Professional Documents
Culture Documents
These notes are part of a 3rd year undergraduate course called "Computer Peripherals", taught at Nanyang Technological University
School of Computer Engineering in Singapore, and developed by Associate Professor Kwoh Chee Keong. The course covered
various topics relevant to modern computers (at that time), such as displays, buses, printers, keyboards, storage devices etc... The
course is no longer running, but these notes have been provided courtesy of him although the material has been compiled from
various sources and various people. I do not claim any copyright or ownership of this work; third parties downloading the material
agree to not assert any copyright on the material. If you use this for any commercial purpose, I hope you would remember where you
found it.
Further reading is suggested at the end of each chapter, however you are recommended to consider a much more modern alternative
reference text as follows:
Magnetic tape storage is often the forgotten or ignored peripheral device until the first disk
crash or virus infection. In the early days, when disk storage was small and expensive,
magnetic tapes were used for data processing as well as storage. A typical process would
include reading data in from a set of punched cards. These input records are sorted and written
out to tape. Often the sorting process requires the use of two tape drives to perform the sort
merge operations as internal memory could be quite limited. The sorted input data tape is
mounted on one drive, the "old" master tape on the next drive, and the updated output master
on a third drive.
Today the main applications are for archive and backup, where the cost as well as
volume per megabyte is still much lower than any other competing medium.
Magnetic tape
Multi-track serpentine
Multi-track parallel Archive QIC 24/150 Irwin QIC 40/80 Helical scan
Teac / Philips 9-track IBM / Cipher Digital audio tape - ARDAT Exabyte
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Magnetic Tape Drives 2
In the early years of data processing using computers, tape drives were used for the storage of
data files on a record-by-record basis. For updating a record or block of data is first read into
the CPU, calculations performed, and an updated record is written back to the tape. Provided
the block length remains the same, the drive would rewind the tape by one block length and
the updated block written back over the old record.
In this blocked mode of operation, data are recorded in fixed physical blocks of 512
to 4096 bytes. Between each block there is an Inter-Record Gap (IRG) of up to 0.5 inch. The
magnetic tape controller uses the IRG to locate the beginning of each block and can update or
over-write data on the tape on a block by block basis.
Obviously blocked mode operation places a higher demand on the tape transport
mechanism. Tape movement now consists a sequences forward, stop, reverse, stop operations
in quick succession. In addition, it has the capability of searching for a specific block by
skipping in the forward or reverse directions.
Although blocked mode operation can be implemented on any kind of tape drives, it
is usually found only in the large 1/2-inch fixed head multi-track drives and s few mini-
cartridge units. In the case of the mini-cartridge units, additional software is used to format the
tape into "tracks" and "sectors" so that it emulates a floppy disk drive with a capacity of 20/40
Mbytes.
Table 1 gives the typical specifications of some popular IBM blocked mode 1/2-inch
tape drives.
Figure 0-2. Half-inch vacuum column magnetic tape transport.shows the mechanism
of a vacuum column tape drive. Because of the start-stop operations, keeping the tape well
tensioned across the read/write head is non-trivial. Lower cost units, running at low speeds of
45 ips, use spring-loaded arms, but for the higher performance units, a vacuum column is
used. The lower pressure within the column draws in excess slack in the tape gently, without
causing damage by stretching, or physical contact.
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Magnetic Tape Drives 3
Tape
Capstan
Erase head
Capstan
When the primary application of tape drives is for the archiving and backup, the need to
operate in the start-stop mode is no longer required. In such applications, a file or set of files
are written onto the tape. If these files have changed, the updated versions are normally kept
by re-writing the complete files. No attempt is made to update just the affected records within
the file. In this case streaming mode tape drives can be used. Streaming tapes write complete
files or groups of files as a continuous "stream" of data. Although the actual data may be
recorded in physical blocks, there is no support for locating and modifying a particular block
on the tape and leaving the portions before and after unaffected.
Tape motion is controlled only in the forward direction for read, write or skip
forward to file mark or end of file. Reverse motion is used only to rewind the tape back to the
beginning. We will consider in turn the two current tape drive mechanisms, the fixed head and
rotary head machines, both operating in the streaming mode.
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Magnetic Tape Drives 4
We shall use QIC-24 standard to look at the various aspects of the QIC tape drive.
Referring again to Figure 0-3 the read/write operation is explained in the following section.
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Magnetic Tape Drives 5
3. Writing on Track 0 continues till the Early Warning (EW) hole is detected.
Drive stops accepting data from host. Recording stops when all remaining data
in buffers are written to tape.
4. Tape movement continues in the forward direction until End of Tape (EOT) is
reached. Erase head is disabled. Read / Write head for Track 1 in reverse
direction is selected.
5. Tape is now moved in the reverse direction and recording begins when EW
hole detected. Recording continues until the LP hole is detected.
6. When end of Track 1 is reached at BOT, tape head is moved (down 0.048 inch
from Track 0 to Track 2), and positioned at the next track. Head is moved
across width of tape to read/write the various data tracks by attaching it to a
screw driven by a stepper motor, with resolution of 0.001 inch.
7. Tape movement is changed back to the forward direction and Track 2 is
written.
8. Similar procedures are used, alternating between forward and reverse directions
and shifting the head after every pair (F/R) of tracks.
9. The serpentine recording pattern results.
10. The READ Operation is similar.
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Magnetic Tape Drives 6
1 4 2
Preamble B 512 Bytes of data B B Postamble
y y y
t t t
e e e
s s
CRC
Data block marker Block address
0 1 2 3
Control nybble
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11.2.2.3 Underrun
If data from the host are interrupted, or if data transfers from the host drop below 90
Kbytes/sec, underrun occurs and duplicate blocks maybe recorded. These duplicate blocks are
transparent to the host.
11.2.2.4 Reliability
The QIC standard has error processing and recovery software incorporated in the firmware.
Their operation is transparent to host and user. For each block of 512 bytes of data plus
control data, a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) character is computed and recorded. The CRC
generating polynomial used is:
x16 + x12 + x5 + 1
A read check performed on each block of data as it is written. The read head is
positioned 0.3 in. as shown in Figure 12.3 after the write head and is used for normal reading
and for the read-after-write checking. Based on the tape speed, this distance is equivalent to a
delay of approximately 300 bytes.
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Magnetic Tape Drives 8
In addition to the various recording capacity/format standards QIC also defined a standard
electrical interface and a set of commands, designated QIC-02. These are shown in Table 3
and Figure 0-8 respectively. This means the same tape controller and device driver is usable
across the whole range of tape drives whatever the capacity. The only change that may be
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Magnetic Tape Drives 9
required is to modify the capacity parameter so that the software can determine when the next
volume of tape needs to be mounted.
A low level electrical interface for the tape drive has also been defined as the QIC-36
standard. This is basically the electrical and electromechanical interface and does not include
any intelligence in the tape drive electronics. Essentially this specifies the interface between
the read/write head, the motors and sensors on the basic tape drive and the drive controller.
QIC-02 Interface
Databus 0:7
Parity (opt)
On-line QIC-36 interface
Request
Host Reset Tape controller
Transfer
Acknowledge
Ready Tape drive
Exception
Direction
Ground
Figure 12.4 shows the functional block diagram of a typical QIC tape drive with a SCSI
interface. The 8-bit microprocessor together with the custom VLSI, provides complete control
of the drive. Memory consists of 16 Kbytes of programme in Eprom and 64 Kbytes of
dynamic RAM for buffering. The standard 5080 SCSI controller device operates under the
control of the microprocessor, negotiating handshake protocols, commands and data transfer
with the host computer. The VLSI brings together a number of functions in one reliable
package by reducing component count. These are:
• DMA Controller, to handle data transfer from the host through the SCSI
controller.
• Interrupt Controller
• Memory Access Controller, provides multiplexing of memory and address
buses, dynamic RAM refresh and parity checking.
• Read/Write Controller, in the write mode performs the read-after-write
function to verify correct writing of data.
• Clock Generator, provides the various clocks for the microprocessor, SCSI
interface and read/write phase clocks.
• Data Separator; when the data is read from tape, it is a mixture of data and
clock signals. The read circuit conditions and detects these signals which are
then passed to the VLSI to be separated, making use of the PLL.
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During the write operation, the erase circuit is active during the write of track 0,
when a complete erase is performed on the whole tape. The write circuit provides accurate
control of the write current to the head to cause the flux transitions on the tape.
11.2.6 Conclusions
Disk capacities are increasing rapidly; and backup devices with sufficient capacity are needed
to keep pace with this increase. Current Winchester disk capacity is about 1.3 GB, reaching
out to 2 GB. The two competing candidates for backup devices, are the cartridge tape and
optical disks (WORM). Presently tape drives have the price advantage, and the QIC-1350
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tape, with a capacity of 1.35 GB has been designed for this application. Development
continues to continuing increasing this capacity.
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heads writes adjacent tracks onto the tape. The ANSI Digital Data Storage (DDS) standard
format has been proposed for the use of DAT for data storage. Typical specifications of a
currently available DAT product is given in Table 4.
DDS DAT is the Digital Data Storage format for Digital Audio Tape, a standard format
definition which uses the DAT in a streaming mode. There is a second format defined by
Hitachi, Data/DAT, which supports random access. However Data/Dat has a lower data
transfer rate and less storage capacity.
Referring to Figure 0-11 it is observed that areas of the tape is allocated for device,
reference and vendor information. These are device and vendor specific. There is usually one
or two data areas and only one is shown here.
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11.3.2 Conclusions
DDS DAT, because of it compactness and high storage capability is rapidly gaining popularity
as a backup storage device. Some of the latest products use tape lengths of 90 m. in a
cartridge. Data compression is built into the drive controller resulting in a device that can
store up to 8 GB per cartridge. If that is still insufficient, there are "juke boxes" with
autoloaders that can manage a library of cartridges.
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