Chapter 2

Chapter 2
Mathematical models of physical systems
Outline
• Introduction, • Block Diagrams,
• Laplace Transform Review, • Signal‐Flow Graphs,
• The Transfer Function, • Mason’s Rule.
• Mathematical models of
Electrical, Mechanical,
Electromechanical System and
Electric Circuit Analogs,
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Introduction
• Mechanical, electrical, electromechanical, thermal, hydraulic, economic,
biological, and systems, may be characterized by differential equations.
• The response of dynamic system to an input may be obtained if these

differential equations are solved.
• The differential equations can be obtained by utilizing physical laws

governing a particular system, for example, Newton's laws for mechanical
systems, Kirchhoffs laws for electrical systems, etc.
Introduction
• Mathematical models: The mathematical description of the dynamic
characteristic of a system
• The first step in the analysis of dynamic system is to derive its model.
• In obtaining a model, we must make a compromise between the
simplicity of the model and the accuracy of results of the analysis.
Building Blocks
• Systems can be made up from a range of building blocks.
• Each building block is considered to have a single property or function.
• Example: an electric circuit system which is made up from blocks which

represent the behavior of resistance, capacitance, and inductor, respectively.
• By combining these building blocks a variety of electrical circuit systems can be

built up and the overall input‐output relationship can be obtained.
• A system built in this way is called a lumped parameter system.
Cont’d
• We would prefer a mathematical representation such as that shown in Figure below,
where a mathematical function, called a transfer function, is inside each block, and
block functions.
Laplace Transform Review
• The Laplace transform is defined as:
• Where , a complex variable. Thus, knowing f(t) and that the integral in the
equation exists, we can find a function, F(s), that is called the Laplace transform of f(t).
• But why Laplace transform?
A system represented by a differential equation is difficult to model as a block
diagram.
Cont’d
• The inverse Laplace transform, which allows us to find f(t) given
F(s), is
• We usually use tables to find the inverse Laplace transform of

the original function in time domain.
Example 1: Find the Laplace transform of .
Cont’d
• Example 2: Find the inverse Laplace transform of
• For this example we make use of the frequency shift theorem, Item 4 of
the Laplace theorem properties table shown in slide 11 and the Laplace
transform of , Item 3 of Table shown in slide 9.
• If the inverse transform , the inverse transform
of is . Hence, .
Partial‐Fraction Expansion
• To find the inverse Laplace transform of a complicated function, we can convert
the function to a sum of simpler terms for which we know the Laplace transform
of each term. The result is called a partial‐fraction expansion.
• If ⁄ , where the order of N(s) is less than the order of D(s),

then a partial‐fraction expansion can be made. If the order of N(s) is greater
than or equal to the order of D(s), then N(s) must be divided by D(s) successively
until the result has a remainder whose numerator is of order less than its
denominator.
Cont’d
• Example 3: 1
• There are three cases where F(s) can be expanded into partial fractions
Case 1. Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Distinct
• Example 4: Find the Laplace inverse of the following function.
2 2
;
1 2 1 2 1 2
• , , 1, 2
• , , 2, 2
Cont’d
•
• Using Laplace transform :
• 2 2
• In general, then, given an F(s) whose denominator has real and distinct roots, a partial
fraction expansion,
• If the order of N(s) is less than the order of D(s).
Cont’d
• To evaluate each residue, Ki, we multiply the previous equation by the denominator of the
corresponding partial fraction. Thus, if we want to find Km, we multiply the equation by (s+pm) and
get:
• If we let s approach ‐pm, all terms on the right‐hand side of the above equation go to zero except
the term Km, leaving
Cont’d
• Example 5: Given the following differential equation, solve for y(t) if all initial
conditions are zero. Use the Laplace transform.
• The Laplace transform of this equation is
• Solving for the response, Y(s), yields
Cont’d
• The partial fraction expansion of Y(s) is
• Using Laplace transform table
Cont’d
• Case 2. Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Repeated
Example 6: Find the inverse Laplace transform of
• To find K3 we see that if we differentiate the above equation with respect to s,
• K3 is isolated and can be found if we let s approach -2. Hence, K3= -2
Cont’d
• If the denominator root is of higher multiplicity than 2, successive differentiation
would isolate each residue in the expansion of the multiple root.
• In general, then, given an F(s) whose denominator has real and repeated roots, a
partial‐fraction expansion.
 can be made if the order of N(s) is less than the order of D(s) and the repeated roots are of
multiplicity r at -p1.
Cont’d
• To find K1 through Kr for the roots of multiplicity greater than unity,
first multiply the last equation by (s+p1)r getting F1(s), which is
• Immediately, we can solve for K1 if we let s approach -p1. We can solve for K2 if we
differentiate F1(s) with respect to s and then let s approach –p1. Subsequent differentiation will
allow us to find K3 through Kr. The general expression for K1 through Kr for the multiple roots
is
Cont’d
Case 3. Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Complex or Imaginary
• In general, given an F(s) whose denominator has complex or purely

imaginary roots, a partial‐fraction expansion.
Cont’d
• Example 7: Find the inverse Laplace transform of
• This function can be expanded in the following form:
, K1 is found in the usual way to be
• K2 and K3 can be found by first multiplying the above equation by the lowest
common denominator, 2 5 and clearing the fractions. After
simplification with , we obtain,
Cont’d
• The last term can be shown to be the sum of the Laplace transforms of an
exponentially damped sine and cosine.
and
• Adding both these expressions, gives:
and
The Transfer Function
• The transfer function will allow separation of the input, system, and output
into three separate and distinct parts, unlike the differential equation.
• The function will also allow us to algebraically combine mathematical

representations of subsystems to yield a total system representation.
• Let us begin by writing a general nth‐order, linear, time‐invariant differential
equation,
Cont’d
• where c(t) is the output, r(t) is the input, and the ai’s, bi’s, and the form of the
differential equation represent the system.
• Taking the Laplace transform of both sides and assuming that all initial conditions are
zero,
• Now form the ratio of the output transform, C(s), divided by the input transform, R(s):
Cont’d
• The transfer function separates the output, C(s), the input, R(s), and the
system, which is the ratio of polynomials in s on the right.
• We call this ratio, G(s), the transfer function and evaluate it with zero
initial conditions.
• The transfer function can be represented as a block diagram
Cont’d
• Example 8: Find the transfer function represented by
• Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, assuming zero initial
conditions, we have
• Use this result of Example 8, find the response, c(t) to an input, r(t)=u(t)
a unit step, assuming zero initial conditions.
•
• Expanding by partial fractions, we get
• Finally, taking the inverse Laplace transform of each term yields
In general, a physical system that can be represented
by a linear, time-invariant differential equation can be
modeled as a transfer function.
Practice problems 1
1) Find the Laplace transform of
2) Find the inverse Laplace transform of
3) Find the transfer function, / , corresponding to the
differential equation 3 7 5 4 3
4) Find the differential equation corresponding to the transfer function,
2 1
6 2
5) Find the ramp response for a system whose transfer function is
Outline
• Mathematical models of • Block Diagrams,
Electrical networks, • Signal‐Flow Graphs,
Translational mechanical systems,
• Mason’s Rule.
Rotational mechanical systems,
and
Electromechanical systems as
transfer functions
Electric Circuit Analogs
Mathematical models of Electrical networks
• Equivalent circuits for the electric networks that we work with first consist of three
passive linear components: resistors, capacitors, and inductors
Cont’d
• We now combine electrical components into circuits, decide on the input
and output, and find the transfer function.
• Our guiding principles are Kirchhoff’s laws. We sum voltages around loops
or sum currents at nodes, depending on which technique involves the
least effort in algebraic manipulation, and then equate the result to zero.
• From these relationships we can write the differential equations for the
circuit. Then we can take the Laplace transforms of the differential
equations and finally solve for the transfer function.
Cont’d
• Example 9: Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, Vc(s) to the
input voltage, V(s) in Figure below.
• Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero

initial conditions, yields the integro-differential equation
for this network as
,
Block diagram of series RLC
electrical network for the
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output interest 34
Cont’d Laplace-transformed network
For the capacitor,
For the resistor,
For the inductor, ⟹
Now define the following transfer function:
• Concept of impedance simplifies the solution for the transfer function.

Cont’d
• Example 10: Transfer Function—Single Node via Transform Methods
⟹Solving for the transfer function, / we arrive at the same result.
Cont’d
• Example 11: Transfer Function—Single Loop via Voltage Division
⟹Solving for the transfer function, / we arrive at the same result.
Cont’d
Transfer Function—Multiple Loops
• Example 12: Given the network of Figure below, find the transfer

function, ⁄
Cont’d
1. Convert the network into Laplace transforms for impedances and circuit
variables, assuming zero initial conditions.
2. Assume a transform current and a current direction in each mesh.
3. Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each mesh.
4. Assume a transform current and a current direction in each mesh.
5. Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each mesh.
Cont’d
• Around Mesh 1:
• Around Mesh 2:
• Combining like terms, of the above two equations become simultaneous equations in
I s and I s
• We can use Cramer’s rule (or any other method) for solving the simultaneous equations) to get
I s
Cont’d
where
• Forming the transfer function, G(s), yields
Block diagram of the network for the output interest
Cont’d
Transfer Function—Multiple Nodes
• Example 13: Find the transfer function, ⁄ ,for the circuit in
Figure below. Use nodal analysis.
Cont’d
• The sum of currents flowing from the nodes marked and are , respectively,
• Rearranging and expressing the resistances as conductances, 1⁄ and 1⁄ , we

obtain,
Cont’d
• Solving for the transfer function, ⁄ , yields
Block diagram of the network
Cont’d
Transfer Function—Inverting Operational Amplifier Circuit
• Example 14: Find the transfer function, ⁄ , for the circuit given
in Figure below.
Cont’d
• Z1 is the reciprocal of the sum of the admittances.
• For Z2 the impedances add, or
• The transfer function of the inverting operational amplifier is
45.95 22.55 → The resulting circuit is called a PID controller
1.232 and can be used to improve the performance
of a control system (It will be explored in
chapter 7.
Practice problems 2
1. Find the transfer function, G s ⁄ for the circuit given in
Figure below. Solve the problem in two ways—mesh analysis and nodal analysis. Show that the two
methods yield the same result.
2. If Z1 is the impedance of a 10 μF capacitor and Z2 is impedance of a 100 kΩ resistor, find the transfer
function, , if these components are used with (a) an inverting operational amplifier and (b)
a noninverting amplifier respectively. Z2 is the feedback impedance.
Translational Mechanical System
• Mechanical systems, like electrical networks, have three passive, linear
components.
• Two of them, the spring and the mass, are energy‐storage elements; one
of them, the viscous damper, dissipates energy.
• The two energy‐storage elements are analogous to the two electrical

energy‐storage elements, the inductor and capacitor.
• The energy dissipater is analogous to electrical resistance.
Cont’d
Translational Spring
viscous damper (Door Stoppers, dashpot)
Cont’d
We will model mechanical systems using three components:
• Spring: A spring applies a force against compression/expansion
• Mass: A moving mass has inertia and resists changes in velocity
• Viscous Damper: Resists motion (pure energy loss)
Cont’d
• In the table, K, fv, and M are

called spring constant,
coefficient of viscous friction,
and mass, respectively.
Compare the basic mechanical building blocks with the basic electrical building blocks.
1. Analogies with electrical quantities: Force is analogous to voltage, velocity to

current, and displacement to charge.
2. Analogies with electrical components: Spring ≡ Capacitor, Mass ≡ Inductor, Viscous
Damper ≡ Resistor
Cont’d
• Example 15: Find the transfer function, ⁄ , for the system of
Figure below.
• Assume the mass is traveling toward the right, pulled by the force f(t). All other forces oppose
this motion.
• Begin the solution by drawing the free-body diagram.
• Place on the mass all forces felt by the mass.
• Only the applied force points to the right; all other forces impede the motion and act to oppose
it. Hence, the spring, viscous damper, and the force due to acceleration point to the left.
Cont’d
• The sum of force should be zero:
Fig: Free body diagram
• Taking the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions,
or
• Solving for the transfer function yields
Block diagram
Cont’d
Impedances for mechanical components
• Taking the Laplace transform of the force‐displacement column
For the spring For the viscous damper For the mass
• If we define impedance for mechanical components as:⟹
• Replacing each force in example 15 by its Laplace transform: ⟹
• We could obtained immediately without writing the

differential equation such as shown in the figure below
Fig: Transformed
free-body diagram
Linearly Independent Motions
• Many mechanical systems are similar to multiple‐loop and multiple‐node
electrical networks, where more than one simultaneous differential equation is
required to describe the system.
• In mechanical systems, the number of equations of motion required is equal to

the number of linearly independent motions.
• Linear independence implies that a point of motion in a system can still move if
all other points of motion are held still. Another name for the number of linearly
independent motions is the number of degrees of freedom.
Cont’d
• For example, in a two‐loop electrical network, each loop current
depends on the other loop current, but if we open‐circuit just one of the
loops, the other current can still exist if there is a voltage source in that
loop.
• Similarly, in a mechanical system with two degrees of freedom, one point

of motion can be held still while the other point of motion moves under
the influence of an applied force.
Number of degree of Number of masses in the Number of possible types
= X
freedom of the system system of motion of each mass
For mechanical systems we use superposition to analyze such systems. For each
independently moving part:
 Assume all other independently moving parts are held still
 Draw the free‐body diagram for the part, consisting of the forces due to its own
motion
 Sum the forces to generate the DE or Laplace equation
Cont’d
Transfer Function—Two Degrees of Freedom
• Example 16: Find the transfer function, ⁄ , for the system of Figure below.
Cont’d
• The system has two degrees of freedom, since each mass
can be moved in the horizontal direction while the other is
held still (i.e. There are two independently moving parts ).
• Thus, two simultaneous equations of motion will be required
to describe the system.
• The two equations come from free-body diagrams of each
mass.
Cont’d
• Consider the forces on M1 for the following two situations:
(a) Assume M2 is held still and M1 moves to the right
(b) Assume M1 is held still and M2 moves to the right
• a) Forces on M1 due only to
motion of M1; b) forces on M1 due
only to motion of M2; c) all forces
on M1
• a) Forces on M2 due only to
motion of M2; b) forces on M2 due
only to motion of M1; c) all forces
on M2
• The Laplace transform of the equations of motion can now be written from the free-body diagram.
• From this, the transfer function, ⁄ , is
where
Example of real world application: Automobile Suspension System
Cont’d
• As the car moves along the road, the vertical

displacements at the tires act as the motion
excitation to the automobile suspension system.
• The motion of this system consists of a
translational motion of the center of mass and a
rotational motion about the center of mass.
Practice problems 3
2. Find the transfer function,
1. Write the equations of motion for the
⁄ , the translational
mechanical network of Figure below
mechanical system shown in Figure
below.
Rotational Mechanical System
• Rotational mechanical systems are modelled in almost the same way as
translational systems except that:
We replace torque with force, translational displacement with
angular displacement and transitional velocity with angular
velocity replaces.
• For a force F acting on a body at point P, torque is defined as,
Cont’d
• where R is the distance from P to the body’s axis of rotation and is the
angle the force makes to the ray from the axis of rotation to P. Hence, if
the force is perpendicular to the axis of rotation then, .
• A rotating body can be considered a system of particles with masses m1,
m2, m3, …The moment of inertia is defined as,
⋯
• The total kinetic energy is,
Cont’d
• Recall that the kinetic energy for a translational system is 1⁄2 . So J is
analogous to mass in translational motion.
• Also, similar to the equation F = ma in translational systems, we can relate
torque and angular acceleration,
• The mechanical components for rotational systems are the same as those
for translational systems, except that the components undergo rotation
instead of translation.
• Torque‐angular velocity, torque‐angular displacement, and impedance rotational
relationships for springs, viscous dampers, and inertia.
The values of K, D, and J

are called spring constant,
coefficient of viscous
friction, and moment of
inertia, respectively
Cont’d
• The concept of degrees of freedom carries over to rotational
systems, except that we test a point of motion by rotating it
while holding still all other points of motion.
• The number of points of motion that can be rotated while all

others are held still equals the number of equations of motion
required to describe the system.
• Example 17: Find the transfer function, ⁄ , for the system of Figure below.
• There are two degrees of freedom, since each inertia can be rotated while the other is held
still. Hence, it will take two simultaneous equations to solve the system.
• The free body diagram of J1,
• The free body diagram of J2,
• With the application of Newton's second law on the two free body diagram of J1 and J2 , we
get two simultaneous equations.
• From which the required transfer function is found to be
where
Systems with Gears
• Gears allow to match a drive system and a load—a trade‐off between
speed and torque. For example:
A 5‐10 speed bicycle allows a rider to control the speed and torque advantage while
riding in straight roads and uphill.
A motor driving a belt for transport system requires speed reduction.
• We will assume that connected gears fit perfectly together. However, in
reality gears exhibit backlash where one gear will move through a small
angle before its teeth meet those of the other gear.
Cont’d
• The input gear on the left has radius r1 and N1
teeth. It is rotated by θ1(t) due to a torque T1(t).
• What is the relationship between the rotation of
the input gear and that of the output gear, θ2(t)?
• Although, the angles will differ, the arc length
through which both gears turn will be the same:
• Since the ratio of the number of teeth along
• Therefore the relation between angles is as follows, the circumference is in the same proportion
as the ratio of the radii.
Cont’d
• What is the relationship between the input torque, T1, and the delivered
torque, T2?
• The energy into Gear 1 equals the energy out of Gear 2 If we assume the
gears are lossless, that is, they do not absorb or store energy.
• The amount of work done by the rotation of gear 1 is Tθ1:
• The relationships between gears are pictured as transfer functions below:
Fig: Transfer functions for a. angular displacement in lossless gears and b. torque in lossless gears
• Example 18: Consider the following

system. Assume that we are interested in
the relationship between the imposed
torque T1 and θ2.
• The two rotating members are not linearly independent. So there is really only
one rotating member to consider. We can “reflect” the imposed torque T1 to the
rotating member J so that the gears are removed from the schematic:
• Now, write the equation of motion: the

reflected torque equals to the sum of the
remaining torque on the object.
Fig: equivalent system at the output

after reflection of input torque.
• Now convert into an equivalent
• This is valid since
• After simplification,
• Generalizing the results, we can make

the following statement: Rotational
mechanical impedances can be
reflected through gear trains by
multiplying the mechanical impedance
by the ratio
Fig: equivalent system at the input after

reflection of impedances.
• Example 19: Find the transfer function, ⁄ for the system of Figure
below
• Since the output is defined as θ2(s) we should reflect the impedances from
shaft 1 onto shaft 2:
• We can now write the equation of motion:
where
• Solving for ⁄ the transfer function is found to be
Fig: block diagram
Gear trains
If we allow our gears to be large enough we can obtain any desired gear ratio. However,
it is usually impractical to allow gears with large radii. Instead, gear trains are employed.
Practice problems 4
1) Find the transfer function, G s ⁄ for the rotational

mechanical system with gears shown in Figure below.
Electromechanical System
• They are hybrids of electrical and mechanical variables.
• Applications: Industrial robot arm controls, disk‐drive position controls, antenna

azimuth position, and solar trackers etc.
• We consider here only one kind of electromechanical system ‐ the armature‐controlled

DC servomotor. It consists of the following components:
• Armature: Current‐carrying wire wrapped around a rotating member called the

rotor.
• Fixed field: Permanent magnets (often augmented as electromagnets) which

create a fixed magnetic field that is perpendicular to the surface of the rotor.
• The job of the commutator is to reverse the direction of current so that the
conductor experiences the same force while the rotor rotates.
• The magnetic field imposes a total force on the armature circuit of F = 2Blia
where B is the magnetic field strength, 2l is the total length of the conductor
that is perpendicular to the field, and ia is the current. Multiplying by the rotor’s
radius r we obtain a torque,
Tm = rF = r2Blia = Ktia where Kt = 2BLr is the motor torque constant.
• So, the current ia generates a torque. However, any conductor travelling through
a magnetic field will induce a voltage on the conductor. This voltage induces a
current that opposes ia. Thus, it is called the back electromotive force (emf). It
is proportional to the motor speed,
• where the constant Kb = Kt in a consistent set of units.

• In the frequency domain these two fundamental effects are expressed as
follows:
• The following is the schematic for an armature-controlled DC motor:
Fig: DC motor: a. schematic; b. block diagram

• Applying KVL we obtain,
• Our goal is to relate the input volage, Ea with the motor position θm. We begin by
using Tm(s) = KtIa(s) to get rid of Ia in this equation,
• Where Vb(s) = Kbsθm(s),
• We now switch to analyzing the mechanical system so that we can find an

expression relating Tm(s) with θm(s). Assuming we have a single shaft with
inertia and damping:
Fig: Typical equivalent mechanical loading on a motor
• We substitute this mechanical eq’n into the eq’n from KVL:
• Simplifying,
• Assuming that Ra ≫ La we can simplify further to obtain the final transfer

function,
• Although this looks complex, the form is relatively simple,
• If the mechanical parameters of the rotor and any connected loads are known,
then Jm and Dm can be obtained,
• A dynamometer test can then be applied to estimate the electrical parameters.
• A dynamometer measures the torque and speed of a motor under the condition
of a constant applied voltage.
• Consider again the KVL equation only with La assumed negligible,
• Notice that the LT of motor speed is sθm(s). Therefore we can drop back into
the time domain,
• If we let the applied voltage be a constant then we have a linear relationship between torque and
speed:
• We find the constants by applying a physical test

to obtain the x and y intercepts of this line.
• Stall torque: Torque at which the motor is just
unable to turn.
• No-load speed: Angular velocity at which motor

runs without an imposed load.
Practice problem 5
1) Find the transfer function, G s ⁄ for the motor and

load shown in Figure below. The torque-speed curve is given by
8 200 when the input voltage is 100 volts.
Outline
• Introduction
• Block Diagrams Reduction
Cascade Form
Parallel Form
Feedback Form
Moving Blocks
• Signal‐Flow Graphs
Mason’s Rule
Introduction
• Multiple subsystems are represented in two ways: as
block diagrams and as signal-flow graphs.
• Although neither representation is limited to a particular
analysis and design technique, block diagrams are usually
used for frequency-domain analysis and design, and
signal-flow graphs for state-space analysis.
Block Diagrams
• Subsystems are represented in block diagrams as blocks, each
representing a transfer function.
• In this part we will consider how to combine the blocks

corresponding to individual subsystems so that we can represent
a whole system as a single block, and therefore a single transfer
function.
• Here is an example of this reduction:
• Reduced Form:
• First we summarize the elements of block diagrams for a linear, time-invariant
system :
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Cascade Form
• When multiple subsystems are connected such that the output of one subsystem serves as the
input to the next, these subsystems are said to be in cascade form.
• The algebraic form of the final output clearly shows the equivalent system TF the product of
the cascaded subsystem TF’s.
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• When reducing subsystems in cascade form we make the
assumption that adjacent subsystems do not load each other.
• That is, a subsystem’s output remains the same no matter what

the output is connected to.
• If another subsystem connected to the output modifies that

output, we say that it loads the first system.
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• Consider interconnecting the circuits (a) and (b) below:
• The overall TF is not the product of the individual TF’s!
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• We can prevent loading by inserting an amplifier. This amplifier should have a high input
impedance so it does not load its source, and low output impedance so it appears as a
pure voltage source to the subsystem it feeds into.
• If no actual gain is desired then K = 1 and the “amplifier” is referred to as a buffer.
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Parallel Form
• Parallel subsystems have a common input and their outputs are summed
together.
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Feedback Form
• Systems with feedback typically have the following form:
• The system is said to have negative feedback if

the sign at the summing junction is negative and
positive feedback if the sign is positive.
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• We can easily establish the following two facts: • The product G(s)H(s) is called the open-
loop transfer function, or loop gain.
• The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating
error signal E(s) is called the feedforward
transfer function.
• When will be the open-loop transfer
• We can now eliminate E(s) to obtain, function and the feedforward transfer
function equal?
• Closed-loop transfer function. It relates the

closed-loop system dynamics to the
dynamics of the feedforward elements and
feedback elements.
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Moving Blocks
• A system’s block diagram may require some modification before the reductions
discussed above can be applied.
• We may need to move blocks either to the left or right of a summing junction:
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• Or we may need to move blocks to the left or right of a pickoff point:
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Example 20
• Reduce the block diagram shown in Figure below to a single transfer function.
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• First we can combine the three summing junctions together.
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• We can now recognize the parallel form in the feedback path:
• We now have G1 cascaded with a feedback subsystem:
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Practice problems 6
1. Reduce the system shown in Figure below to a single transfer function.
2. Find the equivalent transfer function, ⁄ for the system shown in Figure below
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Signal‐Flow Graphs
• Signal‐flow graphs are an alternative to block diagrams.
They consist of branches which represent systems (a)
and nodes which represent signals (b).
• Multiple branches converging on a node implies
summation.
• Notice that in summing negative signals we

associate the negative sign with the system
and not with a summing junction, as in the
case of block diagrams.
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• We can convert the cascaded, parallel, and feedback forms into signal-flow graphs. we start by
drawing the signal nodes for a given system. Next we interconnect the signal nodes with system
branches.
a) Cascaded systems
 cascaded system nodes and cascaded system signal‐flow graph
3/27/2018 By Awet Mana 116

b) parallel system
 parallel system nodes and parallel system signal-flow graph;
3/27/2018 By Awet Mana 117

c) feedback system
 feedback system nodes and feedback system signal-flow graph
3/27/2018 By Awet Mana 118

Practice problem 6
1) Convert the block diagram of Figure below to a signal-flow graph.
2) Convert the block diagram of Figure below to a signal-flow graph.
3/27/2018 By Awet Mana 119

Mason’s Rule
• The block diagram reduction technique we studied requires successive
application of fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the system
transfer function.
• On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal‐flow graph to a

single transfer function requires the application of one formula. Read
details of this formula from your text.

• Electric Circuit Analogs (Reading assignment from text book!).
3/27/2018 By Awet Mana 120

Chapter 2 - Mathematical Models of Physical Systems-2

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• The response of dynamic system to an input may be obtained if these

• The differential equations can be obtained by utilizing physical laws

• Each building block is considered to have a single property or function.

• Example: an electric circuit system which is made up from blocks which

• By combining these building blocks a variety of electrical circuit systems can be

• A system built in this way is called a lumped parameter system.

• Where , a complex variable. Thus, knowing f(t) and that the integral in the

A system represented by a differential equation is difficult to model as a block

• We usually use tables to find the inverse Laplace transform of

• If the inverse transform , the inverse transform

• If ⁄ , where the order of N(s) is less than the order of D(s),

• To find K3 we see that if we differentiate the above equation with respect to s,

• K3 is isolated and can be found if we let s approach -2. Hence, K3= -2

• In general, given an F(s) whose denominator has complex or purely

• The function will also allow us to algebraically combine mathematical

• Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero

For the capacitor,

For the resistor,

For the inductor, ⟹

Now define the following transfer function:

• Concept of impedance simplifies the solution for the transfer function.

⟹Solving for the transfer function, / we arrive at the same result.

⟹Solving for the transfer function, / we arrive at the same result.

• Example 12: Given the network of Figure below, find the transfer

• Forming the transfer function, G(s), yields

Block diagram of the network for the output interest

• Rearranging and expressing the resistances as conductances, 1⁄ and 1⁄ , we

Block diagram of the network

• The two energy‐storage elements are analogous to the two electrical

• The energy dissipater is analogous to electrical resistance.

• In the table, K, fv, and M are

1. Analogies with electrical quantities: Force is analogous to voltage, velocity to

• If we define impedance for mechanical components as:⟹

• Replacing each force in example 15 by its Laplace transform: ⟹

• We could obtained immediately without writing the

• In mechanical systems, the number of equations of motion required is equal to

• Similarly, in a mechanical system with two degrees of freedom, one point

• From this, the transfer function, ⁄ , is

• As the car moves along the road, the vertical

The values of K, D, and J

• The number of points of motion that can be rotated while all

• The free body diagram of J1,

• From which the required transfer function is found to be

A motor driving a belt for transport system requires speed reduction.

• Example 18: Consider the following

• Now, write the equation of motion: the

Fig: equivalent system at the output

• This is valid since

• Generalizing the results, we can make

Fig: equivalent system at the input after

• Solving for ⁄ the transfer function is found to be

Fig: block diagram

1) Find the transfer function, G s ⁄ for the rotational

• Applications: Industrial robot arm controls, disk‐drive position controls, antenna

• We consider here only one kind of electromechanical system ‐ the armature‐controlled

• Armature: Current‐carrying wire wrapped around a rotating member called the

• Fixed field: Permanent magnets (often augmented as electromagnets) which

• where the constant Kb = Kt in a consistent set of units.

Fig: DC motor: a. schematic; b. block diagram

• Where Vb(s) = Kbsθm(s),

• We now switch to analyzing the mechanical system so that we can find an

• We substitute this mechanical eq’n into the eq’n from KVL: