INFORMAL/SPOKEN LINKING EXPRESSIONS

Linking expressions - including ‘discourse markers’ (or 'attitude words') and ‘fillers’ - are
difficult to use correctly. Misuse ranges from over- to underuse as well as, of course,
incorrect usage.

Arguably, linking expressions are more frequently employed in speech than in writing
since formal written language aims to be objective and, as said, many of these expressions
describe the speaker's or writer's attitude to the text; in other words the expressions have an
emotional content.

The following section attempts to distinguish between spoken and written usage; to
identify the exact meaning and effect of each usage, and in this way to help the student to
avoid obsessive or inaccurate use. It concludes with some exercises to practise usage, both
in speech and writing, of linking expressions.

A. USE IN SPOKEN ENGLISH

1. Expressions which introduce a long answer or explanation or just serve to give

the speaker time to think before answering:

well; actually; the fact is (that); in actual fact; the fact of the matter is that; as a
matter of fact; as it happens

All of these, except for 'well', suggest that the person answering wants to modify the
questioner's view of the subject being discussed.

"Sorry I'm late" "What happened ?" "Well, you won't believe this, but I met X on the way
here and ...."
"Late again, Smith!" "Well, actually, sir, the buses are on strike and I had to walk to
school..."
"Tell me about your first husband." "Well, it's a long story. He ...."

As can be seen, "well" is often used in combination with other expressions.

2. Interjecting a question or information about the topic or one related to it

Talking about ....; Incidentally.....; By the way

"I was walking along the road when I met X. Talking about X, did you know that he has
changed job ?"
"You must all be here punctually at 9 a.m. tomorrow morning. Incidentally, if anybody is
coming by car, could they give John a lift, as his car has broken down."

3. Stressing the truth or objectivity of what is being said

Quite honestly; Frankly; To be frank; In all fairness

"Quite honestly, I don't think you're suited to each other"

"In all fairness, I will say that your mother is an excellent cook, but I still don't like her."
(i.e. I have given an objective assessment but am still against her).

Obviously, Personally, In my opinion, As I see it - are used for similar effects.

"Obviously, she will win the gold medal." (i.e. this is so 'true' that it is beyond all
doubt)."Personally, I think you'd be a fool to marry him." (i.e. this is my personal, honest
opinion)

4. Dismissing the previous text and calling the listener's attention

Anyhow, Anyway, At any rate

"Look at the time! You're over half an hour late! Anyhow, at least you're here now. Let's
get moving!"

Seriously though, Still, Admittedly, are also used to indicate a change in attitude on the
part of the speaker.

"You look a right mess. Did the hairdresser cut your hair without his glasses? Seriously
though, I don't think your new style suits you...." (i.e. Now I am not joking)

"He was a bad-tempered, mean old man. Still, people would respect his opinion." (i.e.
despite what I said before)

"X played terribly today. Admittedly, he's got an awful cold, but that's not a complete
excuse for his awful play." (i.e. I will accept some excuse for what I have said)

Mind you, would be used in similar circumstances if we were simply adding an

explanation or if we were balancing negative and positive aspects.

"The team hasn't been playing very well recently. Mind you, a number of key players have
been injured"
5. Clarifying

I mean, I mean to say

"You can't be serious! I mean, nobody can pass an exam without studying, not even a
genius. And you're no Einstein!"

6. Toning down bad news or a negative response (or one that may hurt the
listener's feelings)

I'm afraid (to say) I'm sorry to say

"I'm afraid you've failed maths again"

"I'm sorry to say that the weatherman has forecast even more rain"

In replying negatively to an invitation or a request, I'm sorry / I'm afraid normally

introduce the reason/excuse for non-acceptance / non-collaboration.

"Would you like to have dinner with me tonight?" "(I'm) sorry (but) I'm busy tonight - I
promised to babysit for my sister"

"Can you help me with these boxes?" "I'm afraid I can't. I've got a bad back"

7. Trying to persuade the listener

Surely No doubt
(not used in exactly the same way)

"Surely you're not serious. You're not going to dye your hair red!"

"No doubt we will see each other at some time in the summer"
(i.e. I am confident that we will meet)

(Neither expression is followed by a comma)

After all is used in similar contexts, normally to justify arguments.

"You really ought to let her go out with her friends to the cinema. After all, she is over
sixteen"
8. Emphasizing a response or (partly) contradicting the questioner's view on the
topic

Actually, In (actual) fact, As a matter of fact, To tell the (you) the truth,

"He's a wonderful person. In fact, everybody likes him."

"I thought you liked him!" "Well, to tell the truth, not really. In actual fact, I can't stand
him"

9. Exemplifying or excepting

For instance, For example, Like (X) Say (X)

Apart from (X) Except for (X) Save for (X)

"Bring along some drink, say a few cans of beer"

"Nobody came to her party, save for a few old schoolfriends"

10. Generalizing

On the whole, Broadly (speaking), As a rule, In general,

Generally (speaking), By and large

"As a rule, students complain if they are given too much homework"

11. Drawing a conclusion

So As a result That's why Consequently

("So" is the most informal and is slightly different in meaning, being similar to
"therefore")

"She never did any homework, so she failed her exams"

("So" is not followed by a comma)

"He didn't hear the alarm. Consequently, he overslept"

12. Contrasting

All the same, (And) yet Still On the other hand, However

"I was disgusted by his behaviour. All the same, I decided to say nothing"
"He's the most corrupt person I know. And yet he was elected mayor" ("And yet" is not
followed by a comma)"The main course wasn't particularly inspiring. On the other hand,
the dessert was out of this world"

13. Adding

Besides, What's more, On top of that,

as well / too at the end of sentences
into the bargain is very colloquial

"Your so-called friends have been eating all their meals at your home ever since they
arrived three weeks ago. On top of that, they've never even offered to help with the
housework"

"The new model is more spacious and it's more economical into the bargain"

14. Beginning

To begin with To start at the beginning

"To start at the beginning, I phoned Ruth to ask her if she could.."
If we want to contrast the situation at the beginning with what happened later, we
can use
In the first instance Later
At first In the end Eventually

"At first I couldn't understand him, but, in the end, we managed to communicate."

15. Ending

To cut a long story short, To finish the story,

The upshot of the matter was that .....

"To cut a long story short, we paid the bill and decided never to eat in that restaurant
again."
16. Turning points in a story or expressing surprise,
incredulity or other emotions

Would you believe it, Believe it or not, Strange to say,

Strange as it may seem, Strangely enough, Funnily enough,
To my surprise, Surprisingly, Incredible as it may seem, To my horror

"I was walking down the street, minding my own business, when - would you believe it ? -
I found a fiver on the pavement. Well, I decided to put it on a horse and that was the start
of my lucky day."

"We last met ten years ago. Today, incredible as it may seem, we met again in exactly the
same place and at precisely the same time as we had so long ago."

17. Listing

First of all, Next, Then, Finally,

Firstly, Secondly, Thirdly, Lastly,
For one thing, For another, What's more, Last but not least

"For one thing, that company will work you to the bone. For another, they pay incredibly
low salaries. What's more, you can forget about promotion - you'll have to wait years. Last
but not least, being a family business all the top jobs go to relatives; in other words,
nepotism is their watchword."

18. Miscellaneous expressions

Luckily, As luck would have it, Fortunately,

Unfortunately, Sadly,
In other words, To put it another way,
Alternatively, On the other hand,
Presumably,
Ideally, All things being equal,
Naturally, Of course
Needless to say, It goes without saying that
"I lost my wallet. Luckily, I had my credit cards in another pocket"
"I thought we would never meet again. As luck would have it, I met her once more...."
"She tried hard to pass the exam. Sadly, she didn't realize that there was another question
of the back of the sheet."
"You can't trust him an inch. In other words, he's a swindler."
"We could meet tonight. Alternatively, you could phone me and we'll get together on
another occasion."
"Presumably, you want a present for Christmas."
"I finally got to the bank. Needless to say, by that time it had closed."

EXERCISES

1. In the following text most (but not all) of the linking expressions are misused.
Replace the incorrect ones with expressions from those above.

"I was driving down the street when - to tell the truth - I witnessed a bank robbery. First of
all, I stopped to phone the police. Luckily, the phone didn't work. Besides, I looked for a
policeman. Naturally, there were none around. By this time, the robbers had left the bank.
So, feeling brave, I followed them in my car. Suddenly, one of them turned round and - for
instance - he pointed a gun at me and fired. The bullets hit my car and I lost control. As a
matter of fact, I woke up in hospital, feeling lucky to be alive. No more heroics for me!"

EXERCISE 2

Put an appropriate linking expressions in the following sentences

1. "Why haven't you done the homework ?" "........., I have done it, sir, but I've left
my book at home."
2. ....... , the weather in Spain is hot and sunny in summer.
3. I left my address book at home. ....... , I couldn't send anybody any postcards.
4. ......... you can't be thinking of resigning. This is just a temporary problem. Things
will soon get better.
5. I was reading through my notes the other day. ........ notes, would you mind
returning the notes I lent you last week ?
6. "Have you been waiting long for me?" "........., actually, you're half an hour late - as
usual!"
7. "He's a bit of a workaholic. ......... , he does try to spend some time with his family
at weekends.
8. It's your birthday. ......... , you'll be expecting a present from me.
9. The person we're looking for to fill this vacancy must be ambitious. ........ , he or
she should be under 30.