clearly defined in the secondary stage and allow for a denser
sludge to be withdrawn from the secondary digester. For smaller works, however, the use of two-stage
digestion is usually not economical.
Concentrated sludge from the lower zone (from the single stage or second digester as appropriate) is
withdrawn to the dewatering stage. It is good practice to remove sludge from the bottom of the cone to try
to avoid blockages caused by grit. The supernatant liquor is also separately withdrawn and returned to
the inlet works, downstream of the flow recorder.
The scum layer presents difficulties as it is not easily removed, but if left in place, becomes thicker and
thicker and eventually occupies too much of the digester volume and needs to be cleaned out.
Cold and mesophillic anaerobic digestion destroy viruses and pathogens significantly but do not destroy a
large proportion of Ascaris ova which remain and can be viable in soil for up to two years. However this is
not a problem with thermophillic digestion.
The anaerobic digestion of organic matter results in the generation of large quantities of methane which
has a high calorific value and as such has the potential for power generation, heating and incineration. In
178
small works methane is seldom made use of but larger works normally use the methane gas to heat the
sludge entering the mesophillic digesters.
Thermophillic digesters are seldom used in practice as they have high energy requirements
(approximately double that of mesophillic digestion) which often results in negative energy balances and
a need for supplementary fuel for heating. The heat losses can be substantial so that lagging of the
surfaces is usually necessary. Thermophillic digestion also results in a greater degree of solubilisation
into the sludge liquor (SNL) which becomes very strong and difficult to treat.
9.2.4 DESIGN OF UNHEATED SINGLE STAGE DIGESTION
9.2.4.1 Population Basis
For sedimentation tanks yielding raw sludge of 5% solids and greater, followed by single stage digestion,
the required digester volume is:
Cold unmixed digestion - 160 litres per capita

Cold mixed digestion - 100 litres per capita
Satisfactory mixing means that the tank contents are adequately turned over within 6 to 8 hours.
The above figures provide for humus sludge but do not provide for waste activated sludge. If 5% sludge
solids concentration in the raw sludge cannot be achieved, the above figures should be increased
volumetrically pro rata.
9.2.4.2 Hydraulic Residence Period Basis
The digester volume may also be calculated on a sludge loading basis. The daily sludge volume may be
estimated at 0.5% to 1.5% of the average daily wastewater flow (ADWF). This will have a sludge solids
concentration of between 2% and 5%.
Alternatively, and preferably, the sludge volume may be estimated by calculation from the suspended
solids removal by primary sedimentation. Suspended solids removal generally ranges between 200 mg/l
and 400 mg/l with the lower figure applicable to weaker or dilute wastewaters (relatively low COD) and
the higher figure being used for stronger wastewaters. For design purposes knowledge of the wastewater
strength or at least the demographics of the works catchment area is therefore necessary.
The sludge volume is then calculated from the estimated sludge concentration. Plants with sludge
thickeners will produce thick sludges (typically 5% to 7%). Plants with Dortmund type tanks or tanks with
179
large sludge hoppers for consolidation will produce sludges of approximately 4% to 5.5%, and tanks with
rotating bridge scrapers will give sludges of 2% to 4%.
Digester Volume
Unheated digestion with no mechanical mixing - 80 days sludge retention
Unheated digestion with satisfactory mixing - 50 days sludge retention.
9.2.4.3 Mixing
As mentioned above satisfactory mixing entails turning over the digester contents every 6 to 8 hours.
Taking a digester of 2000 m3 as an example this would imply the use of a circulating mixing pump of 250
to 330 m3/h capacity (70 to 90 l/s).
Alternatively using a mixing energy input of about 7 W/m3 for the same digester would necessitate the use
of a 14 kW mixer or the use of a pump drawing about the same energy.
9.2.5 DESIGN OF HEATED (MESOPHILIC) DIGESTION

The total digestion tank capacity should ideally be determined by rational calculations based upon such
factors as volume of sludge added, its percent solids and character, the temperature to be maintained in
the digesters, the degree of extent of mixing to be obtained, and the degree of volatile solids reduction
required.
As a guide, the minimum combined digestion tank capacity outlined below will be required. Such
requirements assume that the raw sludge is derived from ordinary domestic wastewater, that a digestion
temperature is to be maintained in the range of 33 ºC to 37 ºC, that 40% or more of the volatile matter will
be removed from the raw sludge, and that the digested sludge will be removed frequently from the
system.
The sizing of digesters rests on two aspects. Firstly, the retention time is important as the methane
forming organisms are slow to establish and the kinetics of the breakdown reactions of the volatile
compounds in the digesters are slow.
Secondly, the volatile solids-loading is of importance. Primary sludge normally has a volatile solids
content of 75% to 85% so that typically about 80% of the raw sludge solids are used to calculate the
loading on the digester. A very thick sludge can feasibly have an excessive solids loading even though
the retention time is more than adequate. In such cases gas production is usually more than sufficient for
heating but good mixing is difficult to achieve. Conversely a thin sludge will tend to have low volatile
solids loadings. In such cases even if the retention is designed to be adequate, the specific gas
180
production per unit volume of digester will be low and there may not be enough gas for heating up to 35º
C. Mixing will be easily achieved but there will be excessive water requiring to be heated and large
volumes of supernatant liquor (SNL).
9.2.5.1 Sizing on Retention Time
For mesophillic well-mixed digestion, various design criteria give recommended retention times of 15 to
25 days for the primary tanks.
9.2.5.2 Sizing on Volatile solids loading
Completely-mixed systems will provide for intimate and effective mixing to prevent stratification and to
assure homogeneity of digester contents. The system may be loaded at a rate of between 1.6 and 3.2 kg
volatile solids/m3.d in the active digestion units [primary digester(s)] . When grit removal facilities are not
satisfactory, the reduction of digester volume due to grit accumulation should be considered. (Complete
mixing can be accomplished only with substantial energy input.)
If the digester is sized correctly on hydraulic retention and a check on volatile solids loading gives a
loading of less than 1.3 kg volatile solids/m3.d, then the provision of sludge thickening before primary
digestion should be strongly considered.
9.2.5.3 Moderately-Mixed Systems
For digestion systems where mixing is accomplished only by circulating sludge through an external heat
exchanger, the system may be loaded at a rate up to 0.6 to 1.0 kg volatile solids/m3.d in the primary
digester(s). This loading may be modified upward or downward depending upon the degree of mixing
provided.
9.2.5.4 Mixing
The provision of mixing as in Section 9.2.4.3 is applicable.
9.2.5.5 Secondary Digesters
Secondary digesters of volume 35% to 50% of that of the primary digesters should be provided for
supernatant liquor (SNL) separation and decantation. Sludge from the secondary digesters will be
discharged to the dewatering plant (usually drying beds).
9.2.5.6 Gas production
Stable digestion normally produces digester gas containing about 65% methane and 35% carbon dioxide
at a rate of 0.8 to 1.0 m3/kg volatile solids destroyed. The gas has a calorific value of 20 to 25 MJ/m3.
Good digestion normally reduces the volatile solids content by about 40% to 55%. With knowledge of the
181
proposed installation it should be possible to check if the heat balance is favourable by estimating heating
requirements and losses, and heating efficiencies.
9.2.5.7 Heating Requirements
Assuming for practical purposes that 1 kg of sludge has a volume of 1 litre and has the same heat
capacity as water, then 1 litre of sludge will require 4.2 kJ/ºC rise in temperature (1 kl of sludge will
require 4.2 MJ/ºC). It is therefore readily possible to calculate the heat requirements for raising the sludge
temperature to 35ºC.
The heat losses should be based on heat transfer coefficients for the various materials, their thicknesses,
and the mean temperature differences and should be within the scope of most chemical engineers.
However for rough heat balance calculations it may be adequate to assume that heat losses add an extra
35% to 45% to the requirements for sludge heating. Higher losses may be applicable in colder climates,
or where the installation is poorly insulated.
9.2.6 GENERAL ANAEROBIC DIGESTION DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS
9.2.6.1 Multiple Units
Multiple tanks are recommended. Where a single digestion tank is used, an alternate method of sludge
processing or emergency storage to maintain continuity of service should be considered.
9.2.6.2 Depth
For those units proposed to serve as supernatant separation tanks, the depth should be sufficient to allow
for the formation of a reasonable depth of supernatant liquor. A minimum side-water depth of 6 m is
recommended on adequately sized plants. On smaller plants, tanks should be made as deep as is
possible taking into consideration the geometric factors.
9.2.6.3 Maintenance Provisions
To facilitate draining, cleaning, and maintenance, the following features are desirable:
1. Slope: The tank bottom should slope to drain toward the withdrawal pipe. For tanks equipped with a
suction mechanism for withdrawal of sludge, a bottom slope not less than 1:12 is recommended.
Where the sludge is to be removed by gravity alone a 1:4 slope is recommended.
2. Access Manholes: At least two 900 mm diameter access manholes should be provided in the top of
the tank in addition to the gas dome. There should be stairways to the access manholes.
3. Sludge Inlets and Outlets: Multiple recirculation withdrawal and return points, to enhance flexible
operation and effective mixing, should be provided, unless mixing facilities are incorporated within the
182
digester. The returns, in order to assist in scum breakup, should discharge above the liquid level and
be located near the centre of the tank. Raw sludge discharge to the digester should be through the
sludge heater and recirculation return piping if heated digestion is used, or directly to the tank if
internal mixing facilities are provided. Sludge withdrawal to disposal should be from the bottom of the
tank. This pipe should be interconnected with the recirculation piping to increase versatility in mixing
the tank contents, if such piping is provided. An unvalved vented emergency overflow should be
provided to prevent damage to the digestion tank and cover in case of accidental overfilling. This
overflow shall be piped to an appropriate point and at an appropriate rate in the treatment process to
minimise the impact on process units.
9.2.6.4 Gas Collection, Piping, and Appurtenances
The entire gas system should be designed so that under all normal operating conditions, including sludge
withdrawal, the gas will be maintained under positive pressure. All enclosed areas where any gas leakage
might occur should be adequately ventilated.
9.2.6.5 Safety Equipment
All necessary safety facilities should be included where gas is produced. Pressure and vacuum relief
valves and flame traps, together with automatic safety shut-off valves, should be provided. Gas safety
equipment and gas compressors should be housed in a separate room with an exterior entrance.
9.2.6.6 Gas Piping and Condensate
Gas piping shall be of adequate diameter and shall slope to condensate traps at low points.
9.2.6.7 Gas Utilisation Equipment
Gas-fired boilers for heating digesters shall be located in a separate room not connected to the digester
gallery. Such separate rooms would not ordinarily be classified as a hazardous location. Gas lines to
these units shall be provided with suitable flame traps.
9.2.6.8 Electrical Fixtures
Electrical fixtures and controls, in places enclosing anaerobic digestion appurtenances, where hazardous
gases are normally contained in the tanks and piping, shall comply with relevant safety provisions.
Digester galleries should be isolated from normal operating areas to avoid an extension of the hazardous
location.
9.2.6.9 Waste Gas
Waste gas burners shall be readily accessible and should be located at least 15 m away from any plant
structure if placed at ground level, or may be located on the roof of the control building if sufficiently
removed from the tank. All waste gas burners shall be equipped with automatic ignition, such as pilot light
183
or a device using a photoelectric cell sensor. Consideration should be given to the use of natural or
propane gas to insure reliability of the pilot light. In remote locations it may be permissible to discharge
the gas to the atmosphere through a return-bend screened vent terminating at least 4.0 m above the
ground surface, provided that the assembly incorporates a flame trap.
9.2.6.10 Ventilation
Any underground enclosures connecting with digestion tanks or containing sludge or gas piping or
equipment shall be provided with forced ventilation. The piping gallery for digesters should not be
connected to other passages. Where used, tightly fitting, self-closing doors should be provided at
connecting passageways and tunnels to minimise the spread of gas.
9.2.6.11 Meter Requirements
A gas meter with bypass should be provided to meter total gas production.
9.2.6.12 Digester Heating
Wherever possible, digestion tanks should be suitably insulated to minimise heat loss.
9.2.6.13 External Heating
Piping shall be designed to provide for the preheating of feed sludge before introduction to the digesters.
Provisions shall be made in the layout of the piping and valving to facilitate cleaning of these lines. Heat
exchanger sludge piping should be sized for heat transfer requirements.
9.2.6.14 Heating Capacity
Heating capacity sufficient to consistently maintain the design sludge temperature should be provided.
Where digester gas is used for sludge heating, an auxiliary fuel supply should be provided.
9.2.6.15 Hot Water Internal Heating Controls
A suitable automatic mixing valve shall be provided to temper the boiler water with return water so that
the inlet water to the heat jacket can be held below a temperature at which caking will be accentuated.
Manual control should also be provided by suitable bypass valves.
9.2.6.16 Boiler Controls
The boiler should be provided with suitable automatic controls to maintain the boiler temperature at
approximately 80 ºC to minimise corrosion and to shut off the main gas supply in the event of pilot burner
or electrical failure, low boiler water level, low gas pressure, or excessive boiler water temperature or
pressure.
184
9.2.6.17 Thermometers
Thermometers should be provided to show temperatures of the sludge, hot water feed, hot water return,
and boiler water.
9.2.6.18 Supernatant Withdrawal
Piping Size:
Supernatant piping should not be less than 150 mm in diameter.
Withdrawal Arrangements:
Piping should be arranged so that withdrawal can be made from three or more levels in the digester. A
positive unvalved vented overflow should also be provided.
Sampling:
Provisions should be made for sampling at each supernatant draw-off level. Sampling pipes should be at
least 37 mm in diameter, and should terminate at a suitably-sized sampling sink or basin.
9.2.6.19 Primary Digester Mixers
The digester mixer should have a design capacity which allows the turn over the digester contents in 6 to
8 hours. Various types of mixers are available but the most commonly used in small digesters is an
external pump.
9.2.6.20 Raw Sludge Sump and Pumps
Provision should be made for an adequately sized sludge sump and pump capacity such that daily
quantities of sludge can be transferred to the digester over a minimum period of time to allow optimum
fermentation and digestion to take place. Allowances should be made for storage capacity in the sludge
sump in case of a major power failure. Standby pumping equipment should be provided.
9.2.6.21 Shape of Digesters
Cylindrically shaped digesters with conical bottoms and roofs are recommended as this shape facilitates
good mixing. The slope of the bottom cone should be 35° to 45° from the horizontal. Roofs should be
conical. Access manholes in the roof should be at least 900 mm in diameter to allow for easy entry into
the digester when renewals and/or repairs are made. An entry manhole should also be provided at
ground level to permit the easy access of personnel and equipment.
9.2.6.22 Digester Pipework
In all cases care should be given to the pipe-work design, with 150 mm diameter pipes being the
minimum size. In small works problems frequently arise from blockages in the draw-off pipes. Short radius
bends should be avoided and provision made for rodding the pipes.
185
In the activated sludge process the mass of sludge increases continuously and has to be wasted on a
regular basis to maintain the required sludge concentration and sludge age in the reactor. Sludge can be
wasted from either the return sludge system or from the reactor. The return sludge concentration is
greater than that of the mixed liquor in the reactor. However the latter method is preferred as it enables
the sludge age to be controlled more easily.
In either case it has been found that anaerobic digestion of waste activated sludge achieves only a
minimal decrease in the volatile solids concentration.
Anaerobic digestion of waste activated sludge (WAS) is not favoured. WAS should therefore be
discharged directly to drying beds or to sludge lagoons. The disposal of activated sludge from phosphate-
removing plants presents particular problems, and such cases should be referred to a specialist.
9.2.7 DESIGN SEQUENCE AND WORKED EXAMPLE

Task An anaerobic digestion system is required for a 10 Ml/d works. The alternative possibilities should
be examined.
Sludge Quantity
Assume removal of 250 mg/l suspended solids by primary sedimentation and a sludge solids content of
4.5%.
Sludge solids = 10 x 250 = 2500 kg/d
Sludge volume = 2500/45 = 55.6 (say) 56 m3/d
Cold Digestion
Unmixed – retention 80 days – volume = 80 x 56 = 4480 (say) 4500 m3
Select two digesters at 2 250 m3 - typical dimensions 20 m diameter with 5.2 m sidewall depth and 30º
cone extending to a depth of 5.8 m
Mixed - retention 50 days – volume = 50 x 56 = 2800 m3

Select one digester at 2800 m3 – typical dimensions 22 m diameter with 5.3 m sidewall depth and 30º
cone extending to a depth of 6.35 m
Mixing energy = 2800 x 7/1000 = 19.6 (say) 20 kW, or a 2800/8 = 350 m3/h (97 l/s) pump
Hence by using mixing for the cold digestion one can effectively nearly halve the civil costs at the
expense of a 20 kW pump or mixer.
Heated (Mesophillic) Digestion
186
Select 20 days retention for primary digesters – volume 56 x 20 = 1 120 m3. Select a single tank of typical
dimensions 15 m diameter with 5.0 m sidewall depth and 30º cone extending to a depth of 4.3 m.
Check volatile loading Assume 80% volatile solids in primary sludge

Volatile solids load per day = 2 500 x 0.8 = 2 000 kg/d
Volatile solids loading = 2 000/1 120 = 1.79 kg VS/m3.d.
The loading is well within the recommended range.
Check Heat Balance. Assume 45% volatile solids reduction by digestion

Volatile solids destroyed = 2 000 x 0.45 = 900 kg/d
Assume a gas production of 0.9 m3/kg VS destroyed
Gas production = 900 x 0.9 = 810 m3/d
Assume a calorific value of 20 MJ/m3 for the gas
Energy available = 810 x 20 = 16 200 MJ/day = 16.2 GJ/d
Assume a minimum sludge temperature of 10 ºC in winter
Energy requirements to heat sludge = 56 x (35 – 10) x 4.2 = 5 880 MJ/day (5.88 GJ/d)
Energy required allowing for losses of 40% = 5.88 x 1.4 = 8.2 GJ/d
Hence under the assumed conditions there will be adequate energy available.
For the secondary digester select a retention time of 10 days

Volume 56 x 10 = 560 m3.
Select a tank 12.0 m diameter with 30º cone extending to a depth of 3.5 m, and with a 4.0 m sidewall
depth and multiple draw-off points (including the base of the cone)
187
9.3 SLUDGE THICKENING
9.3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the treatment of wastewater sludges, the dewatering process begins once the dilute sludge is removed
from the sedimentation tank or clarifier. The sludge from the settling tanks will typically have a solids
concentration of 0.5 to 3%. Further sludge concentration is first accomplished by the use of thickening
equipment which will increase the solids concentration to between 3 and 7% depending on the type of
sludge and the process factors.
Sludges are thickened primarily to decrease the capital and operating costs of subsequent sludge
processing steps by substantially reducing the volume. There are three general methods of thickening:
 Gravity Thickening
 Flotation Thickening
 Centrifugal Thickening
The main design variables to be considered in selecting a thickening process are:

1. Solids concentration and volumetric flow rate of the feed system
2. Chemical demand and cost if chemicals are employed
3. Suspended and dissolved solids concentrations and volumetric flow rate of the clarified stream
4. Solids concentration and volumetric flow rate of the thickened sludge
5. Type of sludge e.g. Primary sludge, digested sludge, waste activated sludge.
9.3.2 GRAVITY THICKENERS

Gravity thickening is the most commonly used method for raw or primary sludge thickening prior to
digestion or dewatering, and is also used for thickening digested sludges and waste activated sludge prior
to the dewatering stage.
For primary sludge a gravity thickener is used when the primary sedimentation tank does not provide
sludge of adequate thickness for efficient digestion. In such cases a second purpose-designed settling
and thickening tank similar in concept to a sedimentation tank is used when extended thickening times
are required.
Gravity thickeners are generally used as pre-thickening for filter presses, belt filter presses, centrifuges
and drying beds to achieve higher sludge concentration before dewatering.
188
Most thickeners are circular
tanks with rotating bridges with
paddles to stir the sludge to
assist in consolidation (picket-
fence thickeners). These units
are typically designed to store
the accumulated solids for
about 8 to 24 hours.
Chemicals are sometimes
added to aid the thickening
process (e.g. iron and
aluminum salts, polymers).
FIGURE 9.3.1: Schematic of circular gravity thickener (eWISA)
Gravity thickening of waste activated sludge is not recommended for biological phosphate-removal plants
as the anaerobic conditions that occur on storage can lead to massive phosphate release. Dissolved air
flotation (DAF) would be favoured in such cases
9.3.3 WORKED EXAMPLES

Task 1 - Design a thickener for a 10 Ml/d works for primary sludge to be fed to the digesters.
Assume 250 mg/l suspended solids removal by primary sedimentation and automatic desludging of the
tank to give a 0.6% TS sludge.
Sludge solids per day = 10 x 250 = 2 500 kg/d
Volume of sludge = 2 500/ 6 = 417 k-/d = 17.4 m3/h
Select a surface loading (rise rate) of 1.0 m/h
Area of tank = 17.4 m2 Diameter = 4.70 m
Select 20 hours sludge storage at 6% solids
Volume = (2 500/24) x 20/60 = 34.8 (say) 35 m3
Select a 30º cone at the base of the tank
Volume of cone = 7.9 m3
Height of sludge in cylindrical part of tank = (35 – 7.9)/17.4 = 1.56 m
Select a 3,0 m deep sidewall to give a liquid height of 1.4 m above the sludge for settlement and
consolidation.
Task 2 - Design a thickener to thicken sludge from a single digester receiving a 4.5% primary sludge
from a 10 Ml/d works where there is no supernatant liquor (SNL) draw-off.
189
Assume removal of 250 mg/l suspended solids by primary sedimentation and a sludge solids content of
4.5%.
Sludge solids = 10 x 250 = 2500 kg/d
Sludge volume = 2500/45 = 55.6 (say) 56 m3/d
Select 4 hours per day desludging time
Assume 80% volatile solids in primary sludge
Assume 45% volatile solids reduction by digestion
Volatile solids destroyed = 2 000 x 0.45 = 900 kg/d
Sludge solids remaining after digestion = 2 500 – 900 = 1 600 kg/d
Sludge concentration = 1 600/56 = 28.6 g/l = 2.86 %
Select a surface loading (rise rate) of 0.7 m/h
Area of tank = (56/4)/0.7 = 20 m2 Diameter = 5.0 m
Select 24 hours sludge storage at 6% solids
Volume = 1600/60 = 26.6 (say) 27 m3
Select a 30º cone at the base of the tank
Volume of cone = 9.6 m3
Height of sludge in cylindrical part of tank = (27 – 9.6)/20 = 0.9 m
Select a 2.5 m deep sidewall to give a liquid height of 1.6 m above the sludge for settlement and
consolidation.
Task 3 - Design a gravity thickener for waste activated sludge from a 10 Ml/d extended aeration plant
where sludge wasting takes place from the aeration tank.
Sludge Quantity. (Refer Chapter 6 on Activated Sludge)

Assume a wastewater COD of 600 mg/l and a sludge growth coefficient of 0.3 kg ds/kg COD.
Sludge solids per day = 10 x 600 x 0.3 = 1 800 kg/d
Assume a MLSS concentration of 3 500 mg/l (= 3.5 kg/m3)
Volume of waste sludge = 1 800/3.5 = 514 m3/d
Thickener sizing.
Select sludge wasting period of 6 hours per day
Flowrate = 514/6 = 86 m3/h
Select surface loading (Upflow rate) of 0.5 m/h
Tank area = 86/0.5 = 172 m2 ; Tank diameter = 14.8 (say) 15 m
Assume sludge consolidates to 2%
Settled sludge volume = 1 800/20 = 90 m3
Select 15° cone at bottom of tank
Volume of cone = 1/3 x 172 x (15/2 tan 15°) = 115 m3
190
Hence the sludge will all consolidate into the cone and the tank will not require a deeper sidewall. A
normal 2.5 m sidewall will permit the tank to turnover on approximately a daily basis.
9.3.4 DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION (DAF)
9.3.4.1 Introduction
Applications employing DAF systems range from potable water treatment to industrial effluent treatment
and sludge (typically activated sludge) thickening. Advantages linked with DAF systems include the fact
that they are high-rate processes when compared with more traditional gravity-based settlement
systems. This means that a reduction in space requirements can be achieved, and in terms of sludge
thickening, a thicker sludge can be produced. Additionally, DAF systems offer the operator some degree
of flexibility, subject to design, with regard to the system's operating parameters
DAF systems may be designed for pressurisation and air dissolution of the total flow or, more commonly,
the incoming sludge enters the flotation vessel where it comes into contact with a portion of recycled,
treated effluent (sometimes termed whitewater). The percentage of the total effluent flow into which air is
dissolved under pressure and subsequently recycled will be determined by several factors. Increasing the
pressure within the vessel where the air is being dissolved ensures that a higher concentration of air
dissolves into the liquid phase than is possible at atmospheric pressure. Once this portion of saturated
effluent enters the flotation tank, the pressure is released back to atmospheric pressure. This
immediately results in the recycled flow becoming supersaturated, resulting in the generation of
microbubbles as the dissolved air comes back out of solution. These bubbles attach to, and form within,
the solids or chemical flocs entering the vessel, causing them to float to the surface where they are
retained and subsequently removed by a mechanical skimmer.
In the case of rectangular flotation tanks, the skimmer mechanism consists of a series of paddles or
‘flights’ which run on a belt or chain and skim just below the surface of the tank removing the ‘float’ into a
trough for further treatment or, in some instances, recovery of materials. The alternative of circular DAF
tanks may incorporate rotating skimmer blades feeding a ‘float’ trough or involve use of a circulating,
revolving scoop. In cases where some gross solids may be present and there is risk of gradual
accumulation of sludge build-up on the flotation tank floor, the design may also incorporate a floor
scraper.
9.3.5 DESIGN
Inevitably the design details for any given effluent treatment system will be dependent on a number of
specific factors. There are, however, several key design parameters which are commonly applied when
considering and assessing the design of a DAF system. The parameters listed below are, where
191
applicable, accompanied by design figures. These figures are provided as an indication of the range of
figures one may encounter.
9.3.5.1 Air / Solids Ration
The air:solids (A:S) ratio may be reported as a volume:mass ratio or a mass:mass ratio and will be
application specific. To give an idea of the range of A:S ratios commonly applied, typical values range
between 0.005 – 0.06 ml/mg which, at 20°C and atmospheric pressure (say 101 kPa) is equivalent to
0.006 kg – 0.072 kg of air per mg of solids to be removed. For wastewater sludges it is typically in the
range 0.03 to 0.06 kg/kg.
9.3.5.2 Hydraulic Loading
The DAF hydraulic loading rate is a measurement of the volume of effluent applied per unit effective
surface area per unit time. This results in process design figures expressed as equivalent upflow
velocities with units of m/h. This figure should be application specific but as a general guide the figures
which should be expected would be between 2 m/h and 10 m/h. A key consideration with regard to this
design parameter is whether the loading rate includes the recycled volume as well as the influent
wastewater volume being applied per unit area of the system.
9.3.5.3 Solids Loadings
Solids loadings are normally given in units of mass per unit area per unit time (kg/m2.h). Typical figures
encountered range from around 2 kg/m2.h up to 15 kg/m2.h, although again the design will be application
specific, depending on the nature of the solids to be removed and the extent to which chemical aids are
used.
9.3.5.4 Recycle Ratio
The recycle ratio is determined as the fraction of the final effluent produced which is returned and
saturated under pressure prior to entering the flotation vessel where the pressure is subsequently
released and the bubbles are generated. The recycle ratio can vary immensely with recycle ratios being
typically 15 - 50% for water and wastewater treatment application. However, for activated sludge flotation
thickening, recycle ratios of 100 - 200% have been applied.
Air dissolution rates are proportional to absolute pressure (i.e. system gauge pressure + atmospheric
pressure) in accordance with Henry's Law of partial pressures of gases adjacent to liquids. Thus, for a
given application, the higher the operating pressure of the air / water saturation vessel, the lower the
required percentage recycle, and vice-versa. Operating pressures can therefore vary widely but are
typically in the range 3 – 7 bar (300 – 700 kPa).
192
9.3.5.5 Saturation of effluent
The production of saturated water from which the micro-bubbles are generated is normally achieved in
two ways. The first which is common to potable water treatment involves passing the required flow of
treated effluent through a packed bed system which is pressurised using a pump which is often a
centrifugal pump. In systems where solids are likely to be encountered, e.g. sludge treatment, the
saturation vessel is likely to be empty to prevent the fouling of any packing materials. The percentage of
saturation which can be achieved will depend on the design of the system but, with good design,
saturation efficiencies of up to 80 - 95% can be expected.
9.3.5.6 Flow Regime
To ensure that DAF systems operate as designed, it is important to ensure that the system does not
encounter sudden changes in the flow regime. For this reason some form of flow balancing or regulation
is recommended to ensure a consistent flow rate. Another consideration is to develop a flow path through
the flotation tank which ensures the maximum removal of solids via their entrainment in the air
microbubbles generated.
9.3.6 OPERATING ASPECTS

DAF units can be applied successfully to a range of different waters, wastewaters and sludges and
demonstrate certain specific advantages over more conventional solids removal processes. DAF plants
can be designed to be small, compact and robust systems with a high rate of operation. DAF systems are
capable of coping with reasonable variations in influent water quality, and to some extent variations in
flow. Disadvantages of DAF systems may include the increased service and maintenance costs when
compared with traditional sedimentation systems and the increased operating costs due to the energy
requirements of the system. The heart of a DAF plant is the saturator and the recycle pressure release
system. If these are well designed and effective the plant will usually perform satisfactorily.
9.3.7 CENTRIFUGAL THICKENERS

There are a large number of thickeners of patented and non-patented designs on the market. Some rely
on gravity to drain the sludge through a mesh screen or porous plate, which may be flat or curved in
section, such as disc or linear or gravity belt screens. Other designs rely on centrifugal force which may or
may not be assisted by gravity. In these designs an Archimedian or shaftless screw forces the sludge
though a tube which usually reduces in diameter and which has a mesh or porous plate for its outer wall.
The pressure squeezes the water out of the sludge and through the mesh producing a thickened or even
a final dewatered sludge as its final product. Typical of these are the rotary drum thickener screen and the
rotary press which are described below.
193
9.3.8 ROTARY PRESS.
The principle of operation is simple. Sludge is fed into a rectangular channel, and rotated between two
parallel revolving stainless steel chrome plated screens. The filtrate passes through the screens as the
flocculated sludge advances within the channel. The sludge continues to dewater as it travels around the
channel, eventually forming a cake near the outlet side of the press. The frictional force of the slow
moving screens, coupled with the controlled outlet restriction, results in the extrusion of a very dry cake.
9.3.9 ROTARY DRUM SLUDGE THICKENERS

Rotary drum sludge thickeners have cylindrical drums with progressive series of screen elements that are
mounted horizontally on four shaft-mounted wheels and supported on a tubular frame. The smallest
openings are used to screen the influent sludge, followed by coarser elements as the sludge thickens.
The screening element is either woven mesh or wedgewire. The screens are used to remove free liquids
from a variety of sludges, including those with appreciable amounts of microbial particles. Sludge
containing 0.5% - 3% solids can be thickened to 3% - 15%, depending on the type of sludge. The influent
enters a headbox, where the energy is dissipated, and the flow is evenly distributed onto the interior
sidewalls of the drum. Solids are retained on the screen surface and the liquid flows radially through the
screen openings. Splash guards direct the liquid filtrate to a central drainage area, and the solids are
transported axially, by flights, to the open end of the drum. The rotation of the drum allows the entire
screening surface to be continuously or intermittently washed by a fixed, external, spray bar fitted with a
bank of spray nozzles.
9.3.10 DISCUSSION
It can be seen from the above descriptions that centrifugal thickeners can be classed as either sludge
thickeners or as dewatering units, as there is a grey intermediate area where the sludge can be regarded
as a well thickened sludge for the next stage of dewatering or as a poorly dewatered sludge if there is no
secondary dewatering plant. The rotary screw press described in the dewatering plant section could
equally well have been included here.
194
9.4 SLUDGE DEWATERING
9.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Dewatering is primarily a physical operation that separates the liquid and solid portions of the dilute
sludge generated during the precipitation/clarification process. The resulting material is a stiff fluid.
Dewatering is usually performed in a series of steps utilising two or more pieces of equipment, with each
subsequent step reducing the percentage of liquid in the sludge. Dewatering can be a single stage
process or a two stage process where the dewatering equipment follows the thickening plant.
After thickening, further dewatering of the sludge is achieved through the use of mechanical dewatering
devices. The most widely used mechanical dewatering devices are centrifuges and belt presses. Screw
presses and rotary presses are also used on some plants. Mechanical dewatering will produce a sludge
with an approximately 10 to 40% solids content depending on the nature of the sludge and the type of
equipment being used.
9.4.2 BELT PRESSES

Belt press type dewatering machines are used for dewatering sludge produced in the treatment
processes of water, sewage and wastewater. Probably the most common application is the dewatering of
waste activated sludge (WAS) either on its own or in combination with raw or anaerobically digested
sludge, as a second stage after dissolved air flotation (DAF)
Process Description: The incoming sludge is first conditioned by polyelectrolyte to form flocs before
entering the dewatering zones of the unit. The conditioned sludge is initially dewatered in a gravity
drainage zone, and then in subsequent dewatering steps, subjected to gradually increasing pressure
between two filter belts. The sludge cake discharged from the belts has a relatively low moisture content.
9.4.3 PERFORMANCE
With a feed concentration of about 2% to 4%, a belt press will produce a sludge cake of about 16% to
18% on WAS, about 22% to 26% on a mixture of raw and WAS, and about 25% to 30% on a mixture of
WAS and digested sludge.
9.4.4 OPERATIONAL ASPECTS

A belt press is slow moving and relatively quiet in operation. It produces a drier cake, sludge for sludge
than a centrifuge. It is reliable in operation if well maintained but does need attention to belt adjustment,
and roller and pulley replacement on a not infrequent basis.
195
9.4.5 CENTRIFUGES
Centrifuges operate using centrifugal force at many times the force of gravity (typically 2 000 x g) to
increase the sedimentation rate of solid sludge particles. The most common centrifuges found in
wastewater treatment dewatering applications are the continuous bowl centrifuges. The two principal
elements of these are the rotating bowl and the inner screw conveyor. The bowl acts as a settling vessel;
the solids settle due to centrifugal force from its rotating motion. The screw conveyor which rotates at a
slight speed differential to the bowl picks up the solids and conveys them to the discharge port. Although
there are many different designs of centrifuges, they all are provided with a polymer-conditioning unit for
conditioning the incoming sludge using cationic polymers. Polymers are usually fed inside the bowl
because the high shear forces may destroy flocs if they are formed prior to entry. Also, large particles
settle rapidly in the first stage of the bowl. Thus, economical solids recovery can be achieved through
internal feeding of polymers after the large particles have settled.
9.4.5.1 Process Description
Sludge at 1% to 3% is pumped into the feed tube of the centrifuge where it is dosed with polyelectrolyte
on entry to the machine. The bowl of the centrifuge has a cylindrical section containing the pool of sludge
where the solids settle under centrifugal force, and a conical section which has a dry area outside of the
pool for sludge to drain. The rotating scroll operating at a slight speed differential to the bowl scrapes the
solids out of the pool and up the beach area where it drains and dries before discharging out of the end of
the cone. The clarified liquid or centrate discharges over a weir at the other end of the bowl. Adjustable
variables on most designs are pool depth and differential speed which sets the residence times of sludge
in the unit.
9.4.5.2 Performance
The centrifuge is suited to any type of sludge or mixtures thereof. On WAS it will produce a cake of about
12% to 14%. On raw sludge it will form a cake of about 25% to 28%, and on digested sludge a cake of
about 35% to 40%. Mixtures of WAS and raw run at about 18% to 22%, and WAS and digested at about
25%.
9.4.5.3 Operational aspects
A centrifuge is a high speed piece of precision machinery. It runs at very high rotational speeds and G-
forces, and good operational attention and maintenance is necessary. If seriously out of balance the
machine can jump off its mountings and create serious damage and danger to operating staff. For this
reason centrifuges are almost invariably fitted with vibration monitoring to detect out of balance loads and
will trip out automatically.
196
The machines are also subject to severe abrasion forces from grit in the sludge. Early units wore out
quickly and required frequent rebuilding. Present day machines will have ceramic wear plates and will
operate for at least a year and sometimes two or three years before requiring refurbishment. The
machines have a high energy consumption and a high start-up current. They are also noisy and their
rooms are usually designated as noise areas. However they are reliable and consistent in operation and
probably the most versatile if variable sludge compositions need to be treated.
9.4.6 SCREW PRESS

The rotary dewatering press is a screw press used for sludge dewatering. The rotary dewatering press is
ideal for small applications and is used extensively for the dewatering of sewage sludges. Capacity
ranges from 2 to 12 m3/h. The unit consists of a wedge wire drum and internal screw. The outlet of the
machine contains a dewatering cone, which can be automated for certain applications. The entire unit is
enclosed in a stainless steel main case with inspection hatches. Sludge is fed into the screw press and is
compacted to an increasing extent by the internal screw conveyor. This forces the water out of the sludge
through the containing screen. Depending on the nature of the sludge relatively dry cakes can be
obtained.
9.4.7 SLUDGE DRYING BEDS
9.4.7.1 Introduction
Sludge drying beds are the oldest method of

dewatering and are still the most widely
used. They have the advantage of
dewatering to a stage where the sludge is
effectively dry and can be stacked and
stored. Drying beds are still the first choice
on small plants where the additional
complication of mechanical dewatering
equipment is not warranted. Dewatering on
beds is brought about by drainage,
evaporation and decantation.
FIGURE 9.4.1: Typical sludge drying beds

(eWISA)
197
Decantation is the first stage of the dewatering process and usually is only applicable to waste activated
sludge which contains free water. Many beds for drying waste activated sludge have adjustable weirs or
draw-offs which decant the clear supernatant and which greatly accelerate the overall drying process.
The drying bed then initially behaves as a settling tank in the early stages of running the sludge onto the
bed.
Drainage, which accounts for the major part of the dewatering process, depends on the drainage
characteristics of the sludge and the porosity of the media.
Evaporation, a much slower process, accounts for final drying. The rate of evaporation is similar to that
from a free water surface during the initial stages when the sludge has a liquid surface. As the liquid
surface recedes into the interstices of the sludge, the rate of evaporation declines drastically, and the
sludge usually starts to crack.
Climatic conditions greatly affect sludge dewatering on drying beds and influence drying time. The drying
time is shorter in regions of greatest sunshine, low rain-fall and low humidity. Where summers are longer
and in dry regions where humidity is low, conditions are more favourable for sludge drying bed use.
9.4.7.2 Description of Typical Drying Beds
Drying beds comprise the following basic features:

1. A concrete floor slab generally laid to slopes of 1:12
2. Low brick or concrete walls providing for a series of beds
3. Filter media grading from 20 mm crushed stone or gravel at the bottom to medium coarse sand at
the top for digested sludges, and to fine sand for waste activated sludges
4. A drainage system to collect the drained liquor to a central sump
5. A system of pipes and valves to discharge the sludge onto the beds, with precast concrete splash
pads at the inlet points to stop erosion of the top of the filter media.
The total depth of the filter media should be about 300 mm.
Drying beds for waste activated sludge should also be provided with adjustable overflow weirs to enable
clarified liquor to be decanted from the surface, as this greatly increases the rate of drying.
9.4.7.3 Digested Sludge Drying Beds
The area of drying beds required should be based on:
(i) The total volume of digested sludge to be withdrawn in a given time (i.e. per week or month)
(ii) The depth of sludge to be run onto the beds, with 200 mm generally considered a maximum
(iii) The prevailing climatic conditions which can affect drying time from 10 to 30 days per bed.
A combination of the above will result in drying bed areas in the range 0.1 to 0.2 m2 per capita.
198
Alternatively the beds can be sized on a solids loading of 10 to 15 kg/m2 and a drying time (turnover) of
20 to 40 days. Long drying times are necessary in KZN during the wet and humid summer months and
especially in the Western Cape during the wet winter months. In the drier parts of the country the turnover
time will be quicker.
Due to the thin layer of sludge which results from dewatering waste activated sludge on a sludge drying
bed, the dry sludge has a lower viable Ascaris count than anaerobically digested sludges dewatered on
sludge drying beds.
If the activated sludge process is to be operated on a sludge age basis, the beds should be sized for the
shortest sludge age likely to be used, as this will give the highest amount of sludge solids to be wasted
daily. For some degree of sludge stability this will usually not be less than 10 days.
The design should then allow for:

1. The volume of mixed liquor to be wasted daily
2. A depth of mixed liquor on the beds not exceeding 300 mm
3. The prevailing climatic conditions which can affect drying time from 3 to 10 days per bed per
application.
As a check for the area based on the factors given above, the beds should provide for a solids loading
rate of about 2 to 3 kg dry solids/m2.
9.4.8 WORKED EXAMPLES

Task 1 - Design sludge drying beds for the secondary digested sludge from a 10 Ml/d works for the
digesters sized in Example 9.2.7
Sludge solids remaining after digestion, based on 250 mg/l suspended solids removal by primary
sedimentation, 80% volatiles in the primary sludge, and 45% reduction in volatile solids by digestion =
(10 x 250) x 0.2 + (10 x 250) x 0.8 x 0.55 = 1 600 kg/d
Assume a secondary digested sludge solids content of 6%

Sludge volume = 1 600/60 = 26.7 (say) 27 m3/d
Select solids loading for drying beds of 15 kg/m2 and a drying (turnover and removal) time of 30 days
Drying bed area = 27 x 30/15 = 54 (say) 60 m2
Select 4 beds of dimensions 5 x 3 m which allows sludge to be run to one bed per week.
199
Task 2 - As an alternative to gravity thickening and mechanical dewatering for the 10 Ml/d extended
aeration plant in Example 9.3.2.1, it is required to size drying beds for the waste mixed liquor from the
plant.
Waste sludge solids per day based on 10 Ml/d of wastewater having a COD of 600 mg/l and a sludge
growth index of 0.3 kg ds/kg COD = 10 x 600 x 0.3 = 1 800 kg/d
Volume of waste mixed liquor based on a MLSS concentration of 3 500 mg/l = 1800/3.5
= 514 m3/d.
Select bed solids loading of 2.5 kg/m2 and a drying time of 7 days
Bed area = 1 800/2.5 x 7 = 5 040 (say) 5 000 m2
Select 10 beds each 20 x 25 m permitting two beds to be run per day for 5 days per week
200
CHAPTER 10
10. DISINFECTION
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Wastewater in general and raw sewage in particular is considered a hazardous waste because it contains
human waste, and human wastes contain, to a greater or lesser extent all known human pathogens.
Typically, raw sewage contains high numbers of micro-organisms and each unit process used in treating
wastewater reduces the number of micro-organisms as shown in the Table 10.1.1 below.
TABLE 10.1.1: Removal of bacteria by different processes

Process % Removal
Coarse screens 0-5
Fine screens 10 - 20
Grit chambers 10 - 25
Primary sedimentation 25 - 75
Trickling filters 90 - 95
Activated sludge 98 - 99
There still remain high numbers of pathogenic micro-organisms in the treated wastewater even after the
best possible biological treatment. Some additional treatment is required to ensure that the effluent is safe
for discharge to a public stream., The most common additional process is disinfection.
10.2 PURPOSE AND METHODS OF DISINFECTION

The goal of water disinfection is to remove or inactivate pathogenic micro-organisms. Disinfection is not
synonymous with the sterilisation of water, in which all organisms are killed. In disinfection, the primary
pathogenic micro-organisms targeted for inactivation include bacteria, viruses and protozoan cysts.
201
The disinfection of water has been practised for several hundred years, even though initially there was no
understanding of the principles involved. Historical records show that the boiling of water had been
recommended at least as early as 500 B.C.
Chlorine was identified as a chemical element in the early 1800s. Because of its characteristic colour, the
name chlorine was derived from the Greek word chloros, meaning pale green. It was not until sometime
later, however, that its value as a disinfectant was recognised.
The possible methods of wastewater effluent disinfection are many and include natural processes
(predation and normal death), environmental factors (salinity and solar radiation), both of which occur in
maturation ponds, and methods having certain industrial applications (ultrasonics and heat). However
only those methods that have possible general applications for wastewater and water re-use, will be
explored.
10.3 CHLORINE
Chlorine has been the dominant disinfectant of wastewater. It is available in different forms. Because of
the importance of chlorine in wastewater treatment it will be discussed in more detail.
10.3.1 LIQUIFIED/GASEOUS CHLORINE

This is the basic elemental chlorine and is used in large quantities for sanitary purposes; restaurant
sanitisers, potable water treatment, wastewater treatment, swimming pools, cooling waters and other
industrial process water treatment, but not sold to untrained users. Liquified-gaseous chlorine is the
principal form of chlorine used in wastewater disinfection. It is also used for odour control, destruction of
hydrogen sulphide, prevention and control of septicity and for elimination of activated sludge bulking.
10.3.2 HYPOCHLORITE
This can be provided either in the form of sodium or calcium hypochlorite. Sodium hypochlorite is
provided as a clear water solution available in concentrations of up to 15% available chlorine by weight.
Calcium hypochlorite is available either as a dry granular white powder or in tablet form, in strengths of
70% available chlorine by weight.
10.3.3 ON-SITE HYPOCHLORITE GENERATION

Complete systems are available in South Africa for the on-site manufacturing of chlorine and hypochlorite
solutions by electrolysis from salt (sodium chloride) which also diminishes the potential hazard of handling
202
the liquified gaseous chlorine in pressurised containers. The solution strength of this hypochlorite solution
is normally about 0.7% as chlorine.
10.4 CHLORAMINES
A combination of chlorine and ammonia, chloramines are less efficient as a biocide, as compared with
free chlorine, but react to form fewer undesirable organic by-products.
10.5 BROMINE, BROMINE CHLORIDE AND IODINE

Bromine and bromine chloride are relatively soluble in water (more so than chlorine), however, bromine is
too hazardous a chemical to handle in the treatment of wastewater. Bromine chloride is easier to handle,
but requires special dosing equipment.
Bromine compounds have an advantage over various chlorine compounds in that bromine residuals
usually die away rapidly with little toxic effects on aquatic life and somewhat lower dosages can be
applied.
Iodine is a grey-brown crystalline solid, which is only slightly soluble in water. It has been used as an
effective method of water treatment on an emergency basis and on very small potable water applications.
10.6 OZONE
Ozone is another unstable gas that must be produced at the point of use. It is produced by the reaction of
oxygen-containing gas (air or pure oxygen) in an electric discharge. It is a very powerful oxidant. From
recent investigations, it appears that ozone, in combination with either chlorine or chlorine dioxide, could
solve the disinfection problem of both bacterial and viral contamination in wastewater effluents. However
the process is capital-intensive and has relatively high power consumption.
10.7 ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION

Special lamps (mercury vapour) produce ultraviolet radiation. The disinfection reaction from the radiation
occurs on the thin film surfaces of water where micro-organisms can be exposed to the radiation reaction.
With wastewater, lethal action cannot be exerted through more than a few centimetres, which limits its
application to wastewater of high quality and with low solids contents and minimal turbidity..
203
10.8 CHLORINATION PRACTICE
Chlorination may be carried out by direct use of gaseous chlorine obtained from cylinders via purpose-
designed chlorinators, or by dosage of hypochlorite solution which contains chlorine. Normally the dosage
equipment would be sized for a maximum dosage of about 10 mg/l with normal dosage levels being
about 3 to 5 mg/l. If the effluent is pumped it is beneficial to provide an interlock on the dosage pump so
that both pumps operate together thus setting constant dosage. For gravity flow one normally uses a
constant chlorine feed rate and provides a relatively large contact tank for equalisation.
10.9 GAS CHLORINATORS

Chlorine is obtained in 68 kg or 900 kg cylinders. The chlorine is compressed to a high pressure in the
cylinders so that it is stored in liquid form. Chlorine is normally drawn off as gas from the cylinders. When
the gas is drawn off, liquid chlorine evaporates to refill the headspace. The evaporation process
consumes latent heat and cools the container. There is, therefore, a limit on the rate of draw-off of
chlorine from a cylinder unless container-warming facilities are provided. The maximum draw-off is
approximately 1.5 - 2 kg/h for a small cylinder and 7.5 - 10 kg/h for a large cylinder, at normal ambient
temperature. This draw-off depends on prevailing ambient temperature, however, and should be
confirmed with the suppliers.
A chlorinator basically consists of a vacuum regulator with adjustable gas flow measurement by needle
valve via a rotameter tube for indication, and an ejector on a pressure water line. The water passing
through the ejector creates a vacuum, which sucks the chlorine gas into the water at the ejector and into
solution. The solution of chlorine in water is then added to the effluent at a suitable point. The amount of
gas drawn into the water at the ejector is regulated by the needle valve and measured on the rotameter
tube. Safety devices are normally built into the chlorinator to close off the gas in the event of water supply
failure and to prevent water entering the gas lines.
Wet chlorine gas or chlorine solution is extremely corrosive and normal materials cannot be used. Most
metals, lubricants and packing compounds are attacked. Special materials are therefore used.
10.10 HYPOCHLORITE FEEDERS

Sodium hypochlorite (15% free chlorine) is available in black plastic 20 litre containers. It deteriorates on
standing and large stock holdings should therefore be avoided. The solution can be drip fed or preferably
dosed via a metering pump into the effluent. If generated on site it will be much more dilute at about 0.7%
and larger volumes of liquid requiring larger dosage pumps will be required. Although the solutions are
204
alkaline it remains corrosive due to the strong oxidising power of the chlorine, and careful selection of
materials is required.
Calcium hypochlorite (HTH) contains 70% free chlorine and is available in drums as granules or tablets. It
can be dosed in water-suspension form but care needs to be taken to avoid particles causing blockages.
Alternatively, on small plants, tablet dispensers can be used, and they are refilled daily.
10.11 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Apart from being corrosive, chlorine is also very poisonous and stored calcium hypochlorite can be
explosive under certain conditions. The storage and use of chlorine therefore requires rigid adherence to
safe practice procedures. Full details regarding these can be obtained from the suppliers who, from time
to time, also conduct courses in the use and handling of chlorine.
Ventilation of the storage and dosage area must be designed to prevent accumulation of chlorine gas,
which is heavier than air. Floor level discharge ducts and fresh air fans entering near the ceiling as is a
semi-open type of structure are common practice.
10.12 CHLORINE CONTACT TANKS

Chlorine disinfection is not instantaneous and can take tens of minutes or even several hours depending
on various factors such as pH and ammonia concentration. When ammonia is present chlorine reacts to
form chloramines which are slow disinfectants and can take up to 24 hours to react to completion. It is
therefore normal when disinfecting with chlorine to provide contact tanks for the disinfection reactions to
take place. The criteria range from 20 minutes contact at peak flow up to 24 hours storage.
205
It is normally not economical or practical to provide
contact tanks the same size as the aeration tank unless
it is possible to construct a maturation pond system. In
normal circumstances therefore it is common to provide
tanks of 1.5 to 2 hours retention at average flow, and
to operate at somewhat higher chlorine dosages to get
some free chlorine disinfection which is much more
rapid. However this can be relatively expensive on
larger plants.
FIGURE 10.1: Typical chlorine contact tank
206
C H A P T E R 11
11. CHEMICAL TREATMENT

11.1 ALKALI ADDITION
11.1.1 INTRODUCTION
The effluent discharged from a wastewater works is subject to limitations on its pH level which needs to
be between 5,5 and 9,5 in most cases, although the Special Standard is more stringent at between 6,5
and 7,5.
The final effluent pH can be below the lower limit if the ammonia concentration in the sewage is high and
the alkalinity is low. Low alkalinity sewages are common in KZN and the Eastern and Western Cape. In
such cases the process of nitrification uses up all the alkalinity in the sewage and the pH can drop to as
low as 4,0. Often in such cases the ammonia remains high because the sewage has run out of alkalinity
and cannot nitrify further.
Activated sludge plants can be modified to denitrify and recover some of the alkalinity but fixed film plants
(Biological filters, RBC’s and Submerged media reactors) often cannot achieve much denitrification and
tend to have low pH effluents. In such cases it may be necessary to add an alkali to the sewage at a
suitable point in the plant.
11.1.2 ALKALI’S USED
11.1.2.1 Lime.
The most commonly used alkali is lime which is usually the lowest in cost and sometimes has other
benefits to the process. It is usually fed as a dry powder into a slurry mixing tank and added after the
septic tank or primary sedimentation tank as the case may be. Sufficient lime should be added to bring
the effluent pH up to about 7.0, with a residual alkalinity in the final effluent of about 50 mg/l as CaCO3.
11.1.2.2 Soda Ash.
Soda Ash or sodium carbonate is also used occasionally. It is highly soluble and can be added by dosing
pump as a 5% solution. It is also added after the septic tank or primary sedimentation tank as the case
may be. Sufficient soda ash should be added to bring the pH of the effluent up to about 7.0, with a
residual alkalinity in the final effluent of about 50 mg/l as CaCO3.
207
11.1.2.3 Caustic Soda.
As implied by its common name Caustic Soda (sodium hydroxide) is more hazardous to handle than the
other chemicals but is used on occasions. It is usually supplied as caustic lye solution at about 50%
strength. As for the other chemicals it should be added after the septic tank or primary sedimentation tank
as the case may be. Sufficient caustic should be added to bring the effluent pH up to about 7.0, with a
residual alkalinity in the final effluent of about 50 mg/l as CaCO3.
11.1.3 DOSAGES
Dosages may range from zero up to as high as 100 mg/l but are usually around 50 mg/l.
11.1.4 PHOSPHATE REMOVAL

Chemical removal of phosphates by metal salts significantly increases the acidity of sewage effluents. It
may be necessary to add alkali to neutralise this acidity as well as compensating for the drop in pH from
nitrification. In such cases the dosage of alkali can easily be more than doubled.
11.1.5 LABORATORY TESTS

Laboratory tests on alkali demand should be carried out for both low alkalinity and phosphate removal
purposes before designing the dosage systems.
208
11.2 METAL SALT ADDITION
11.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Metal salts (Usually iron or aluminium) are added to the wastewater treatment process for two reasons.
Firstly iron and aluminium salts are coagulants and are commonly used for flocculation at potable water
works. This coagulating effect can significantly improve the performance of primary sedimentation tanks
at wastewater works by increasing COD and suspended solids removal from the wastewater in the
settlement process. Secondly both iron and aluminium precipitate phosphate out of solution and are
therefore commonly used in parts of the country where there is a phosphate limit on effluents discharged
to watercourse.
11.2.2 ENHANCED PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION

The addition of low dosages (typically 25 mg/l) of ferric chloride to the incoming wastewater can improve
the removal of suspended solids by primary sedimentation by about 30%. Higher dosages give
diminishing returns on suspended solids removal and add to the sludge load entering digesters. They
also add to the conductivity and TDS of the water which is also subject to limits set by DWAF for
discharge. The process is not something that should be designed into a works but can be used as a
palliative if the aerobic process of a plant is overloaded and there is spare digester or sludge handling
capacity.
11.2.3 PHOSPHATE REMOVAL

Relatively high dosages of ferric chloride, ferric sulphate, or aluminium sulphate are used to precipitate
phosphate out of wastewater effluents. This may be required when the effluent discharged from a works
has to comply with the 1 mg/l maximum level set for phosphorus in sensitive catchments. Depending on
the incoming phosphate level the dosages can be typically in the range of 150 mg/l to 200 mg/l.
In an activated sludge process the metal salt is often added to the mixed liquor where the continual
recycling of sludge containing the metal hydroxides enhances removal efficiency. This also maintains
phosphate removal for limited periods even when there are breakdowns in the dosage system.
For biological filter plants the metal salt can be added at the primary sedimentation tanks which as seen
above will enhance suspended solids removal. However there is the danger of insufficient nutrient
phosphate being available for good purification on the filter, although successful operation in this mode
has been reported. The alternative is to add the salt after the biological filters and remove the floc in the
humus tanks.
209
The requirements for good flash-mixing at the point of addition of the salt is relevant to good practice on
wastewater works as well as to waterworks, particularly on biological filter plants.
It would also be good practice to design primary sedimentation and humus tanks at lower peak upflow
rates when addition of metal salts is contemplated on a works. The settlement rate of alum flocs in
particular, is lower than normal humus solids.
210
CHAPTER 12
12. PUMPS
12.1 CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS
In this manual, pumps have been broadly classified into the following groups:
 Rotodynamic, including centrifugal, axial flow and mixed flow
 Positive displacement, including reciprocating, progressive cavity and peristaltic or diaphragm
pumps
 Air lift and ejector pumps
 Screw pumps.
12.2 ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS

These incorporate a wheel or rotor of some kind whose rotating blades or vanes impart acceleration to
the liquid passing through the pump. The speed of rotation will vary with the application and could be 500
rpm for a large raw sewage pump and up to 2950 rpm for a small high head clean water pump.
Of the pumps forming the group of rotodynamic pumps, the Centrifugal type is the most common. Each
pump of this type comprises two principal components:
 The impeller, that drives the water into rotary motion
 The pump casing, which guides the water into the eye of the impeller and leads it away at a higher
pressure.
The impeller is mounted on a shaft, supported in bearings and driven through a rigid or flexible coupling
by a driver. This is usually an electric motor but could be an internal combustion engine, steam turbine or
water turbine.
The pump casing includes the suction and discharge pipe connections, supports the bearings, and
houses the rotor assembly. Sealing devices are included to prevent liquid escaping around the shaft and
between the impeller and the casing. The detail design of a centrifugal pump is influenced by the nature
of the liquid to be pumped. When pumping clean water a closed impeller will be used and efficiencies of
80 to 95% can be achieved. For high pumping heads, multi-stage pumps can be constructed and for
boiler feed duties, heads can be in excess of 300 Bar (30 000 kPa)
211
For the pumping of raw wastewater containing large solids, grit and stringy matter a different type of
impeller is required. This requires large passages to allow solids to pass and may be of the closed design
(with a plate each side of the vane) or the open design (with vanes mounted on a single rotating plate).
Sewage pumps must always be specified to suit the maximum size of solids to be pumped and this may
be called "freeway" with a capability of passing, say 80 mm diameter solids or "fullway" with a capacity of
passing any solid coming down the suction pipe.
Fullway pumps are usually less efficient than freeway pumps but this disadvantage is offset by the lesser
attention that they require. There are many designs of impellers for handling raw sewage and these can
be a simple S-shaped vane on a back plate, a single channel closed impeller, an open multi-vane impeller
or even a vortex impeller. This last impeller type is recessed into the back cover of the casing and the
impeller vanes do not protrude into the pump casing. They work by inducing a strong vortex in the liquid
passing through the casing and are virtually un-chokeable. They have a low efficiency rate, around 35%,
and can only generate low heads.
Other special types of pump incorporate cutting blades that cut or grind solid matter into pieces small
enough to be handled by the pump. These are also less efficient and the cutting blades require regular
replacement, especially where grit is present Some pumps are provided with rubber linings to resist the
abrasive effects of grit in the sewage.
It can be expected that any sewage pump will eventually become blocked from time to time and pipework
should be arranged so that it is possible to quickly access the interior of the pump to clear a blockage.
Where possible, a solution is to purchase a pump having "Back-pull-out" construction, in conjunction with
a spacer coupling In this design the spacer in the coupling is removed and the bearing bracket, back
cover of the casing and rotating element is removed to give clear access to the interior of the pump
casing without disturbing the pipework or the motor. Where the particular design of the pump does not
provide this feature, adequate handholds with quickly-removable covers should be provided on the
pipework.
The centrifugal pump is sometimes known as a "radial flow" pump and has some disadvantages. The
freeway or fullway impeller tends to have a flat head/quantity curve so that a small change in operating
head produces a large change in quantity pumped. Conversely if the head reduces, the quantity
increases and the power requirement also increases so that larger sized motors become necessary to
cater for this condition. Where several pumps run in parallel, this phenomenon is exaggerated and the
selection of suitable motors must allow for this requirement.
In an axial flow pump, liquid approaches the impeller axially and the forward flow of liquid is parallel to the
shaft axis. The impeller resembles a ship's propeller and these pumps are also known as propeller
pumps. These pumps are suitable for handling large quantities at low heads but do not have good solids
212
handling capabilities. They are suitable for recirculating effluents or similar duties. The axial flow pump
has a steep head-quantity curve so that the quantity varies only slightly over a wide change in head and
the power falls off as the flow increases. It does, however, absorb much more power as the flow is
reduced towards zero and arrangements should be made to ensure that such pumps can never be run
against a closed delivery valve.
The mixed flow pump has impellers that incorporate a combination of the centrifugal impeller with a
twisted vane, similar to the propeller of the axial flow pump. Because of this combination, it is possible to
design a pump that incorporates the good features of both the radial flow and the axial, to give good
solids handling, a fairly steep head-quantity curve and an almost flat power curve This design is best
suited for large raw sewage installations with high power motors.
All the rotodynamic pumps may be installed with the shafts horizontal, vertical or at an intermediate angle,
although it is most usual for the horizontal arrangement to be adopted, with the driving motor on a single
baseplate. This has the advantage of easy access for cleaning and maintenance. The vertical
arrangement is preferred when it is necessary to reduce the area of the pump station and the motors can
be mounted directly on top of the pumps or located at a higher level, well above any possible flood level.
Some designs can be suspended from a baseplate at floor level to hang directly into the wet well or
suction sump. This makes maintenance difficult and is not encountered often as the whole pump has to
be pulled out of the sump.
All types of pump must be filled with water before starting and the easiest way is to arrange for the pump
to be located in a dry well, below the level of the liquid to be pumped. This may not always be possible
and several options are available These include the provision of a small vacuum pump to evacuate the air
from the pump casing before starting the pump. It is possible to provide a priming tank to allow the pump
to fill itself with liquid during start-up but these tend to become clogged with solids on sewage duty. It is
also possible to provide a foot valve on the suction pipe and to fill the pump with water before starting
This arrangement has two serious disadvantages, in that these foot valves often leak and they present a
high head loss to the suction Whatever the method of priming, there must always be an air release valve
at the highest point on the pump casing to vent off any accumulated air or gas.
A number of makers are able to supply self-priming sewage pumps that overcome these difficulties. It is
necessary to initially fill these pumps with water but thereafter they will rapidly self-prime on start-up. It
must be ensured that a reliable automatic air release valve is fitted to the pump, before the non-return
valve on the delivery side.
A further variation is the submersible pump, in which the pump is directly connected to a submersible
electric motor and is positioned below the surface of the liquid. These are often used for small lift stations
213
in remote areas and have the advantages of being installed in a manhole safe from vandalism and other
damage. They are simple but can be expensive to repair.
12.3 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

These theoretically, deliver a fixed quantity irrespective of the delivery head but in practice, the quantity
does drop off as the head increases. The simplest type of positive displacement pump is the reciprocating
or piston pump, with a piston moving forwards and backwards in a cylinder, to suck water into the cylinder
and discharge it to a higher pressure. This type of pump has been in service for several hundreds of
years for water supply and for pumping sewage and other fluids. Many hundreds of farmers' borehole
pumps are still of this type, often powered by windmills. They are also commonly used as hand pumps for
water supply in small communities.
In the wastewater industry today, reciprocating pumps are usually used as specially designed high head
pumps to handle sewage or sludge or in small sizes as chemical dosing or metering pumps, since every
stroke delivers the measurable amount of fluid. The reciprocating type of pump cannot produce a steady
rate of flow and it is advisable to provide an air vessel, on the discharge side, to dampen the pressure
fluctuations. Although these pumps are self-priming, they should not be run dry as they will rapidly
overheat and seize.
A number of rotary positive pumps are also found in wastewater plants and these include rotary lobe
pumps and progressive cavity pumps. The rotary lobe pump is developed from the much older gear pump
and comprises two elastomer-coated rotors connected together by an integral gear system with
synchronised timing gears. The two rotors, which typically have two or more lobes, run without touching
each other or the outer casing. The liquid is drawn into the inlet port and into the pockets between the
lobes and chamber walls and is discharged in the direction of rotation of the outer lobes into the
discharge nozzle. The discharge flow is continuous and smooth and is relatively non-agitating and non-
shearing. The pump is self-priming and can be run dry for short periods. It is ideally suited to the pumping
of a wide range of sludges.
A pump of similar capability, but different construction, in the progressive cavity pump, which comprises a
hard steel rotor of helical spiral form which rotates in a stator of natural or artificial rubber with a similar
internal helical spiral form As the rotor turns, it contacts the stator, along a continuous sealing line, to
create a series of sealed cavities that progress to the discharge end. The cavity fills with liquid as it opens
at the suction end and this trapped liquid is transported along the rotor to the discharge and is gradually
discharged in an axial direction
This type of pump is self-priming but must never be run dry. The initial starting load is high because of the
dry contact between the rotor and the stator, but this drops off immediately once the pump starts to turn.
214
Progressive cavity pumps are widely used for handling all types of slurries and sludges and can handle
small solids. Where significant quantities of grit are present in the sludge, operating speeds must be kept
below 350 rpm to minimise wear on the components.
A recent development in the pumping of sludges and slurries is the peristaltic pump. This is a simple
design and comprises a semicircular chamber housing a rubber hose A system of rotating rollers
progressively squeezes the hose, pushing along any fluid in front of the rollers and sucking more fluid in
behind it. A sufficient number of rollers are provided to maintain a constant flow through the hose. This
type of pump is used in wastewater plants overseas but has not yet found general application in South
Africa. It is self-priming, can be run dry and can handle a certain amount of solid matter. It is vulnerable to
damage to the hose by sharp objects, although the hose can be easily and quickly replaced when
necessary.
A variation of the reciprocating pump uses a flexible diaphragm in place of the piston This form of
construction eliminates the wear between the piston and cylinder but still has the problem of suction and
delivery valves becoming fouled or jammed. Various patterns of diaphragm pump are in use and these
include mechanically driven versions for dewatering excavations, compressed-air operated versions for
sludge handling and a diaphragm dosing pump for metering duties.
12.4 COMPRESSED AIR OPERATED PUMPS

These are of particular use in the pumping of sludges and have the advantage of being adjusted to suit
the rate of sludge flow, by varying the length of stroke and the number of strokes per minute. The need to
provide a supply of compressed air makes this pump expensive to purchase and to operate
Compressed air is also used to operate several other types of pump used in the wastewater industry.
These include the airlift pump, which is comprised of a tube with a supply of compressed air, immersed in
the liquid. The mixture of air and water is less dense and the pressure outside the tube forces this lighter
mixture to the top of the tube where it is discharged. Airlift pumps can be used for activated sludge return
where heads are lower than about 2.0 m and they have no moving parts requiring maintenance. They
have limited flexibility in operation and are low in efficiency.
Another compressed air device is the air ejector lift station to lift fairly small quantities of raw sewage to
the main outfall sewer. This device comprises a steel vessel arranged to collect the raw sewage. When
the vessel is full, a supply of compressed air is blown into it to force the collected sewage up a rising main
to the main sewer. These units were in regular use some years ago but have tended to be replaced by
small submersible pumps in lift stations. Compressed air can also be used to power ejectors for pump
priming or for emptying sumps.
215
12.5 ARCHIMEDIAN SCREW PUMPS
These comprise a rotating torque tube, carrying one or more sets of spiral flights, located in a concrete or
steel trough and supported by a combined thrust and radial bearing at the top and a sealed radial bearing
at the bottom Pockets formed between the spiral flights and the trough, trap the liquid and move it up the
incline in a continuous manner.
Screw pumps can handle large solids and high grit content and also have the facility of being able to
pump the exact quantity entering the pump, from zero flow to full design flow, without any problems. The
pump can be left running dry for an indefinite period. The screw pump is rather restricted in terms of
head, being limited to about 8.5 m in the larger sizes and reduced as the diameter decreases. This
limitation can be overcome to an extent by arranging two pumps in series. It requires a large amount of
space and the civil construction costs are high. The design of the bottom, submerged bearing is critical
and must be given special attention.
FIGURE 12.5.1: Typical Archimedian screw pumps
12.6 PUMP DRIVERS

Most pumps found in a wastewater plant will be driven by electric motors but other types of drive can also
be encountered. These include internal combustion engines, for temporary installations or for emergency
service to back-up electric sets, and steam or water turbines. Wherever possible, the driver is connected
directly to the pump through a flexible coupling but it may be preferable to incorporate a vee-belt drive or
gearbox to change the speed.
216
In the case of self-priming sewage pumps, it is not possible to adjust the flow by reducing the impeller
diameter and these pumps are regularly driven through a belt drive. Progressive cavity pumps are limited
to low speeds when required to handle high grit loads and these can also be driven through belts or
gearboxes.
The most common electric motor is the squirrel-cage induction type. This has a fixed stator,
accommodating the stator winding, and an aluminium rotor, housing a number of rotor bars. The motor
design provides a number of pairs of electrical poles and the rotational speed of a motor is given by the
formula:
rpm = frequency of supply x 60 Number of pairs of poles
Thus a 2 pole motor would run at a speed of 3 000 rpm and a 4 pole motor 1 500 rpm. This is the
theoretical speed and in practice, the actual operating speed is slightly lower because of electrical "slip".
The amount of slip is influenced by the size of the motor, larger motors having lower slip than smaller
sized motors. A 10 kW 2 pole motor will run at 2800 rpm, whereas a 300 kW motor will run at 2981 rpm
under full load conditions. At less than full load, the motor will run slightly faster.
A serious disadvantage of the induction motor was that the speed is fixed by the number of poles. This
has now been overcome by the use of variable frequency drives, which enable a standard induction
motor to run at any required speed between zero rpm and full rated speed, or even faster than full speed.
This variable speed drive has another advantage in that starting is soft and gentle and acceleration can
be controlled to reduce starting load on the electrical supply system It can easily be arranged for the
motor speed to be controlled by a rate of flow device, so that a pump can match the change of flow of
sewage influent to a pump station.
A much simpler version of this same device is the electronic "soft starter" which has the same features
but without the variable speed facility. This gives the soft start capability that protects the motor and the
supply system. It is possible to arrange for one soft starter to be shared between several motors of the
same size and this can reduce initial costs considerably.
12.7 PROTECTIVE DEVICES

The current trend is increasingly towards full automatic control of pump stations and it is important to
ensure that the plant is protected against abnormal operating conditions. The motors will always be
provided with over-current protection and larger motors may also be fitted with devices to monitor winding
temperature, bearing temperature and vibration levels.
217
Installations that run infrequently must be provided with electric heaters in motors and switch-gear panels
to prevent any condensation of moisture. Where motors are not fitted with integral heaters, it is possible
to arrange for a low voltage supply through the windings to keep them warm and dry when not in
operation.
The pumps must be protected against dry running and this can be done by level switches in the suction
sump, a limit switch on the non-return valve to sense that the valve is at least partly open or by actual flow
measurement, or a combination of these. The control system must also monitor the discharge pressure
and shut down the plant if the pumping head suddenly falls well below design levels.
Other devices can be arranged to detect blocked screens, flooding of the pump house, abnormal gland
leakage or even detect attempts to vandalise the installation.
Other control devices may be provided to protect the system against water-hammer or pipeline surge.
These may include special control valves or air-filled surge-control vessels and will be specially designed
to suit the individual system.
The control system can be interfaced to a central control station by telephone or radio links.
Every pump should be equipped with at least a pressure gauge on suction and delivery branches to
provide an indication of its performance.
218
CHAPTER 13
13. SAFETY ASPECTS

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Two aspects which are of major concern to persons involved in the operation and management of
sewage treatment works are:
1. Occupational health hazards
These include exposure to chemicals, dust, fumes, gases and vapours, smoke, biological infection,
temperature, humidity, and oxygen deficiency.
2. Physical safety
This includes the prevention of fires and explosions, the protection of persons from having accidental
contact with electrical equipment and moving machinery, and general safety aspects such as prevention
of falling and drowning and accidents resulting from the handling of materials.
The following proposals are intended to make designers more aware of the operational hazards in order
that safety may become a consideration in their future designs. All designs should be in accordance with
the Machinery and Occupational Safety Act 1983 (Act No.6 of 1983) and Regulations promulgated in
terms of the Act.
13.2 EMPLOYEE WELFARE

The welfare of staff employed on a sewage treatment works should be a top priority. A change
room/dining area and ablution facilities should always be provided. These should be in a building situated
a short distance away from the operational area and consist of:
1. A change room including adequate seating, a system of two lockers per employee (one for working
clothes and the other for personal clothing),wash hand basins, with hot and cold water, soap,
disinfectant dispensers and hand towels
2. Shower and W.C, facilities which should remain separate from but linked to the dressing area. Hot
and cold water is required for the showers.
3. A dining area which may be incorporated in the ablution building but should remain separate from
the other facilities. Wash hand basins with hot and cold water may also be included.
It is desirable that all of the above have wash-down facilities, adequate floor drainage and water-repellent
wall surfaces.
219
13.3 GENERAL SAFETY
13.3.1 FENCING
A sewage works should be fenced to prevent the unauthorised entry of persons.
13.3.2 HANDRAILING
Standard hand railing shall be fitted around all open tanks, sumps and channels whose walls are less
than 900 mm above ground level. Hand railing and kick-plates should be installed on all platforms, roofs
and catwalks where the level of these is more than 2 m above ground level and on all bridges across
tanks.
13.3.3 WARNING SIGNS

Warning signs should be installed in prominent positions. These should preferably be standard symbolic
signs which will not only serve the purpose of forewarning visitors, but will also constantly remind those
who work in the area of the dangers present.
FIGURE 13.3.1: Examples of correct safety signage
220
13.3.4 LIGHTING
Exterior floodlighting should be installed for night operations, which may also include plant maintenance,
inspections and sampling.
13.3.5 SAMPLING AREAS

Safe areas should be provided for the collection of samples or the setting up of automatic samplers. A
simple egg crate type floor incorporating a banded sampling hole with cover and hand railing surround is
sufficient.
13.3.6 FIRE
The correct type of fire-fighting apparatus should be located at easily accessible points in laboratories,
sludge handling and sludge storage areas and workshops. The choice of apparatus should be discussed
with the local Fire Officer.
13.3.7 PIPELINES
All exposed pipe-work should be colour-coded in accordance with SABS 10109-1-1995. An identification
chart should be displayed in a prominent place. In particular pipes carrying effluent and any taps on these
should be clearly marked.
13.3.8 VALVES
All valves on a works should be standardised for direction of opening and closing, and should be readily
accessible.
13.4 GENERAL STRUCTURES

13.4.1 VENTILATION AND LIGHTING
Fixed and cross-ventilation and adequate natural and artificial light should be provided in all buildings. In
areas such as engine rooms, laboratories, etc., where smoke, fumes, gases or vapours may be present,
forced mechanical ventilation may be necessary. The ventilation outlets should be so located as to
prevent contamination of fresh air inlets to other buildings.
13.4.2 FLOORS
Non-slip surfaces to floors, ramps and stairs are necessary especially in buildings where spillages may
occur. In addition, wash-down facilities, adequate drainage and water repellent surfaces to walls should
be incorporated. Non-slip surfaces can be achieved by impregnating epoxy paint with sand. It is
preferable that walking and working areas in storerooms and workshops be clearly distinguished. Where
221
pipes or cables are required to cross a floor, they should be laid in ducts built into the floor and covered
with a grating or plate, or in pipes laid under the floors.
13.4.3 STAIRWAYS AND LADDERS

Properly designed stairways of 1 m minimum width are preferred to fixed ladders. Safety cages are
essential where ladders over 2.5 m high are used,. For higher ladders and stairways, rest landings are
required. Fixed ladders should be incorporated on the inside of all open tanks and wells and life
preservers located nearby. Ladders and step-irons are subject to corrosion and unless properly
maintained may present a hazard in the long term due to corrosion. Consideration should be given to the
use of stainless steel in situations where the rate of corrosion will be high. An alternative solution is
therefore to have light aluminium ladders of different lengths available which can be used to gain access
to tanks and other structures.
13.4.4 DOORS
Doors leading from buildings, wherein potentially hazardous operations are carried out, should be of the
self-closing and outwards opening type. Doors should be large enough to allow machinery to be moved
into and removed from the building.
13.4.5 LOCATION OF OPERATIONAL EQUIPMENT

Operational equipment, pipe-work, valves etc., should be located for ease of access, operation and
maintenance but if possible these should not be at eye level.
13.4.6 WALLS AND CEILINGS

Walls and ceilings should be painted in light colours.
13.5 LABORATORY
13.5.1 EXITS
Where possible, the design of a laboratory should incorporate two easily accessible exits which are
remote from each other.
13.5.2 INTERIOR DOORS

Interior doors leading to or from a potentially hazardous area should be of the self-closing, swing type
with a wire-reinforced clear glass panel set at eye level, and clearly marked.
13.5.3 FIRE RESISTANT FINISHES

Wall surfaces, ceilings and furniture should be made of acid and fire-resistant materials.
222
13.5.4 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
,Laboratory hoods and fume cupboards should be considered where additional or special ventilation is
required.
13.6 WORKSHOP
13.6.1 NOISE
In the workshop building layout, consideration should be given to the reduction of noise.
13.6.2 EXITS
As in the case of the laboratory, two easily accessible exits which are remote from one another should be
incorporated in the design.
13.6.3 WASTE DISPOSAL AREA

The workshop area should include a well vented, roofed area where airtight receptacles can be stored for
the disposal of solvent and combustible wastes.
13.7 MACHINERY
13.7.1 BUILDINGS
Buildings that house engines, electrical motors and related equipment should, where possible, be located
above ground level. Consideration may be given to the location of noisy equipment in isolated or sound-
proofed buildings.
13.7.2 HOISTS
Fixed crawl beams, or eyes, should be provided where heavy equipment or machinery may be required to
be lifted and should, if possible, be positioned directly above the load. Sufficient space is required
between the load and the hoist trolley to enable loads to be lifted and removed without having to
dismantle other equipment.
13.8 LAYOUT OF PLANT

Adequate space should be provided between items of plant as this enables ease of operation, removal,
inspection and maintenance. Safety guards should be provided to all exposed moving parts - e.g.
couplings to motors.
223
13.9 STOREROOM
13.9.1 STORAGE AREAS
All storage areas should be fireproof structures and have concrete floors. They should be located above
ground level, and have adequate ventilation. The area should be protected from direct sunlight since
temperature control is essential. Where lubricants, chemicals and gas bottles are required to be stored,
separate areas should be provided for each. View windows into the storage rooms with light and
ventilation switches located on the outside should be considered in layouts.
13.10 CHLORINE
Leak detection devices should be installed in areas where chlorine is used or stored. Such equipment will
signal the leakage of gas. Storage for gas masks should be provided outside each area where chlorine is
used or stored.
13.11 PUMP STATION

13.11.1 BUILDINGS
Fluorescent lighting should be installed in dry wells approximately 2.5 m above the floor level to provide
adequate lighting for maintenance and operational work and to reduce the amount of shadow. Access to
wet wells should preferably be from the outside of a pump station.
13.11.2 PUMPS
Both suction and delivery pipework should be valved to prevent sludge or gas from entering the work area
when the pumps are removed or dismantled.
13.11.3 WATER SUPPLY

A water supply under a good pressure should be provided in order to hose down both wet and dry wells.
13.11.4 DRY WELLS, ETC.

Dry wells which house pumping sets should be provided with an automatically-operated gland leakage
pump.
224
13.12 ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
All electrical equipment and wiring should be properly insulated, earthed and adequately marked.
Electrical installations or apparatus including cables, lights, meters, switches, instruments etc., should
comply with SABS 10108-2005.
13.13 POTABLE WATER

Cross connections between the potable water supply and sludge or sewage pipelines should be
prevented at all times.
225
REFERENCES
BARNES D and WILSON F (1976) The design and operation of small sewage works. Publisher Wiley,
London.
BSA BRITISH STANDARDS SPECIFICATION (1971). BSA 1438:1971
BRITISH WATER (2005) Code of Practice – Sizing criteria for small wastewater treatment systems.
BRITISH WATER WEBSITE
CRITES RW and TCHOBONOGLOUS G (1998). Small and decentralised wastewater management

systems. Publisher McGraw-Hill.
CSIR (1985). A guide to the use of septic tank systems in South Africa. CSIR Publication, K86-1985.
FACT SHEET US EPA (1999) Screening and grit removal.
FORSTER C (2003) Wastewater Treatment and technology. Publisher Thomas Telford.
GERSBERG RM, ELKINS BV and GOLDMAN CR (1985). Wastewater treatment by artificial wetlands.
Wat. Sci. Technol. 17 443-450.
GOVERNMENT GAZETTE NO 26187 (March 2004) Revision of General Authorisations Section 39 of the
National Water Act, 1998 (Act No. 36 of 1998). Publisher Government Gazette, RSA.
GRADY CPL, DAIGGER GT AND LIM HC (1999) Biological wastewater treatment. 2nd Edition. Publisher
Marcel Dekker, New York.
HAIGH MDF (1991) Water and environmental management : Design and construction of works. Ed CP
James. Publisher Ellis Horwood Ltd.
HERSKOWITZ I (1988) The life cycle of the budding yeast Saccharomyces ceressiae. Microbiol. Rev. 52
536-553.
INSTITUTE FOR WATER POLLUTION CONTROL SOUTHERN AFRICAN BRANCH (1973). A guide to
the design of sewage purification works. Publisher IWPC.
226
INSTITUTE FOR WATER POLLUTION CONTROL SOUTHERN AFRICAN BRANCH (1987). A guide to
the design of sewage purification works. Publisher IWPC.
KICKUTH RW (1983). US Patent 4793929: Method for purification of sewage waters
MARA D (1976). Sewage treatment in hot climates. Publisher John Wiley and Sons Ltd. P 74.
MARA D and PEARSON HW (1986) Anaerobic waste stabilization ponds from artificial freshwater
environment: Waste stabilization ponds technology. Vol 8 Chp 4. Eds HJ Rehm and C Reed. Publishers
VCH Verlagsgesellschaft, Weinheim, Germany. pp177-206.
MARA D (2004) Domestic wastewater treatment in developing countries. Publisher Earthscan.
MCGARRY MG and PESCOD MD (1970). Stabilization pond design criteria for tropical Asia. Proc. 2nd Int.
Symposium on Waste Treatment Lagoons, Kansas City pp 114-132.
METCALF and EDDY (2003) Wastewater engineering – Treatment and re-use.4th Edition. Revised by G
Tchobanoglous and F L Burton. Publisher McGraw Hill
NATIONAL WATER ACT, RSA (1998). Act No. 36 of 1998, Pretoria, RSA.
REED SC, CRITES RW and MIDDLEBROOKS JE (1998) Natural systems for waste management and
treatment. 2nd Edition. Publisher McGraw Hill.
RICHARDSON CJ (1985). Mechanisms controlling phosphorus retention capacity in freshwater wetlands.

Science 228 (4706) 1424-1427.
SNYMAN HG and HERSELMAN JE (2006). The Guidelines for the utilisation and disposal of wastewater
sludges. WRC TT 261/06, 262/06, 263/06, 264/06 and 265/06.
SOUTH AFRICAN BUREAU OF STANDARDS (SABS) (1995). SABS 10109-1-1995. Concrete floors part
1: Bases to concrete floors. Publication 10109-1-1995.
SOUTH AFRICAN BUREAU OF STANDARDS (SABS) 0252-2 (1993). Water supply and drainage for
buildings Part 2: Drainage installations for buildings Publication 0252-2, reaffirmed 2002.
SOUTH AFRICAN BUREAU OF STANDARDS (SABS) (. The provision of services to townships.
227
SOUTH AFRICAN BUREAU OF STANDARDS (SABS) (2005). SABS 10108-2005. The classification of
hazardous locations and the selection of apparatus for use in such locations. Publication 10108-2005.
SOUTH DAKOTA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT Recommended design criteria for sedimentation.
STATE OF ILLINOIS REG 12444 (1997) Anaerobic sludge digestion. Publisher State of Illinois.
STOWELL R, TCHOBA G, COLT J and LUDWIG R (1981). Concepts in aquatic treatment system design.
Journ. Environ. Eng. Div. 107 (5) 919-940.
USEPA Report. USEPA Design manual summary report EPA/625/8-86/011 (1986). Sequencing batch
reactors.
USEPA Report (1987) Chp 3.3.5 p 63.
VESILIND (2003) Wastewater treatment plant design. Publisher WEF.
WASHINGTON STATE (1998) Criteria for sewage works design.
WASHINGTON STATE Website.
WEF MANUAL OF PRACTICE (1998) Design of municipal wastewater treatment plants 8 – 4th Edition.
WHITE JB (1970). Design of sewers and sewage treatment works. Publisher Edward Arnold.
WISA (1988) Manual on the design of small sewage works. Publisher WISA.
WRC TT34/87 (1987). A guide to water and wastewater management in the metal finishing industry. –
SRK. NATSURV 2. Pretoria, RSA.
WRC TT38/89 (1989). A guide to water and wastewater management in the dairy industry . – SRK.
NATSURV 4. Pretoria, RSA.
WRC TT39/89 (1989). A guide to water and wastewater management in the sorghum malt and beer
industry. – SRK. NATSURV 5. Pretoria, RSA.
WRC TT40/89 (1989). A guide to water and wastewater management in the edible oil industry. – SRK.
228
WRC TT45/90 (1990). A guide to water and wastewater management in the red meat abattoir industry. –
WRC TT46/90 (1990). A Guide to Water and Wastewater Management in the Poultry Abattoir Industry. –
WRC TT44/90 (1990). A Guide to Water and Wastewater Management in the Tanning and Leather
Finishing Industry. – SRK. NATSURV 10. Pretoria, RSA.
WRC TT47/90 (1990). A guide to water and wastewater management in the sugar industry. – SRK.
WRC TT49/90 (1990). A guide to water and wastewater management in the paper and pulp industry. –
WRC TT85/97 (1997). Permissible utilisation and disposal of sewage sludge. 1st Ed, Pretoria, RSA.
WRC TT154/02 (2002). Addendum 1 to Edition 1 of Guide: Permissible utilisation and disposal of sewage
sludge. 1st Ed, Pretoria, RSA.
229

TT 389 Municipal Wastewater Management PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

TT 389 Municipal Wastewater Management PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Process Design Manual For

Small Wastewater Works

Process Design Manual For Small Wastewater Works

Water Research Commission

DJ Nozaic and SD Freese

WRC REPORT NO. TT 389/09

Water Research Commission

Design Manual for Small Sewage Treatment Works.

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

3.1.1 Example of a flume 44

3.1.2 Example of a rectangular weir 46

3.2.1 Typical coarse screens 50

3.2.2 Manual cleaning of screens 52

3.2.3 Mechanically raked screens (eWISA) 52

3.3.1 Typical vortex-type grit chamber 56

4.1.1 Septic tank before installation 66

4.1.2 Partially installed septic tank 66

5.3.1 Typical maturation pond 90

5.6.1 Artificial reedbed under construction 99

5.6.2 The same artificial reedbed two years later 99

6.3.1 Typical primary settling tank (eWISA) 113

6.3.2 Typical secondary sedimentation tank 114

7.1.1 Typical activated sludge reactor basin (eWISA) 119

7.1.2 Typical activated sludge flow diagram (eWISA) 128

7.5.1 Typical bridge mounted surface aerator 145

8.1.1 Typical trickling filter 158

8.2.1 Schematic of a biological trickling filter (eWISA) 162

8.3.1 Rotating biocontactor 167

8.4.1 Typical submerged media reactor 175

9.2.1 Typical anaerobic digester (eWISA) 179

9.3.1 Schematic of a circular gravity thickener (eWISA) 191

8.4.1 Typical sludge drying beds (eWISA) 199

10.1 Typical chlorine contact tank 207

12.5.1 Typical Archimedian screw pumps 218

13.3.1. Examples of correct safety signage 222

TABLE TITLE PAGE

2.3.4 Typical peak factors for estimation of peak flows in l/s 11

2.5.1 Suggested loads per capita for typical domestic sewage 18

2.5.2 British Water - Table of loadings for sewage disposal facilities 19

2.8.2 Monitoring requirements for domestic wastewater discharges 34

2.8.3 Listed water resources 35

3.2.1 Description of coarse screens 50

3.2.2 Screening device classification 52

3.2.3 Design criteria for mechanically cleaned bar screens 53

3.2.4 Screening removal quantities 53

3.2.5 Grit and screenings removals at various plants in the USA 54

3.3.1 Horizontal flow grit chamber design 60

4.1.1 Desludging frequency for septic tanks 65

4.3.1 Anaerobic contact process performance data from various applications. 74

5.5.2 Calculated efficiencies at different temperatures and detention times 97

7.2.2 Case studies for several SBR installations 135

8.2.1 Guide for loading rates of biological filters 162

8.2.2 Media for biological filters from BSA 1438:1971 163

10.1.1 Removal of bacteria by different processes 203

1.2 HOW TO USE THE DESIGN MANUAL

2.1 GUIDE TO ESTABLISHING A WASTEWATER WORKS

2.1.3 SLUDGE UTILISATION AND DISPOSAL STANDARDS

2.1.5 OPERATOR LEVEL

2.3.2 ASSESSMENT OF WASTEWATER FLOW

2.3.2.1 Domestic Sewage

Low income group:

Middle to upper-income groups:

1) An allowance of 15% for storm-water infiltration and other