Course Notes 1: Introduction to Biomedical Instrumentation

1 Section Objectives
• Understand the canonical structure of biomedical instrumentation systems.
• Learn the qualitative functions of the four primary system components (sensors, actuators,
electronics interface, computation unit)
• Learn the technical vocabulary associated with instrumentation and design and basic signal
analysis (italicized words and phrases).
• Learn / review the static and dynamic performance characteristics for instrumentation systems.

2 Introduction to Biomedical Instruments

“Biomedical instruments” refer to a very broad class of devices and systems. A biomedical instrument is
an ECG machine to many people. To others, it’s a chemical biosensor, and to some it’s a medical
imaging system. Current estimates place the worldwide market for biomedical instruments at over $200
billion. Biomedical instruments are ubiquitous; they are significant to the broader technology and
biotechnology sectors; and, finally, they are vital to many medical and scientific fields. Bottom line:
This course is worthwhile!!

Even though there is a wide variety of instruments, almost all of them can be modeled using the simple
diagram below.

Basic model of instrumentation systems.

BiomedE/EECS 458: Biomedical Instrumentation and Design

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D. Kipke (revised from M. O’Donnell)
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All biomedical instruments must interface with biological materials (by definition). The interface can by
direct contact or by indirect contact (e.g., induced fields).

In this course we will primarily study sensing systems, which means that the system front-end will
generally be a sensing element. Other than this restriction, we will cover all aspects of typical biomedical
instrumentation systems. We will do them in the following order:

1. Basic Sensors and Principles -- including biopotential electrodes

2. Electronic Interfacing: including system noise figure, system bandwidth, pre-amplifiers, post-
amps, instrumentation amps, A/D and D/A converters, aliasing, triggering and signal
averaging
3. Computation: including data capture and signal processing
4. Systems: complete system response using specific examples (electromyogram, pressure
sensors and blood pressure measurements, flow sensors and blood flow measurements, and
chemical biosensors)

2.1 Sensors and Actuators

A sensor must:
• detect biochemical, bioelectrical, or biophysical parameters
• reproduce the physiologic time response of these parameters
• provide a safe interface with biological materials

An actuator must:
• deliver external agents via direct or indirect contact
• control biochemical, bioelectrical, or biophysical parameters
• provide a safe interface with biologic materials

2.2 Electronics Interface

The electronics interface must:
• match the electrical characteristics of the sensor/actuator with the computation unit
• preserve signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of sensor
• preserve efficiency of actuator
• preserve bandwidth (i.e., time response) of sensor/actuator
• provide a safe interface with the sensor/actuator
• provide a safe interface with the computation unit
• provide secondary signal processing functions for the system

2.3 Computation Unit

The computation unit must:
• provide primary user interface
• provide primary control for the overall system

BiomedE/EECS 458: Biomedical Instrumentation and Design

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• provide data storage for the system
• provide primary signal processing functions for the system
• maintain safe operation of the overall system

2.4 Types of Biomedical Instrumentation Systems

Types of Biomedical Instrumentation Systems
• Direct I Indirect
• Invasive I Noninvasive
• Contact I Remote
• Sense I Actuate
• Dynamic I Static

Direct/Indirect: The sensing system measure a physiologic parameter directly, such as the average
volume blood flow in an artery, or measures a parameter related to the physiologic parameter of interest
(e.g., ECG recording at the body surface is related to propagation of the action potential in the heart but is
not a measurement of the propagation waveform).

Invasive/Noninvasive: Direct electrical recording of the action potential in nerve fibers using an
implantable electrode system is an example of an invasive sensor. An imaging system measuring blood
flow dynamics in an artery (e.g., ultrasound color flow imaging of the carotid artery) is an example of a
non-invasive sensor.

Contact/Remote: A strain gauge sensor attached to a muscle fiber can record deformations and forces in
the muscle. An MRI or ultrasound imaging system can measure internal deformations and forces without
contacting the tissue.

Sense/Actuate: A sensor detects biochemical, bioelectrical, or biophysical parameters. An actuator

delivers external agents via direct or indirect contact and/or controls biochemical, bioelectrical, or
biophysical parameters. An automated insulin delivery pump is an example of a direct, contact actuator.
Noninvasive surgery with high intensity, focused ultrasound (HIFU) is an example of a remote,
noninvasive actuator.

Dynamic/Static: Static instruments measure temporal averages of physiologic parameters. Real-time

instruments have a time response faster than or equal to the physiologic time constants of the sensed
parameter. For example a real-time, ultrasound Doppler system can measure changes in arterial blood
velocity over a cardiac cycle.

Passive Instruments, Active Instruments, and Balancing Instruments.

2.5 Medical Measurement Parameters

!!!Add scanned image of Webster table here…

2.6 Characteristics of Signals

“A signal is any physical quantity that varies with time (or other independent variable) and carries
information. Signals can be classified as either continuous or discrete. A continuous signal changes
BiomedE/EECS 458: Biomedical Instrumentation and Design
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smoothly, without interruption. A discrete signal changes in definite steps, or in a quantized manner.
The terms continuous and discrete can be applied either to the value (amplitude) or to the time
characteristics of a signal”

In nature (including biology), most signals are analog, i.e., they take on continuous values (amplitude and
time) within a particular range.

“Continuous-time” signals exist continually at all times (during a specified time period).

“Discrete-time” signals are defined only at selected instances of time.

Sampling is the process to convert continuous-time signals to discrete-time signals. Quantizing is the
process that converts continuous (in amplitude) discrete-time signals to digital signals.

Signals in which time is the independent variable are referred to as “time-domain” signals. Likewise,
when frequency is the independent variable, the signals are referred to as “frequency-domain” signals.

3 General Instrument Performance Parameters

3.1 Systematic and Random Error

Systematic errors are errors that consistently occur in a measurement in the same direction. The common
sources of systematic errors are inaccurate calibration, mismatched impedances, response-time error,
nonlinearities, equipment malfunction, environmental change, and loading effects. Systematic errors are
often unknown to the user. The best way to detect systematic errors are to repeat the measurement with a
completely different technique using different instruments.

Random errors tend to vary in both directions from the true value randomly (or stochasticly). With
properly designed instruments, random errors are generally small relative to the measurand (the physical
signal to be measured). Common sources of random error include electrical noise, interference, vibration,
gain variation of amplifiers, leakage currents, drift, observational error, motion artifact (for contact
sensors), random interfering inputs, etc.

3.2 Static Performance Parameters

Static characteristics describe the performance for dc or very low frequency inputs. The properties of the
output for a wide range of constant inputs demonstrate the quality of the measurement.

Accuracy
The accuracy of a single measured quantity is the difference between the true value and the measured
value divided by the true value:
True value − measured value
Accuracy =
True value

Accuracy is often quoted as a percentage. Many times, the true value is unknown over all operating
conditions, so the true value is approximated with some standard.

BiomedE/EECS 458: Biomedical Instrumentation and Design

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D. Kipke (revised from M. O’Donnell)
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Precision
The precision of a measurement expresses the number of distinguishable alternatives from which a given
result is selected. On most modern instrumentation systems the precision is ultimately determined by the
analog-to-digital converter (AID) characteristics.

Resolution
The smallest quantity that can be measured with certainty is the resolution. Resolution expresses the
degree to which nearly equal values of a quantity can be discriminated.

Reproducibility
The ability of an instrument to give the same output for equal inputs applied over some period of time is
called reproducibility. Drift is the primary limit on reproducibility.

Sensitivity
Sensitivity describes changes in system output for a given change in a single input. It is quantified by
holding all inputs constant except one. This one input is varied incrementally over the normal operating
range, producing a range of outputs needed to compute the sensitivity.

BiomedE/EECS 458: Biomedical Instrumentation and Design

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Zero (Offset) Drift

Offset drift is one parameter determining reproducibility. It is measured by monitoring the system output
with no change in input. Any changes that occur are simply result of system offset.

Sensitivity Drift
Sensitivity drift is the second primary contributor to irreproducibility. It causes error proportional to the
magnitude of the input. These drift parameters are summarized in a typical sensor sensitivity curve below.

BiomedE/EECS 458: Biomedical Instrumentation and Design

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Linearity

A linear system satisfies the condition:

If
x1 → y1
x2 → y 2

then the system is linear if and only if:

ax1 + bx2 → ay1 + by2

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This is the simple expression of the superposition principle for a linear system. There are many ways to
express deviations from linearity for a practical system. For dynamic systems, multitone tests are often
used, where the magnitude of beat frequencies between the individual tone frequencies can quantify the
level of nonlinearity. For static systems, independent nonlinearity measures as shown below are often
used

Dynamic Range
The dynamic range defines the ratio between the maximum undistorted signal (i.e., maximum input signal
satisfying the linearity specification for the sensor) and the minimum detectable signal for a given set of
operating conditions. Often the dynamic range is quoted on a logarithmic scale (i.e., dB scale).

Input Impedance
The instantaneous rate at which energy is transferred by a system (i.e., the power) is proportional to the
product of an effort variable (e.g., voltage, pressure, force) with a flow variable (current, flow, velocity).
The generalized impedance, Z, is the ratio of the phasor equivalent of the steady-state sinusoidal effort
variable to the phasor equivalent of the steady-state flow variable:
~
~ V
Z=~
I
where the tilde denotes phasor variables (i.e., magnitude and phase—a complex number). The phase is
related to the response lag of the system to a sinusoidal input more about this for dynamic systems.
-

3.3 General Dynamic Performance Parameters

Dynamic characteristics require a full differential equation description of system performance.
Complete system characteristics are usually approximated by the sum of static and dynamic
characteristics.

Most biomedical instruments must process signals that change with time. The dynamics of the
measurement system, therefore, must be chosen to properly reproduce the dynamics of the physiologic
variables the system is sensing. In this course we will only consider linear, time invariant systems unless
otherwise explicitly noted. For such systems, the dynamics can be fully described by simple differential
equations of the form:

d n y (t ) dy (t ) d m x(t ) dx(t )
an n
+ K + a1 + a 0 y (t ) = bm m
+ K + b1 + b0 x(t )
dt dt dt dt

where x(t) is the input signal (usually the physiologic parameter of interest), y(t) is the output signal
(usually the electronic signal), and the a and b coefficients are constants determined by the physical
characteristics of the sensor system. Most practical sensor front-ends are described by differential
equations of zero, first or second order (i.e., n=0,1,2), and derivatives of the input are usually absent, so
m=0.

Linear, time-invariant systems are characterized by their response to sinusoidal inputs of the form
x(t ) = A sin(ωt ) , where the output, y(t), is a sinusoidal signal of the same frequency, i.e.,
y (t ) = B(ω )sin (ωt + φ (ω )) . This simple characteristic is captured in the system transfer function, defined
BiomedE/EECS 458: Biomedical Instrumentation and Design
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D. Kipke (revised from M. O’Donnell)
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as a function of angular frequency ω = 2πf :

~
Y (ω ) bm ( jω ) + K + b1 ( jω ) + b0
m
~
H (ω ) = ~ =
X (ω ) an ( jω )n + K + a1 ( jω ) + a0

~ ~
where j = − 1 j and H (ω ) is written in complex notation, where the magnitude of H (ω ) equals the ratio
~
B (ω ) ~
and the phase of H (ω ) represents the physical phase lag φ (ω ) . Using the transfer function
~
A(ω )
notation, the dynamic response of simple zero-, first-, and second-order systems are briefly outlined
below.

Zero-Order System
A linear potentiometer can be used to measure displacement and represents a simple example of a zero
order system. The differential equation describing its operation is

a0 y (t ) = b0 x(t )

and the transfer function is

~
~ Y (ω ) b0
H (ω ) = ~ = =K
X (ω ) a0

Note that there is no phase lag between output and input at ALL frequencies. This means the step
response is instantaneous, as illustrated below.

BiomedE/EECS 458: Biomedical Instrumentation and Design

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D. Kipke (revised from M. O’Donnell)
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First-Order System
If the instrument contains a single energy storage element, the a first-order differential equation describes the system
dynamics,

dy (t )
a1 + a0 y (t ) = b0 x(t )
dt

with the associated transfer function

~
~ Y (ω ) K
H (ω ) = ~ =
X (ω ) 1 + jωτ

where K = b0 a0 and τ = a1 a0 . The RC low-pass filter shown below is an example of a first order
system. Note the phase lag is a function of frequency and creates a delayed step response. The system
does not pass frequencies much greater than ω = 1 τ . Consequently, for a first-order sensor system there
BiomedE/EECS 458: Biomedical Instrumentation and Design
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should be no significant frequency components in the physiologic input parameter greater than this cutoff
frequency.

A second order system has two levels of energy storage with dynamics described by the differential
equation
d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
a2 2
+ a1 + a0 y (t ) = b0 x(t )
dt dt

with associate transfer function:

BiomedE/EECS 458: Biomedical Instrumentation and Design

Winter, 2002
D. Kipke (revised from M. O’Donnell)
Section 1: 12
~
~ Y (ω ) K
H (ω ) = ~ =
X (ω )  jω  2ξjω
2
 ω  + ωn + 1
 n

0.5
where the static sensitivity is K = b0 a0 , the undamped natural frequency is ω n =  0  and the
a
 a2 
dimensionless damping ratio is ξ = a1 2 a0 a2 . A mechanical force-measuring system shown below
illustrates the properties of a second order system. Note the step response for underdamped, critically
damped, and overdamped cases. Again, significant components in the input variable must be at
frequencies less than natural frequency of the second-order system. In later sections we will see how the
pre-amp, post-amp, digitization system and digital signal processing system must be matched to the
transfer characteristics of the sensor element.

BiomedE/EECS 458: Biomedical Instrumentation and Design

Winter, 2002
D. Kipke (revised from M. O’Donnell)
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BiomedE/EECS 458: Biomedical Instrumentation and Design

Winter, 2002
D. Kipke (revised from M. O’Donnell)