CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter the researcher presents theories supporting this research.

They are language, language and society, sociolinguistics, code, code switching,

kinds of code switching, code mixing, and kinds of code mixing.

2.1 Language

Because linguistics is the study of language, the object of linguistics is

only language. According to Bybee (2001: 1), language has a crucial role in

shaping the form and content of sound systems. The sounds have symbols that

should be pronounced by people, in order to deliver those symbols to others.

In fact, language can be the instrument to relate people with other people and

their environment.

According to Jacobson in Soeparno (2005: 7), language has six

functions. Those functions are:

1) Emotive

Emotive function is used to express the speaker’s feeling such as

happiness, disappoint, sadness, anger, and so on.

2) Connative

Different with emotive function, connative function refers to the

listener who does something of what speaker’s says.

3) Referential

If people talk about problems in certain topics, it includes in

referential function. The topic which has been chosen will become

the reference to make the conversation by using certain language.

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 4) Poetic

Sharing information includes in poetic function. In fact, the symbol

and sound which are used are purposed to deliver messages.

5) Phatic

Phatic function is related with people interaction. In this function,

the purpose of language only uses to interact with others.

6) Metalingual

While people talk about some problems of language by using

certain language, it includes in metalingual function.

Generally, those functions of language whether specific function or

general function can be the forms of communication to create interaction

between one people with other people.

2.2 Language and Society

According to Wardaugh (2006: 10), there are several possible

relationships between language and society. Those are:

1. Social structure may influence or determine linguistic structure

and/or behavior.

2. Linguistic structure and/or behavior may either influence or

determine social structure

3. Language and society may influence each other

4. There is no relationship at all between linguistic structure and

social structure and that each is independent of the other.

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 2.3 Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics is one of branches of linguistics. According to Jendra

(2010: 9) sociolinguistics a branch of linguistics that takes language as an

object of study. It is a field that analizes language as part of social property.

The term of this study refers to the study of languge in relation to society.

Besides, Yule (2010: 254) also states that the term sociolinguistics is used

generally for the study of the relationship between language and society.

In addition, Wardhaugh (2006: 13) states that sociolinguistics is

concerned with investigating the relationships between language and society

with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and of

how languages function in communication.

2.4 Code

According to Swann, et al. (2004:40) a code is neutral term to refer to

a language or language variety, seeking to avoid the subjective nuances

associated with terms like dialect. The term lays emphasis upon the linguistic

system as an abstract code, comprising meaning bearing elements that may be

realized differently in different styles or registers or by different social groups.

People also use code when they want to stress the uses of language or

language variety in a particular community. For example, a Madurese who

lives in Malang may have two codes: Javanese and Madurese language. He or

she may use one code (Javanese) at campus and the other code (Madurese) at

home or when he or she is talking to neighbors. If someone uses more than

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one code when communicating with others, they usually select one code for

certain purposes in other places, and with other people.

Jendra (2010: 70) states in a bilingual or multilingual society, it is

normal for the people to be in a situation that they have to use two or more

codes. In this situation, they may consider for example, who speak to them, in

which language and society, and when or where the conversation takes place.

Although choosing a code is one of the routines, bilingual or multilingual have

to develop the skill in deciding code choosing.

2.4.1 Code Switching

According to Isharyanti (2009: 68) code switching or inter-sentential

code-alternation occurs when a speaker uses more than one language in a

single conversation above the clause level to deliver his/her intents. There are

three contextual factors should be taken into account: 1) the relationship

among speakers; 2) the setting where the talk takes place and; 3) the topic

being discussed.

According to Hymes (in Jendra, 2010:74) code switching has become

a common term for alternate use of two or more languages, or varieties of

language, or even speech styles.

From that definition, code switching is found more with bilingual or

multilingual speakers. Multilingual may be said to switch from a variety to

another. The definition also suggests that code switching should be found in

single conversation.

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 2.4.2 Code Mixing

Code mixing also called intra-sentential code switching or intra-

sentential code-alternation occurs when speakers use two or more languages

below clause level within one social situation (Isharyanti 2009: 69).

Code mixing is a part of linguistics which is important to study. The

concept is used to refer to more general form of language contact that may

include cases of code switching and the other form of contacts which

emphasizes the lexical items. Muysken (2000:1) states:

I am using the term code mixing to refer to all cases where lexical items and
grammatical features from two languages appear in one sentence.
Based on the statement, code mixing can be used to identify almost

any linguistic mixed forms resulting from language contact.

2.4.2.1 Kinds of Code Mixing

Muysken (2000: 3) clasify the kinds of code mixing on insertion,

alternation, and congruent lexicalization.

1. Insertion

Insertion occurs when lexical items from one language are

incorporated into another.

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 Figure 1 illustrates a graphic representation of insertion.

A B A

…a… …b… …a…

Taken from Muysken (2000: 7)

In the diagram “a” represents lexical items of the first language and “b”

stands for the lexical item of the second language that has been inserted in the

utterance by the speaker.

Example of insertion ( Bahasa Indonesia – English )

Jika dibuat sedikit pendek, dress itu akan lebih baik.

(It will be better when you sorthen the dress)

2. Alternation

Alternation occurs when structures of two languages are alternated

indistinctively both at the grammatical and lexical level.

Figure 2 illustrates a graphic representation of alternation.

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 A B

…a… …b…

Taken from Muysken (2000: 7)

In the diagram, A & B represent structures of the two languages that reflect

the alternation that takes places in the utterances produced by the speakers.

Example of alternation ( Bahasa Indonesia – English )

I wish Farah Quinn pakai aksesori di sekitar leher daripada pakai gelang.

(I wish Farah Quinn prefer to use necklace than bracelet)

3. Congruent lexicalization

Congruent lexicalization occurs where two languages share

grammatical structures which can be filled lexically with elements

from either language. Figure 3 illustrates a graphic representation

of congruent lexicalization.

A/B

…a… …b… …a… …b…

Taken from Muysken (2000: 7)

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In the diagram, the grammatical structure is shared by languages A and B, and

words from both languages a and b are inserted more or less randomly.

Example of congruent lexicalization ( Bahasa Indonesia – English )

Vicky Shu disini reminds me of Dolly Parton versi brunette!

(Here, Vicky Zhu reminds me of Dolly Parton in brunette version)