Lecture Notes 01-Introduction and Error Analysis

Numerical Methods
Lecture Notes #01
Pavel Ludvík,
<pavel.ludvik@vsb.cz>
Department of Mathematics and Descriptive Geometry

VB-TUO
http://homen.vsb.cz/~lud0016/
February 10, 2016

Lecture Notes #01
The Professor
The Professor
Lecture Notes #01
The Professor
Contact Information, Oce Hours
Pavel Ludvík
Oce A832
Oce phone number 59 732 4179
E-mail pavel.ludvik@vsb.cz
Web http://homen.vsb.cz/~lud0016/
Oce Hours by appointment
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Course Information
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Expectations and Procedures
Necessary and Sucient Conditions
Exercises
Conditions for obtaining credit points (CP):
Participation in exercises, 20% can be to apologize.

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Exercises
Completion of a home project (0-15 CP) and delivering all homeworks

(0-5 CP).
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Exercises

(0-5 CP).
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Exercises

(0-5 CP).
Exam
Written exam 0-60 CP, successful completion at least 25 CP.

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Exercises

(0-5 CP).
Exam
Oral exam 0-20 CP, successful completion at least 5 CP.

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Exercises

(0-5 CP).
Exam

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Exercises

(0-5 CP).
Exam
Grading (in Czech); International grading system is a little dierent

86 - 100 excellent
66 - 85 satisfactory
51 - 65 mediocre
0 - 50 failed
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Expectations
Please be on time.
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Expectations
Please be on time.
Please pay attention.

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Expectations
Please be on time.
Students are expected and encouraged to ask questions in class!

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Expectations
Please be on time.
Students are expected and encouraged to ask questions in class!
Students are expected and encouraged to make use of consultations

with the instructor!
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Book and Other Study Materials
The recommended text for the course is the book:
Title: Numerical Analysis

Authors: Richard L. Burden, John D. Faires
Edition: 9
Publisher: Cengage Learning, 2011
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Other materials:
Title: Numerical Methods for Engineers

Authors: Steven Chapra, Raymond Canale
Edition: 6
Publisher: McGraw-Hill Education, 2009
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Other materials:

Edition: 6
Solved examples:
http://mdg.vsb.cz/wiki/public/ZM_NM_examples.pdf
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Other materials:

Edition: 6
Solved examples:
My web: http://homen.vsb.cz/~lud0016/
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Other materials:

Edition: 6
Solved examples:
Qaurteroni, A., Sacco, R., Saleri, F.: Numerical Mathematics. Springer,

2007.
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Other materials:

Edition: 6
Solved examples:
Qaurteroni, A., Sacco, R., Saleri, F.: Numerical Mathematics. Springer,

2007.
Süli, E., Mayers, D.: An introduction to Numerical Analysis. Cambridge

University Press, 2003.
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Software tools
Mathworks Mathlab available on computers in the classrooms (for

access to the classrooms ask at F312)
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Software tools

Octave free alternative to MatLab:

http://mdg.vsb.cz/wiki/public/soubory/qtoctave0.7.2_
octave3.0.0_Portable_win32.zip
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Software tools


Practical introduction to MatLab .
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Software tools


Practical introduction to MatLab .
Learning videos for Mathlab:

Getting Started with MatLab http://www.mathworks.com/videos/
getting-started-with-matlab-68985.html.
Using Basic Plotting Functions http://www.mathworks.com/
videos/using-basic-plotting-functions-69018.html.
Writing a MatLab Program http://www.mathworks.com/videos/
writing-a-matlab-program-69023.html.
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus
Program of Lectures I
Ideal scenerio one topic per week:
1 Course Contents, Mathematical Preliminaries and Error Analysis.

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus
2 Solution of Nonlinear Equations, Roots Separation, Bisection Method,

Regula Falsi (i.e., False-Position Method).
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus

3 Newton's Method and Fix-Point Iterations.

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus

4 Direct Methods for Solving Linear Equations, Gaussian Elimination and

LU-Decomposition.
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus


LU-Decomposition.
5 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors, Numerical Calculation.

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus


LU-Decomposition.
6 Iterative Methods for Solving Linear Equations.

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus


LU-Decomposition.
7 Interpolation by Polynomials and Splines.

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus


LU-Decomposition.
7 Interpolation by Polynomials and Splines.
8 Least Squares Approximation.

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus
Program of Lectures II
9 Numerical Dierentiation and Integration.

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus
10 Extrapolation in Integral Calculation. Gaussian Quadrature.

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus
11 Initial Value Problems for Ordinary Dierential Equations - Euler's

method and Runge-Kutta Methods.
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus

12 Multistep Methods.
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus

13 (In Case of Optimistic Scenario: Ordinary Dierential Equations of

Higher Order.)
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus

13 (In Case of Optimistic Scenario: Ordinary Dierential Equations of

Higher Order.)
14 Stand by.
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus
What are numerical methods and what is it for?
Q: What are numerical methods?

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus
A: Numerical methods are algorithms based on simple arithmetic

operations on numbers.
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus

Q: What are numerical methods for?

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus

A: To accurately approximate solutions of problems that cannot be solved

exactly. They reduce the dicult analytic problems to purely
arithmetical ones.
Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus


arithmetical ones.
Q: What kind of applications can benet from numerical studies?

Lecture Notes #01
Course Information
Syllabus


arithmetical ones.
Q: What kind of applications can benet from numerical studies?
A: Image processing / computer vision, computer graphics (rendering,

animation), climate modeling, weather predictions, virtual
crash-testing of cars, medical imaging (CT = Computer Tomography),
AIDS research (virus decay vs. medication), nancial mathematics
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Calculus Review
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Q: Why to review calculus? In numerical mathematics??

Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
A: When developing numerical schemes we will use theorems from calculus

to guarantee that our algorithms make sense.
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review

Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review

Key concepts from calculus:

Limits
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review


Limits
Continuity
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review


Limits
Continuity
Convergence
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review


Limits
Continuity
Convergence
Dierentiability
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review


Limits
Continuity
Convergence
Dierentiability
Extreme Value Theorem

Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review


Limits
Continuity
Convergence
Dierentiability
Intermediate Value Theorem

Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review


Limits
Continuity
Convergence
Dierentiability
Mean Value Theorem

Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review


Limits
Continuity
Convergence
Dierentiability
Mean Value Theorem
Taylor's Theorem
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Limit/Convergence
Denition (Limit)
A function f dened on a set X ⊂R has the limit L at x0 , written

lim f (x) = L
x→x0
if for any sequence (xn ) approaching x0 a sequence (f (xn )) approaches L.

Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Limit/Convergence
Denition (Limit)
A function f dened on a set X ⊂R has the limit L at x0 , written

lim f (x) = L
x→x0
if for any sequence (xn ) approaching x0 a sequence (f (xn )) approaches L.
Denition (Continuity (at a point))
Let f be a function dened on a set X ⊂ R, and x0 ∈ X . Then f is

continuous at x0 if
lim f (x) = f (x0 ).
x→x0
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Continuity/Convergence
Denition (Continuity (in an interval))
A function f is continuous on a set X ⊂R (i.e., f ∈ C (X )) if it is

continuous at each point x ∈ X.
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Continuity/Convergence
Denition (Continuity (in an interval))
A function f is continuous on a set X ⊂R (i.e., f ∈ C (X )) if it is

continuous at each point x ∈ X.
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Dierentiability
Theorem
If f is a function dened on a set X ⊂ R and x0 ∈ X , then the following

statements are equivalent:
(a) f is continuous at x0
(b) If {xn }∞
n=1 is any sequence in X converging to x0 , then limn→∞ f (xn ) = f (x0 ).
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Dierentiability
Theorem
If f is a function dened on a set X ⊂ R and x0 ∈ X , then the following

statements are equivalent:
(a) f is continuous at x0
(b) If {xn }∞
n=1 is any sequence in X converging to x0 , then limn→∞ f (xn ) = f (x0 ).
Denition
Let f be a function dened on an open interval containing x0 (i.e.,

x0 ∈ (a, b)). Then f is dierentiable at x0 if
f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim exists.
x→x0 x − x0
If the limit exists, we call f 0 (x0 ) a derivative of f at x0 .

Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Continuity
Theorem (Dierentiability ⇒ Continuity)
If f is dierentiable at x0 , then f is continuous at x0 .

Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Continuity
Theorem (Dierentiability ⇒ Continuity)
If f is dierentiable at x0 , then f is continuous at x0 .

Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Theorem (Extreme Value Theorem)
If f ∈ C [a, b] then
∃m, M ∈ [a, b]∀x ∈ [a, b] : f (m) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (M).
I.e., f attains its minimum at m and maximum at M .

Moreover, if f is dierentiable on (a, b) then the numbers m, M occur either
at endpoints a, b or where f 0 (x) = 0.
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Mean and Intermediate Value Theorem
Theorem (Mean Value Theorem)
If f ∈ C [a, b] and f is dierentiable on (a, b), then ∃c ∈ (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = .
b−a
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Mean and Intermediate Value Theorem
Theorem (Mean Value Theorem)
If f ∈ C [a, b] and f is dierentiable on (a, b), then ∃c ∈ (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = .
b−a
Theorem (Intermediate Value Theorem)
If f ∈ C [a, b] and K ∈ (f (a), f (b)), then there ex ts a number c ∈ (a, b) for

which f (c) = K .
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Taylor's Theorem
Theorem (Taylor's Theorem)
Suppose f ∈ C [a, b], f (n+1) exists on (a, b) and x0 ∈ [a, b]. Then
∀x ∈ (a, b), ∃ξ ∈ (x0 , x) with
f (x) = Pn (x) + Rn (x)

where
Pn is called the Taylor polynomial of degree n, and Rn (x) is the
remainder term (truncation error).
Lecture Notes #01
Calculus Review
Taylor's Theorem
Theorem (Taylor's Theorem)
Suppose f ∈ C [a, b], f (n+1) exists on (a, b) and x0 ∈ [a, b]. Then
∀x ∈ (a, b), ∃ξ ∈ (x0 , x) with
f (x) = Pn (x) + Rn (x)

where
Pn is called the Taylor polynomial of degree n, and Rn (x) is the
remainder term (truncation error).
This theorem is extremely important for numerical analysis:

Taylor expansion is a fundamental step in the derivation of many of the
algorithms we see in this class.
Lecture Notes #01
Computer Arithmetic and Finite Precision

Lecture Notes #01
Finite Precision: A 64-bit real number, double
The Binary Floating Point Arithmetic Standard 754-1985 (IEEE - The

Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers) standard specied the
following layout for a 64-bit real number:
sc10 c9 . . . c1 c0 m51 m50 . . . m1 m0

where
Symbol Bits Description

s 1 The sign bit: 0 = positive, 1 = negative
c 11 The characteristic (exponent)
m 52 The mantisa
10 51
X X mk
r = (−1)s 2c−1023 (1 + m), c= ck 2k , m=
252−k
k=0 k=0
Lecture Notes #01
Finite Precision: Examples
10 51
s c−1023
X
k
X mk
r = (−1) 2 (1 + m), c= ck 2 , m=
252−k
k=0 k=0
Remarks:
10
2 = 1024 and (11111111111)2 = 2047.
We cannot represent an exact zero!
Lecture Notes #01
10 51
s c−1023
X
k
X mk
r = (−1) 2 (1 + m), c= ck 2 , m=
252−k
k=0 k=0
Remarks:
10
2 = 1024 and (11111111111)2 = 2047.
We cannot represent an exact zero!
Example 1: 3.0
0 10000000000 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
(−1)0 · 22 −1023 · 1 + = 1 · 2 1 · = 3 .0
1 3

10
2 2
Lecture Notes #01
10 51
X X mk
r = (−1)s 2c−1023 (1 + m), c= ck 2k , m=
252−k
k=0 k=0
Example 2: The Smallest Positive Real Number

0 00000000000 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001
r = (−1)0 · 20−1023 · 1 + 52 = (1 + 2−52 ) · 2−1023 · 1 ≈ 10−308

1

2
Lecture Notes #01
10 51
X X mk
r = (−1)s 2c−1023 (1 + m), c= ck 2k , m=
252−k
k=0 k=0
Example 2: The Smallest Positive Real Number

0 00000000000 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001
r = (−1)0 · 20−1023 · 1 + 52 = (1 + 2−52 ) · 2−1023 · 1 ≈ 10−308

1

2
Example 3: The Largest Positive Real Number
0 11111111110 1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
r = (−1)0 · 21023 · 1 + + 2 + · · · + 51 + 52 = 21023 · 2 − 52 ≈ 10308

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2
Lecture Notes #01
Finite Precision: Consequences
There are gaps in the oating-point representation. I.e., any number in

the interval

1
3.0, 3.0 +
252
is represented by value 3.0.
Floating point numbers represents intervals!

Lecture Notes #01
Quantifying the Error
Let p∗ be an approximation to p, then
Denition (The Absolute Error)
|p − p ∗ |
Lecture Notes #01
Quantifying the Error
Let p∗ be an approximation to p, then
Denition (The Absolute Error)
|p − p ∗ |
Denition (The Relative Error)

|p−p ∗ |
|p| , p 6= 0
Lecture Notes #01
Sources of Numerical Errors - Roundo Errors (Rounding and

Truncating) I
Examples in 5-digit arithmetic
Rounding 5-digit arithmetic:

(96384 + 26.678) − 96410 =
(96384 + 00027) − 96410 =
96411 − 96410 = 1.0000
Lecture Notes #01

Truncating) I
Examples in 5-digit arithmetic
Rounding 5-digit arithmetic:

(96384 + 26.678) − 96410 =
(96384 + 00027) − 96410 =
96411 − 96410 = 1.0000
Truncating 5-digit arithmetic:

(96384 + 26.678) − 96140 =
(96384 + 00026) − 96410 =
96410 − 96410 = 0.0000
Lecture Notes #01

Truncating) II
Rearrangement changes the result:
(96384 − 96410) + 26.678 = −26.000 + 26.678 = 0.67800
Numerically, order of computation matters!

Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Algorithms
Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Denition (Algorithm)
An algorithm is a procedure that describes, in an unambiguous manner, a

nite sequence of steps to be performed in a specic order.
Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Denition (Algorithm)
An algorithm is a procedure that describes, in an unambiguous manner, a

nite sequence of steps to be performed in a specic order.
In this class, the objective of an algorithm is to solve a problem or

approximate a solution to a problem.
Algorithms work very similarly to the meal recipes.
Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Key Concepts for Numerical Algorithms Stability
Denition (Stability)
An algorithms is said to be stable if small changes in the input, generate

small changes in the output.
Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Key Concepts for Numerical Algorithms Stability
Denition (Stability)
An algorithms is said to be stable if small changes in the input, generate

small changes in the output.
At some point we need to quantify what small means!

If an algorithm is stable for a certain range of initial data, then it is said to
be conditionally stable.
Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Key Concepts for Numerical Algorithms Error Growth
Suppose E0 > 0 denotes the initial error, and En represents the error after n
operations.
If En ≈ C · E0 · n (for a constant C which is independat of n), then the

growth is linear.
If En ≈ C n · E0 , C > 1, the the growth is exponential in this case the
error will dominate very fast (undesirable scenario).
Linear error growth is usually unavoidable, and in the case where C and
E0 are small the results are generally acceptable. Stable algorithm.
Exponential error growth is unacceptable. Regardless of the size of E0 the

error grows rapidly. Unstable algorithm.
Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Reducing the Eects of Roundo Error
The eects of roundo errors can be reduced by using higher-order-digit

arithmetic such as the double or multiple-precision arithmetic available on
most computers.
Disadvantages in using double precision arithmetic are that it takes more

computation time andthe growth of the roundo error is not
eliminated but only postponed.
Sometimes, but not always, it is possible to reduce the growth of the
roundo error by restructuring the calculations.
Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Key Concepts - Rate of Convergence
Denition (Rate of Convergence)
Suppose the sequence β = {βn }∞ ∞

n=1 converges to zero, and α = {αn }n=1
converges to a number α.
∞
If ∃K > 0 : |αn − α| < K · βn , for n large enough, then we say that {αn }n=1
converges to α with
a Rate of Convergence O(βn ) (Big Oh of βn ).
We write
αn = α + O(βn )
Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Key Concepts - Rate of Convergence
Suppose the sequence β = {βn }∞ ∞

n=1 converges to zero, and α = {αn }n=1
converges to a number α.
∞
If ∃K > 0 : |αn − α| < K · βn , for n large enough, then we say that {αn }n=1
converges to α with
a Rate of Convergence O(βn ) (Big Oh of βn ).
We write
αn = α + O(βn )
Note: The sequence β = {βn }∞

n=1 is usually chosen to be
1
βn =
np
for some positive value of p.
Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Rate of Convergence: Example
Consider the sequence (as n → ∞)

1 1
αn = sin − .
n n
1

n3
Then αn = O .
Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Generalizing to Limits of Functions
Suppose
lim G (h) = 0, and lim F (h) = L.
h→0 h→0
If ∃K > 0∀h < H (for some H > 0):
|F (h) − L| ≤ K |G (h)|
then
F (h) = L + O(G (h)).
We say that F (h) converges to L with a Rate of convergence O(G (h)).
Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Generalizing to Limits of Functions
Suppose
lim G (h) = 0, and lim F (h) = L.
h→0 h→0
If ∃K > 0∀h < H (for some H > 0):
|F (h) − L| ≤ K |G (h)|
then
F (h) = L + O(G (h)).
We say that F (h) converges to L with a Rate of convergence O(G (h)).
Note: Usually we consider G (h) = hp for some positive p.
Lecture Notes #01
Algorithms
Rate of Convergence: Example
Consider the function

1
α(h) = sin(h) − .
h
Then α(h) = O(h3 ).

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Numerical Methods

Lecture Notes #01

Department of Mathematics and Descriptive Geometry

February 10, 2016

Conditions for obtaining credit points (CP):

Participation in exercises, 20% can be to apologize.

Conditions for obtaining credit points (CP):

Participation in exercises, 20% can be to apologize.

Completion of a home project (0-15 CP) and delivering all homeworks

Conditions for obtaining credit points (CP):

Participation in exercises, 20% can be to apologize.

Completion of a home project (0-15 CP) and delivering all homeworks

Conditions for obtaining credit points (CP):

Participation in exercises, 20% can be to apologize.

Completion of a home project (0-15 CP) and delivering all homeworks

Written exam 0-60 CP, successful completion at least 25 CP.

Conditions for obtaining credit points (CP):

Participation in exercises, 20% can be to apologize.

Completion of a home project (0-15 CP) and delivering all homeworks

Written exam 0-60 CP, successful completion at least 25 CP.

Oral exam 0-20 CP, successful completion at least 5 CP.

Conditions for obtaining credit points (CP):

Participation in exercises, 20% can be to apologize.

Completion of a home project (0-15 CP) and delivering all homeworks

Written exam 0-60 CP, successful completion at least 25 CP.

Oral exam 0-20 CP, successful completion at least 5 CP.

Conditions for obtaining credit points (CP):

Participation in exercises, 20% can be to apologize.

Completion of a home project (0-15 CP) and delivering all homeworks

Written exam 0-60 CP, successful completion at least 25 CP.

Oral exam 0-20 CP, successful completion at least 5 CP.

Grading (in Czech); International grading system is a little dierent

Please pay attention.

Please pay attention.

Students are expected and encouraged to ask questions in class!

Please pay attention.

Students are expected and encouraged to ask questions in class!

Students are expected and encouraged to make use of consultations

Title: Numerical Analysis

Title: Numerical Methods for Engineers

Title: Numerical Methods for Engineers

Title: Numerical Methods for Engineers

Title: Numerical Methods for Engineers

Qaurteroni, A., Sacco, R., Saleri, F.: Numerical Mathematics. Springer,

Title: Numerical Methods for Engineers

Qaurteroni, A., Sacco, R., Saleri, F.: Numerical Mathematics. Springer,

Süli, E., Mayers, D.: An introduction to Numerical Analysis. Cambridge

Mathworks Mathlab  available on computers in the classrooms (for

Mathworks Mathlab  available on computers in the classrooms (for

Octave  free alternative to MatLab:

Mathworks Mathlab  available on computers in the classrooms (for

Octave  free alternative to MatLab:

Mathworks Mathlab  available on computers in the classrooms (for

Octave  free alternative to MatLab:

Learning videos for Mathlab:

Ideal scenerio  one topic per week:

1 Course Contents, Mathematical Preliminaries and Error Analysis.

Ideal scenerio  one topic per week:

1 Course Contents, Mathematical Preliminaries and Error Analysis.

2 Solution of Nonlinear Equations, Roots Separation, Bisection Method,

Ideal scenerio  one topic per week:

1 Course Contents, Mathematical Preliminaries and Error Analysis.

2 Solution of Nonlinear Equations, Roots Separation, Bisection Method,

3 Newton's Method and Fix-Point Iterations.

Grading (in Czech); International grading system is a little dierent

Mathworks Mathlab available on computers in the classrooms (for

Mathworks Mathlab available on computers in the classrooms (for

Octave free alternative to MatLab:

Mathworks Mathlab available on computers in the classrooms (for

Octave free alternative to MatLab:

Mathworks Mathlab available on computers in the classrooms (for

Octave free alternative to MatLab:

Ideal scenerio one topic per week:

Ideal scenerio one topic per week:

Ideal scenerio one topic per week:

Ideal scenerio one topic per week:

Ideal scenerio one topic per week:

Ideal scenerio one topic per week:

Ideal scenerio one topic per week:

Ideal scenerio one topic per week:

9 Numerical Dierentiation and Integration.

9 Numerical Dierentiation and Integration.

9 Numerical Dierentiation and Integration.

11 Initial Value Problems for Ordinary Dierential Equations - Euler's

9 Numerical Dierentiation and Integration.

11 Initial Value Problems for Ordinary Dierential Equations - Euler's

9 Numerical Dierentiation and Integration.

11 Initial Value Problems for Ordinary Dierential Equations - Euler's

13 (In Case of Optimistic Scenario: Ordinary Dierential Equations of

9 Numerical Dierentiation and Integration.

11 Initial Value Problems for Ordinary Dierential Equations - Euler's

13 (In Case of Optimistic Scenario: Ordinary Dierential Equations of

Q: What kind of applications can benet from numerical studies?