Professional Documents
Culture Documents
for
Authors:
1980 — Von Gonten, W.D.
1986 — McCain, W.D., Jr.
1990 — Wu, C.H.
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING 311
RESERVOIR PETROPHYSICS
Instructor/Author:
Ching H. Wu
I) Definition I-1
II) Classification I-1
III) Range of values of porosity I-2
VI) Factors affecting porosity I-3
V) Measurement of porosity I-5
VI) Subsurface measurement of porosity I-13
VII) Compressibility of porous rocks I-25
ii
VII. STATISTICAL MEASURES VII-1
I) Introduction VII-1
II) Frequency Distributions VII-2
III) Histogram VII-3
IV) Cumulative Frequency Distributions VII-6
V) Normal Distribution VII-8
VI) Log Normal Distribution VII-9
VII) Measures of Central Tendency VII-10
VIII) Measures of Variability (dispersion) VII-11
IX) Normal Distribution VII-12
X) Log Normal Distribution VII-16
iii
I. ROCK POROSITY
I) Definition
In general form:
Vp Vb - Vm
Porosity = φ = =
Vb Vb
where:
φ is expressed in fraction
Vb = Vp + Vm
Vb = bulk volume of reservoir rock, (L3)
Vp = pore volume, (L3)
Vm= matrix volume, (L3)
II) Classification
B. Secondary Porosity
C. Total Porosity
D. Effective Porosity
1. Clean sandstones: φe = φt
2. Carbonate, cemented sandstones: φe < φt
I-1
VI) Factors affecting porosity
A. Factors:
1. Particle shape
2. Particle arrangement
3. Particle size distribution
4. Cementation
5. Vugs and fractures
B. Particle shape
C. Packing Arrangement
50
40
SANDSTONES
30
POROSITY, %
20
SHALES
10
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
DEPTH OF BURIAL, ft
I-3
D. Particle Size Distribution
INTERSTITIAL MATERIALS
AND MUD FRAGMENTS
0
1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001
F. Vugs, Fractures
I-4
V) Measurement of porosity
Vb - Vm Vp
φ= =
Vb Vb
Lithology ρ m (g/cm3)
___________ ___________
Quartz 2.65
Limestone 2.71
Dolomite 2.87
A. Laboratory measurement
1) bulk volume, Vb
2) matrix volume, Vm
3) pore volume, Vp
b. bulk volume
I-5
c. matrix volume
dry weight
Vm =
matrix density
2) displacement method
a) volumetric
b) gravimetric
a)
P(1)
V(1)
VALVE CLOSED
c) Open valve
P(2)
CORE
VALVE OPEN
4) Vm =V T - V2
I-6
d. pore volume
1) gravimetric
a)
P(1)
V(1) CORE
VALVE CLOSED
c) Open valve
P(2)
V(1) CORE
VALVE OPEN
3) Vp = V2 - V1
I-7
2. Application to reservoir rocks
a. intergranular porosity
(sandstone, some carbonates)
b. secondary porosity
(most carbonates)
I-8
Example I-1
A core sample coated with paraffin was immersed in a Russell tube. The dry sample weighed 20.0
gm. The dry sample coated with paraffin weighed 20.9 gm. The paraffin coated sample displaced
10.9 cc of liquid. Assume the density of solid paraffin is 0.9 gm/cc. What is the bulk volume of
the sample?
Solution:
Example I-2
The core sample of problem I-1 was stripped of the paraffin coat, crushed to grain size, and
immersed in a Russell tube. The volume of the grains was 7.7 cc. What was the porosity of the
sample? Is this effective or total porosity.
Solution:
It is total porosity.
I-9
Example I-3
Calculate the porosity of a core sample when the following information is available:
Solution:
Vp = 448.6 gm - 427.3 gm
1 gm/cm3
Vp = 21.3 cm3
Vb = 448.6 gm - 269.6 gm
1 gm/cm3
Vb = 179.0 cm3
Vp
φ = = 21.3 cm3 = .119
Vb 179.0 cm3
φ = 11.9%
I - 10
What is the lithology of the sample?
Vm = Vb - Vp
I - 11
Example I-4
A carbonate whole core (3 inches by 6 inches, 695 cc) is placed in cell two of a Boyles
Law device. Each of the cells has a volume of 1,000 cc. Cell one is pressured to 50.0 psig. Cell
two is evacuated. The cells are connected and the resulting pressure is 28.1 psig. Calculate the
porosity of the core.
Solution:
P V = P V
1 1 2 2
V = 1,000 cc
1
V = 1,512 cc
2
V = VT - V2
m
VT - Vm 695 cc - 488 cc
φ = = = .298 = 29.8%
VT 695 cc
I - 12
VI) Subsurface measurement of porosity
1. Density log:
ρ -ρ
φd = m L
ρm - ρf
2. Sonic log:
∆tL - ∆tm
φs =
∆tf - ∆tm
3. Neutron log:
e-kφ = CNf
I - 13
B. Density Log
M UD CAKE
FORM ATION
GAM M A RAY
SOURCE
SHORT SPACE
DETECTOR
LONG SPACE
DETECTOR
2. Gamma rays are stopped by electrons - the denser the rock the fewer gamma
rays reach the detector
3. Equation
ρL = ρm 1 - φ + ρf φ
ρ -ρ
φd = m L
ρm - ρf
I - 14
FORMATION DENSITY LOG
4120
4140
4160
4180
4200
4220
4240
0 40 80 120 160 200 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
I - 15
Example I-5
Use the density log to calculate the porosity for the following intervals assuming ρ matrix = 2.68
gm/cc and ρ fluid = 1.0 gm/cc.
Interval, ft ρ φd ,%
L, gm/cc
__________ _________ ______
4143-4157 2.375 18
4170-4178 2.350 20
4178-4185 2.430 15
4185-4190 2.400 17
4197-4205 2.680 0
4210-4217 2.450 14
Example:
ρ = 2.375 gm/cc
L
I - 16
C. Sonic Log
T A
C
R1
D
E
R2
2. Sound travels more slowly in fluids than in solids. Pore space is filled with
fluids. Travel time increases as porosity increases.
3. Equation
I - 17
SONIC LOG
4120
4140
4160
4180
4200
4220
4240
0 100 200 140 120 100 80 60 40
I - 18
Example I-6
Use the Sonic log and assume sandstone lithology to calculate the porosity for the following
intervals.
φs ,%
Interval ∆tL
(ft) µ second/ft
4,144-4,150 86.5 25
4,150-4,157 84.0 24
4,171-4,177 84.5 24
4,177-4,187 81.0 21
4,199-4,204 53.5 1
4,208-4,213 75.0 17
Example:
I - 19
D. Neutron Log
Maximum
Average Energy
Number Loss/ Atomic Atomic
Element Collisions Collision, % Collision Number
103 1
O
FOR COLLISION
102 10-1
Si H
10 10-2
O
H
Si
1 10-3
.1 1 10 102 10 3 10 4 105 106 107 .1 1 10 102 10 3 10 4 105 106 107
NEUTRON ENERGY IN ELECTRON VOLTS NEUTRON ENERGY IN ELECTRON VOLTS
3. If the log is not calibrated, it is not very reliable for determining porosity.
Run density log to evaluate porosity, lithology, and gas content.
I - 20
NEUTRON DENSITY LOG
4120
4140
4160
4180
4200
4220
4240
0 200 30 -10
I - 21
Example I-7
Use the neutron log to determine porosity for the following intervals.
Solution:
Interval φ
n
(ft) (%) .
4,143-4,149 23
4,149-4,160 20
4,170-4,184 21
4,198-4,204 9
4,208-4,214 19
I - 22
Example I-8
Calculate the porosity and lithology of the Polar No. 1 drilled in Lake Maracaibo. The depth of
interest is 13,743 feet. A density log and a sonic log were run in the well in addition to the
standard Induction Electric Survey (IES) survey.
Solution:
Assume sandstone:
ρ m = 2.65 gm/cc
Assume limestone:
ρm = 2.71 gm/cc
I - 23
Assume dolomite:
ρm = 2.87 gm/cc
φlimestone = 11%
Since both logs "read" nearly the same porosity when a limestone lithology was
assumed then the hypothesis that the lithology is limestone is accepted.
The density log measures total compressibility because is "sees" the entire rock
volume,including all pores. The sonic log tends to measure the velocity of
compressional waves that travel through interconnected pore structures as well as the
rock matrix. The general consensus is that the sonic log measures effective porosity
when we use the Wyllie "time-average" equation.
It is expected that the effective porosity is always less than ,or equal to,the total
porosity.
I - 24
VII) Compressibility of porous rocks
∆V
∂V V T
c=- 1 ≅ -
V ∂P T ∆P
A. Normally pressured reservoirs
Fo
Fm Ff
2. Thus,
Fo = Fm + Ff
it follows that
Po = pm + pf
3. Po ≅ 1.0 psi/ft
Pf ≅ 0.465 psi/ft
I - 25
4. As fluid is produced from a reservoir, the fluid pressure,
Pf will usually decrease:
B. Types of compressibility
1. Matrix Compressibility, cm
cm ≅ 0
2. Bulk Compressibility cb
4) by definition
∂Vp
cf = - 1
Vp ∂pm
dPm = - dP f
I - 26
1) Thus,
∂Vp
cf = - 1
Vp ∂pm
3) procedure
dPo = dP m
dVp = - dVexpelled
∂Vp
cf = - 1
Vp ∂pm
it follows that
∆ Vp expelled
cf = + 1
Vp ∆Po
I - 27
(f) plot
VOLUME EXPELLED
PORE VOLUME
CUMULATIVE
slope = cf.
I - 28
C. Measurement of compressibility
2) Equipment
Internal
Pressure
Gauge
Hydraulic
Pump
Overburden
Pressure
Gauge
Hydraulic
Pump
Copper - Jacketed
Core
I - 29
Example I-9
Given the following lab data, calculate the pore volume compressibility for a sandstone sample at
4,000 and 6,000 psi.
1000 0.244
2000 0.324
3000 0.392
4000 0.448
5000 0.500
6000 0.546
7000 0.596
8000 0.630
Solution:
from graph
@ 4,000 psi:
Slope = 0.009
4000 psi
cf = 2.25 X 10-6 1
psi
@ 6000 psi:
Slope = 0.011
6000 psi
cf = 1.83 X 10-6 1
psi
I - 30
0.015
VOLUME EXPELLED, cc
PORE VOLUME, cc
0.010
0.005
0.000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
I - 31
PORE-VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITY AT 75 %
LITHOSTATIC PRESSURE VS INITIAL SAMPLE
POROSITY FOR CONSOLIDATED SANDSTONES.
CONSOLIDATED SANDSTONES
10
HALL'S CORRELATION
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
PORE-VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITY AT 75 %
LITHOSTATIC PRESSURE VS INITIAL SAMPLE
POROSITY FOR UNCONSOLIDATED SANDSTONES.
PORE VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITY X 10-6 psi-1
100
UNCONSOLIDATED SANDSTONES
10
HALL'S CORRELATION
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
I - 32
E. Abnormally pressured reservoirs
"abnormal pressure": fluid pressures greater than or less than the hydrostatic fluid
pressure expected from an assumed linear pressure gradient
PRESSURE
NORMAL LINEAR
DEPTH
SUBNORMAL
(LOWER)
SURNORMAL
(GREATER)
I - 33
Compressibility/Porosity Problem No. 1
A limestone sample weighs 241.0 gm. The limestone sample coated with paraffin was found to
weigh 249.5 gm. The coated sample when immersed in a partially filled graduated cylinder
displaced 125.0 cc of water. The density of the paraffin is 0.90 gm/cc.
What is the porosity of the rock? Does the process measure total or effective porosity?
Solution:
249.5 gm - 241.0 gm
Vparaffin = = 9.4 cc
0.90 gm/cc
Vp = Vb - Vm
Vp 26.7 cc
φ = = = 0.231
Vb 115.6 cc
I - 34
Compressibility/Porosity Problem No. 2
You are furnished with the results of a sieve analysis of a core from Pete well #1. Previous
laboratory work indicates there is a correlation between grain size and porosity displayed by those
particular particles. The correlation is seen below:
Solution:
remaining remaining
pore matrix
component volume porosity volume
(ft3) (%) (ft3)
___
I - 35
Compressibility/Porosity Problem No. 3
A sandstone reservoir has an average thickness of 85 feet and a total volume of 7,650 acre-feet.
Density log readings through the fresh water portion of the reservoir indicate a density of 2.40
gm/cc.
The Highgrade #1 Well was drilled and cored through the reservoir. A rock sample was sent to the
laboratory and the following tests were run.
The dry weight of the core sample was found to be 140 gm while the sample dimensions were
1.575 inches long and 1.960 inches in diameter.
Assuming the compressibility at 4,500 psi is the average compressibility in the reservoir, how
much subsidence occurs when the reservoir pressure declines from 5,500 psi to 3,500 psi?
Calculate:
A. Reservoir Porosity
Solution:
A. Reservoir Porosity
ρ -ρ
φ = m L = 2.65 - 2.40 = 15.22%
ρ m - ρ f 2.65 - 1.00
I - 36
B. Sample Pore Volume
Vp = Vb - Vm = 78.5 cc - 52.8 cc
Vp = 25.7 cc
Vp = 25.7 cc
D. Subsidence
∆H = H cp φ ∆P
∆H = 0.026 ft
∆H = 0.32 inches
Note: the pore volume (formation) compressibility is somewhat smaller than usually
encountered. An experienced engineer would be wary of this small number. Also it was
assumed that the formation compressibility was exactly the same as the bulk volume
compressibility. Experience shows that this is not the case.
I - 37
POROSITY PROBLEM No. 3
0.0140
.0118 - .0068
SLOPE =
0.0120 7000 - 2000
VOLUME EXPELLED, cc
0.0100
0.0080
0.0060
0.0040
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
PRESSURE, psig
I - 38
Compressibility Problem
A 160-acre and 100 ft thick reservoir has a porosity of 11%. The pore compressibility is 5.0 x 10-
6 (1/psi). If the pressure decreases 3,000 psi, what is the subsidence (ft)? Assume Cf = Cb
Solution:
dVp
Cp = - 1
Vp dp
dVp
5 x 10-6 (1/psi) = -1
76,665,600 ft3 3,000 psi
I - 39
II. SINGLE PHASE FLOW IN POROUS ROCK
q A
h 1 - h2
h1
h2
WATER
SAND
DARCY'S FOUNTAIN.
kA(h1 - h2)
q=
µL
Length of sand pack,L = Z
2. Darcy's work confined to sand packs that were 100% saturated with water
II - 1
kA(h1 - h2)
q=
µL
1. Equation
ρg
vs = -k dP - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
+Z
s
Θ
+X
-Z
-1
+Y θ
2. Nomenclature
µ = viscosity - centipoise
k = permeability - darcies
II - 2
3. Conversion factors
L = length
m = mass
t = time
vs = L/t
µ = m/Lt
ρ = m/L3
p = m/Lt2
g = L/t2
dp ρg
vs = - k - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
k = L2 = cross-sectional area
II - 3
5. Definition of Darcy units
c. definition of darcy
A porous medium has a permeability of one darcy when a single-phase fluid of one
centipoise that completely fills the voids of the medium will flow through it under conditions of
viscous flow at a rate of one cubic centimeter per second per square centimeter cross-sectional area
under a pressure or equivalent hydraulic gradient of one atmosphere per centimeter.
k A P1 - P2
q =
µL
II - 4
II) Reservoir systems
A
q q
P1 P2
a. Conditions
dz
1) horizontal system, ds = 0
7) constant temperature, µ, q
II - 5
b. derivation of flow equation
ρg
vs = - k dP - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
q
vs = - k dP =
µ ds A
L p2
q ds = - kA dP
µ p
0 1
qL-0 = - kA P2 - P1
µ
q = kA P2 - P1
Lµ
Note: P1 acts at L = 0
P2 acts at L = L
q is + if flow is from L = 0 to L = L
II - 6
Example II-1
What is the flow rate of a horizontal rectangular system when the conditions are as follows:
permeability = k = 1 darcy
area = A = 6 ft2
viscosity = µ = 1.0 cp
length = L = 6 ft
inlet pressure = P1 = 5.0 atm
Solution:
k = 1 darcy
P1 = 5.0 atm
P2 = 2.0 atm
q = kA P2 - P1
Lµ
q = 91.42 cm 3/sec
II - 7
2. Non-horizontal, linear system
-Z P2
S
Θ
X
P1
a. Conditions
dz = sinθ
1) non-horizontal system, ds = constant
7) constant temperature µ, q
II - 8
b. derivation of equation
ρg
vs = - k dP - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
q k ρg sin θ
vs = - = - k dP +
A µ ds µ 1.0133 x 10 6
L P2 L
kA ρg sin θ
q ds = - kA dp + ds
µ µ 1.0133 x 10 6
0 P1 0
ρgLsinθ
q = - kA P1 - P2 +
µL 1.0133 x 10 6
II - 9
3. Vertical, upward flow, linear system
FLOW UNDER
HEAD h
a. Conditions
dz
1) vertical system, ds = sinθ = constant
8) constant temperature, µ
II - 10
b. derivation of flow equation
k dP - ρg dz
vs =
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
q ρg
vs = = - k dP +
A µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6
kA P1 - P2 ρg
q = -
µ L 1.0133 x 10 6
ρg (h + x + L)
P1 = -
1.0133 x 10 6
ρg x
P2 =
1.0133 x 10 6
P1 - P2 ρg h ρg
= +
L 1.0133 x 10 6 L 1.0133 x 10 6
ρg h ρg ρg
q = kA + -
µ 1.0133 x 10 6 L 1.0133 x 10 6 1.0133 x 10 6
ρg h
q = kA
µL 1.0133 x 10 6
II - 11
4. Horizontal, radial flow system
re
Pw
Pe
rw
re rw
a. Conditions
dz
1) horizontal system, ds = 0
8) constant temperature, µ, q
II - 12
b. Derivation of flow Equation
ρg
vs = - k dP - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
q q
vs = + k dP = =
µ dr A 2πrh
re pe
q dr = k dp
2πh r µ
rw pw
q
1n(re) - 1n( rw) = k Pe - Pw
2πh µ
q = 2πhk P - Pw
µ 1n (re/rw) e
A
q q
P1 P2
a. Conditions
dz
1) horizontal system, ds = 0
7) constant temperature
II - 13
b. Assumptions
1) µ, Z = constant
ρg
vs = - k dP - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
q
vs = - k dP =
µ ds Ads
but
Psc qscz T
q =
PTsc
thus
L p2
Psc T qsc PdP
ds = - k
Tsc A µz
o p1
Pq = ZnRT
thus,
Pq
= ZnRT
Pscqsc n R Tsc
Psc qscz T 1
q =
Tsc P
Z is determined at P, T
II - 14
d. Derivation of equation for q
2
kA Tsc P1 - P22
qsc =
µL Tz Psc 2
but
q = k A 1 P12 - P22
µL P 2
k A 2 P12 - P22
q =
µL P1 + P 2 2
q = k A P - P
µL 1 2
This equation is identical to the equation for horizontal, linear flow of incompressible liquid
thus
if gas flow rate is determined at mean pressure, P, the equation for incompressible liquid
can be used for compressible gas!
Pq = ZnRT
thus
where
P1 + P 2
P =
2
P = volumetric flow rate at P, T
z is determined at P, T
P q Tsc
qsc =
z Psc T
II - 15
2. Horizontal, radial flow system
re
Pw
Pe
rw
re rw
a. Conditions
dz
1) horizontal system ds = 0
8) constant temperature
II - 16
b. Assumptions
µz = constant
ρg
vs = - k dP - dz
µ ds 1.0133 x 10 6 ds
q
vs = - k dP =
µ ds A
but
P q zT
q = sc sc
PTsc
and
A = 2πrh and ds = - dr
thus
re Pe
Psc T qsc dr = k ρdP
2Tsc π h r µz
rw Pw
II - 17
d. derivation of equation for q
but
P q Tsc
q =
z Psc T
thus
q = 2 π h k 1 (P2e - P2w)
µ 1n re/rw P 2
q = 2πhk P - Pw
µ 1n re/rw e
Note: Equation for real gas is identical to equation for incompressible liquid when
volumetric flow rate of gas, q, is measured at mean pressure.
II - 18
C. Conversion to Oilfield Units
Example:
hkA P1 - P2
q=
µL in Darcy's units
cc = 1.841 q bbl
q sec
d
darcy
k darcy = k md 1,000md
k darcy = 0.001 k md
929.0 sq cm
A sq cm = A sq ft
sq ft
A sq cm = 929.0 A sq ft
L cm = L ft 30.48 cm
ft
meter = 100 cm
0.01127 k A P1 - P2
q = in oilfield units
µL
II - 19
D. Table of Equations
1. Darcy Units
Horizontal, Incompressible q = kA P1 - P2
Linear Liquid µL
Horizontal, Incompressible q = 2 π kh Pe - Pw
Radial Liquid µ ln (re/rw)
q = kA P1 - P2
µL
q = 2 π kh Pe - Pw
µ ln (re/rw)
II - 20
2. Oilfield Units
q = res bbl/d
ρg L sinθ
+
1.0133 x 10 6
qsc = scf/d
q = .001127 kA P1 - P2
µL
q = res bbl/d
q = .007082 kh Pe - Pw
µ ln (re/rw)
II - 21
Example II-2
What is the flow rate of a horizontal rectangular system when the conditions are as follows:
permeability = k = 1 darcy
area = A = 6 ft2
viscosity = µ = 1.0 cp
length = L = 6 ft
inlet pressure = P1 = 5.0 atm.
outlet pressure = P2 = 2.0 atm.
Solutions:
We must insure that all the variables are in the correct units.
k = 1 darcy = 1,000 md
A = 6 ft2
L = 6 ft
P1 = (5.0 atm) (14.7 psi/atm) = 73.5 psi
P2 = (2.0 atm) (14.7 psi/atm) = 29.4 psi
q = 1.1271 x 10-3 kA P1 - P2
µL
1,000 6
q = 1.1271 x 10-3 73.5 - 29.4
1 6
II - 22
Example II-3
Determine the oil flow rate in a radial system with the following set of conditions:
K = 300 md re = 330 ft
h = 20 ft rw = 0.5 ft
µ = 1.3 cp
Solution:
7.082 x 10 -3 kH Pe - Pw
q=
µ ln Re / Rw
II - 23
E. Layered Systems
P1 P2
q q
A
B
C
W
qt = qA + qB + qC
h = hA + hB + hC
then
k wh P1 - P2
qt =
µL
and
then
k h = kA hA + kB hB + kC hC
n kj hj
k = ∑
j=1 h
II - 24
2. Horizontal, radial flow parallel to bedding
re re
hA rw qA
hB qB Pe
ht
hC qC
Pw
again
qt = qA + qB + qC
h = hA + hB + hC
qt = 2πk h Pe - Pw
µ ln (re/rw)
and
2 π kA hA 2 π kB hB
qt = Pe - Pw + Pe - Pw
µ ln (re/rw) µ ln (re/rw)
2 π kc hc
+ Pe - Pw
µ ln (re/rw)
then
k h = kA hA + kB hB + kC hC
and again
n kj hj
k = ∑
j=1 h
II - 25
3. Horizontal, linear flow perpendicular to bedding
A B C
P1 P2
q q
kA kB kC
∆P A ∆P B ∆P C
h
LA LB LC
qt = qA = qB = qC
L = LA + LB + LC
k wh P1 - P2
qt =
µL
since qt = qA = qB = qC
L = LA + LB + LC
k kA kB kC
thus
K = L
n Lj
∑
j = 1 kj
II - 26
4. Horizontal, radial, flow perpendicular to bedding
q
PA PB PC
Pw
rw
rA
rB
rC
qt = qA = qB = qC
2 π k h Pe - Pw
q =
µ ln (re/rw)
qt µ ln (re/rw) qA µ ln (rA/rw)
Pe - Pw = =
2π k h 2 π kAh
qB µ ln (rB/rA) q µ ln (rC/re)
+ + C
2 π kB h 2 π kC h
then
ln re/rw
k =
n ln(rj/rj-1)
∑
j=1 kj
II - 27
Example II-4
k1 = 10 md r1 = 2 ft
k2 = 200 md r2 = 300 ft
rw = 0.25 ft
Solution:
ln (re/rw)
k =
n ln (rj/rj-1 )
∑
j=1 kj
ln 300
k = 0.25
ln 2/0.25 ln 300/2
+
10 200
k = 30.4 md
The permeability of the damaged zone near the wellbore influences the average permeability more
than the permeability of the undamaged formation.
II - 28
F. Flow through channels and fractures
q= πr4 P1 - P2
8µL
A = π r2, therefore
q= Ar2 P1 - P2
8µL
q = kA P1 - P2
µL
Ar2 P1 - P2 = kA P1 - P2
8µL µL
thus
2
k = r2 = d
8 32
where d = inches, k = 20 x 10 9 d2 md
II - 29
Example II-4
B. If only 25 percent of the rock is pore channels (f = 0.25), what will the
permeability be?
Solution:
A. k = 20 x 109 d2
k = 200 md
k = 50 md
II - 30
2. Flow through fractures
q h2
v= = (P 1-P 2)
A 12 µ L
2
q = b A (P1 -P2)
12 µ L
b2 A P1 - P2 = kA P1 - P2
12 µ L µL
2
k = b in darcy units, or
12
k = 54 x 109 b2
where b = inches
k = md
II - 31
Example II-6
Consider a rock of very low matrix permeability, 0.01 md, which contains on the average a
fracture 0.005 inches wide and one foot in lateral extent per square foot of rock.
Assuming the fracture is in the direction of flow, determine the average permeability using the
equation for parallel flow.
Solution:
∑ kj Aj
k = , similar to horizontal, linear flow parallel to fracture
A
0.01 12 in 2 + 12 in 0.005 in
k = +
144 in2
k = 563 md
II - 32
III) Laboratory measurement of permeability
A. Procedure
TURBULENCE
qsc P sc
A SLOPE = k / m
P 12 - P 22
2L
kA P12 - P22
qsc = horizontal, linear, real gas flow with
2 µ L Psc
T = Tsc and Z = 1.0
k = ( slope ) m
II - 33
2. Whole core method
b. mount core in special holders and flow fluid through core as in perm
plug method
VERTICAL FLOW
LOW AIR
PRESSURE
(FLOW)
CORE
RUBBER
TUBING
HIGH AIR
PRESSURE
PIPE
TO FLOWMETER
c. the horizontal flow data must be adjusted due to complex flow path
II - 34
B. Factors which affect permeability measurement
2. Gas slippage
II - 35
H2
N2
k CALCULATED
CO2
0
1
P
kMEASURED
0
1
P
II - 36
Example II-7
Another core taken at 8815 feet from the Brazos County well was found to be very shaly. There
was some question about what the true liquid permeability was, since nitrogen was used in the
permeameter.
Mean Measured
Pressure Permeability
( atm ) ( md )
1.192 3.76
2.517 3.04
4.571 2.76
9.484 2.54
Solution:
From graph:
kliq = 2.38 md
5
GAS PERMEABILITY, md
2
k gas = 2.38276 + 1.64632
P bar
1
Equivalent Liquid Permeability = 2.38 md
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
II - 37
3. Reactive fluids
100
10
Water concentration
20,000 - 25,000 ppm Cl ion.
1
1 10 100 1000 10000
AIR PERMEABILITY, md
b. Injection water may,if its salinity is less than that of the formation water,
reduce the permeability due to clay swelling.
II - 38
Effect of Water Salinity on Permeability of Natural Cores
(Grains per gallon of chloride ion as shown).
Ka means permeability to air; K500 means permeability to 500 grains per gallon chloride solution;
Kw means permeability to fresh water
a. The removal of the core from the formation will likely result in a change in
pore volume.This is likely to result in a change in permeability (+ or -).
II - 39
III. BOUNDARY TENSION AND CAPILLARY PRESSURE
I) Boundary tension, σ
GAS
SURFACE
LIQUID
III- 1
C. the average molecule in the liquid is uniformly attracted in all directions
G. Surface Tension - Boundary tension between gas and liquid is called "surface
tension"
1. Forces
2. Liquid-Gas Boundary
3. Solid-Liquid Boundary
III- 2
4. Liquid-Liquid Boundary
some of each
II) Wettability
σow
OIL OIL
WATER
σos σw s
SOLID
B. Adhesion Tension, AT
σws ≥ σos
AT = +
cos θ = +
0° ≤ θ ≤ 90°
if θ = 0° - strongly water-wet
III- 3
D. if the solid is "oil-wet"
σos ≥ σws
AT = -
cos θ = -
90° ≤ θ ≤ 180°
θ = 1580
θ= 300 θ= 830 θ = 350
(A)
(B)
III- 4
III) Capillary pressure
h Θ
AIR
WATER
1. liquid will rise in the tube until total force up equals total force down
= 2πr AT
= πr2 hgρ w
d. units
dyne gm
cm cm = cm2 cm cm
sec2 cm3
gm cm
dyne =
sec2
dyne = force unit
e. adhesion tension
dyne
AT = 1 r hgρ w cm
2
III- 5
2. liquid will rise in the tube until the vertical component of surface tension
equals the total force down
= πr2 hgρ w
d. units
dyne gm
cm cm = cm2 cm cm
sec cm3
2
gm
cm dyne = cm
cm sec2
2 σaw cos θ
h=
rg ρw
III- 6
4. capillary pressure (air-water system)
Pa
B'
Pw B
h Θ
Pa
AIR
A' A
WATER
Pa' = Pa
pw = pa - ρ wgh
dyne dyne gm ⋅ cm
units: = - cm
cm2 cm2 cm3 ⋅ sec2
pa - pw = pa - (pa - ρ wgh)
pa - pw = ρ wgh
e. remember
2 σgw cos θ
h=
rg ρ w
III- 7
f. thus
2 σgw cos θ
Pc = r
h Θ
OIL
WATER
1. liquid will rise in the tube until the vertical component of surface tension
equals the total force down
c. thus, total force down equals the weight of the column of water
minus the weight of an equivalent column of oil converted to force
= ρw h
= ρo h
III- 8
3) net weight per unit area acting to pull surface down
= ρ wh - ρ oh = h(ρ w - ρ o)
= πr2 gh (ρ w - ρ o)
2 σow cos θ
h=
rg (ρ w - ρo)
Po
B'
Pw B
h Θ
Po OIL
A
WATER
Poa = Pwa
c. pressure at B' equal to the pressure at A' minus the head of oil
between A' and B'
III- 9
Pob = Poa - ρ ogh
Pc = Pob - Pwb
Pc = (ρ w - ρ o)gh
e. remember
2 σow cos θ
h=
rg (ρ w - ρo)
f. thus
2 σow cos θ
Pc = r
4. same expression as for the air-solid system except for the boundary
tension term
Pc = 2 σ cos θ
r
C. remember adhesion tension is defined as
AT = σow cosθ,
and
2 σow cos θ
Pc = r
thus
III- 10
ADHESION TENSION
WATER Hg
WATER
1/radius of tube
2. thus, the pressure on the concave side of a curved surface is greater than
the pressure on the convex side
Pc = σ 1 + 1
R1 R2
R1 and R2 are the principal radii of curvature for a liquid adhering to two spheres in
contact with each other.
1 + 1 = 2 cos θ
R1 R2 r
where Pc = 2 σ cos θ
r
call it Rm(mean radius), i.e.
1 = 2 cos θ = (∆ρ)gh
Rm rm σ
III- 11
F. wettability-consolidated sand
WATER WATER
(A) (B)
III- 12
IV) Relationship between capillary pressure and saturation
1. adhesion
2. fluid density
3. variation of tube diameter with height
R
R
2. This illustrates:
III- 13
V) Relationship between capillary pressure and saturation history
1. tube is filled with a wetting fluid and allowed to drain until the interface
between wetting fluid and non-wetting fluid reaches equilibrium
(drainage)
Θ
Θ
Θ Θ
SATURATION = 100% SATURATION = 80% SATURATION = 0% SATURATION = 10%
PC = LOW VALUE CAPILLARY PRESSURE = P C P C = HIGH VALUE CAPILLARY PRESSURE = P C
(A) (B)
III- 14
B. Leverett conducted a similar experiment with tubes filled with sand.
Φ Φ Sand II
1.0
∆ρgh
Φ
0.8
σ
0.6 Drainage
Φ
0.4
0.2
Imbibition
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
WATER SATURATION, Sw %
2. in general terms,
III- 15
DRAINAGE
PC
IMBIBITION
0 100
WATER SATURATION, S W
III- 16
VI) Capillary pressure in reservoir rock
Water Oil
ρw h ρoh
P w = Po/w - P w2 P o2 P o = Po/w -
144 144
100% Water
Pc = P o - Pw = h ρ w - ρo
144
Where: Po = pressure in oil phase, psia
Pw = pressure in water phase, psia
h = distance above 100% water level, ft
Po/w = pressure at oil-water contact, psia
ρw = density of water, lb/cf
ρo = density of oil, lb/cf
III- 17
ρoH
PC P O = PO/W -
144
HEIGHT
ABOVE
O-W-C
ρ H
P w = PO/W - w
144
PRESSURE
III- 18
VII) Laboratory measurement of capillary pressure
A. Methods
1. porous diaphragm
2. mercury injection
3. centrifuge
4. dynamic method
B. Porous diaphragm
3. The pressure difference between the pressure in the non-wetting fluid and
the pressure in the wetting fluid is equal to Pc.
5. Measure Sw periodically.
6. Results
7. Advantages
a. very accurate
b. can use reservoir fluids
8. Disadvantages
III- 19
C. Mercury Injection Method
2. Measure pressure
4. Advantages
a. fast-minutes
b. reasonably accurate
5. Disadvantages
a. ruins core
b. difficult to relate data to oil-water systems
D. Centrifuge Method
TUBE BODY
4. Advantages
a. fast
b. reasonably accurate
c. use reservoir fluids
III- 20
E. Dynamic Method
∆Po
∆P g Pc
CORE
OIL BURETTE
4. advantages
5. Disadvantages
a. very tedious
III- 21
F. Comparison of methods
c. these comparisons plus more complex theory indicate that the ratio
between mercury injection data and diaphragm data is about 6.9
(other data indicate value between 5.8 and 7.5)
III- 22
Example VIII-1
Comparison of Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure Data with Porous Diaphragm Data
PcAH
g
, for the following data:
PcAW
θ AH = 140°
g θ AW = 0°
B. Pore geometry is very complex. The curvature of the interface and pore radius are
not necessarily functions of contact angles. Calculate the ratio using the
relationship.
g σAHg
PcAH
=
PcAW σAW
Solution:
PcAH
g = 5.1
PcAW
PcAH
(B) g @ σAHg
= 480
PcAW σAW 70
PcAH
g = 6.9
PcAW
III- 23
Discussion:
A. Best way to determine the relationship between mercury and air-water data
is to generate capillary pressure curves for each set of data and compare
directly.
III- 24
VIII) Converting laboratory data to reservoir conditions
= 2σLcos θ L
PcL r
= 2σRcos θ R
PcR r
setting r = r
2σLcos θ L 2σRcos θ R
r= =
PcL PcR
σcos θ R
∴ PcR = PcL
σcos θ L
where
III- 25
Example III-2
σAW = 0o
σOW = 20o
Solution:
σcos θ R
= PcL
PcR σcos θ L
24 cos20°
= P cL
PcR 72 cos0°
=
PcR 0.333 PcL
III- 26
IX) Determining water saturation in reservoir from capillary pressure data
B. calculate capillary pressure in reservoir for various heights above height at which
capillary pressure is zero
(∆ρ)gh
Pc =
144 gc
in English units
∆ρ = ρ w - ρ O, lb/cu ft
g = 32 ft/sec2
gc = 32 lbm ft
lbf sec2
h = ft
thus
III- 27
Example III-3
PcR = 0.313 P cL, use the laboratory capillary pressure curve to calculate the water
saturation in the reservoir at a height of 40 ft. above the oil-water contact.
P CL 10
8.3
0
0 50 100
SW
Solution:
ρw − ρ o h
PcR =
144
move to the right horizontally from PcL = 8.3 psi to the capillary pressure curve. Drop vertically
to the x-axis, read Sw.
Sw = 50%
III- 28
X) Capillary pressure variation
A. effect of permeability
200 md
100 md
10 md
180
Height above zero capillary pressure, ft
24 160 72
Oil - Water Capillary Pressure, psi
(laboratory data)
18 120 54
100
12 80 36
60
6 40 18
20
0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sw %
III -29
B. Effect of grain size distribution
30 225.0
25 187.5
20 150.0
10 75.0
5 37.5
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Water
100 80 60 40 20 0
Hg
60 348
50 290
Water/nitrogen capillary pressure, psi
30 174
20 116
Limestone Core
Porosity = 23.0%
Permeability = 3.36 md
10 Factor = 5.8 58
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Water
100 80 60 40 20 0
Hg
1. majority of grains same size, so most pores are same size - curve (a) (well
sorted)
2. large range in grain and pore sizes - curve (b) (poorly sorted)
III -30
XI) Averaging capillary pressure data
J-function
Pc k 1/2
J Sw =
σcos θ φ
where
Pc = dyne/(sq cm)
σ = dyne/cm
k = (sq cm)
φ = fraction
III -31
CAPILLARY RETENTION CURVES.
(From Rose and Bruce.)
2.0
1.9 LEDUC
1.8
1.7 LEVERETT
KATIE ALUNDUM
1.6
1.5
CAPILLARY PRESSURE FUNCTION, J
1.4
1.3 EL ROBLE
1.2
1.1 KINSELLA
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5 HAWKINS
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
WATER SATURATION, Sw
Reservoir Formation
Hawkins Woodbine
El Roble Moreno
Kinsella Viking
Katie Deese
Leduc Devonian
Alundum (consolidated)
Leverett (unconsolidated)
III -32
Capillary Pressure Problem 1
1. A glass tube is placed vertically in a beaker of water. The interfacial tension between the
air and water is 72 dynes/cm and the contact angle is 0 degree.
Calculate:
a. the capillary rise of water in the tube if the radius of the tube is 0.01
centimeters.
b. what is the difference in pressure in psi across the air-water interface in the
tube.
2. The displacement pressure for a water saturated porcelain plate is 55 psi of air. What is
the diameter in inches of the largest pore in the porcelain plate? Assume 72 dynes/cm
and 0 degrees.
Solution:
ρW = 1 gm/cm3
g = 980 dynes/gm
θ = 0o
2σAWcos θ 2 72 cos0°
h= =
rρg .01 1.0 980
h = 14.69 cm
= 14.696 psi
Pc 0.0142 atm
atm
Pc = 0.209 psi
III -33
(2) 2σAWcos θ
Pc =
r
Pc = 55 psi
r = 2σAW cos θ
Pc
r = 2 72 cos0° in
= 3.797 x 10 -5 cm
3.792 x 10 6 2.54 cm
r = 1.495 x 10-5 in
d = 2.99 x 10-5 in
III -34
Capillary Pressure Problem 2
Given the information below and graph of PcL vs. wetting phase saturation Sw , construct the
curves for PcR, h in reservoir, and J-function vs. Sw. Water is the wetting phase in both the
laboratory and the reservoir.
lab res
fluids air-water oil-water
θ 0° 25°
σ 60 dyne/cm 20 dyne/cm
k 37 md variable
φ 16% variable
Pc k/φ 1/2
J=
σ cos θ
III -35
35.0
32.5
30.0
27.5
25.0
22.5
PCL, psi
20.0
17.5
15.0
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sw %
Solution:
(1) = σR cosθ R
Pc
PcR σL cosθ L L
= 20 cos25
P
60 cos0 cL
=
PcR 0.302 P cL
III -36
hR ρw - ρo
(2) P =
cR 144
= 9.74 P cR
hR
(3) J Pc k 1/2
=
σ cos θ φ
PcL
= k 1/2
σAW cosθ L φ L
PcL
= 37 1/2
60 cos0° .16
J = .253 P cL
Sw PcL PcR hR J
% psi psi ft assorted
III -37
10
6
R
Pc
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw %
100
80
60
R
h
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw %
10
6
J
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw %
III -38
IV. FLUID SATURATIONS
Ph > Pres
IV - 1
Example: Effects of flushing by mud filtrates
sat at surface
flushing by bit trip to surface compared to res
Sw ↑ ↓ ? probably ↑
So ↓ ↓ ↓
Sg - ↑ ↑
sat at surface
flushing by bit trip to surface compared to res
Sw ↑ ↓ ?
So - - -
Sg ↓ ↑ ?
Water zone:
sat at surface
flushing by bit trip to surface compared to res
Sw - ↓ ↓
So - - -
Sg - ↑ ↑
IV - 2
Coring With Oil Base Mud
sat at surface
flushing by bit trip to surface compared to res
Sw - - -
So - ↓ ↓
Sg - ↑ ↑
sat at surface
flushing by bit trip to surface compared to res
Sw - - -
So ↑ ↓ ↑
Sg ↓ ↑ ↓
Water zone:
sat at surface
flushing by bit trip to surface compared to res
Sw ↓ ↓ ↓
So ↑ ↓ ↑
Sg - ↑ ↑
IV - 3
b. bringing core to surface
2. laboratory methods
HEATING ELEMENT
CORE
COOLING WATER IN
CONDENSER
COOLING WATER OUT
IV - 4
1) process
For converting distilled oil volume to oil volume originally in a sample, multiply
oil volume recovered by factor corresponding to gravity of oil in core
1.4
1.3
1.2
Multiplying Factor
1.1
1.0
0.9
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
IV - 5
e) determine saturations
V V
Sw = w So = o
Vp Vp
Sg = 1 - S o - Sw
where
WATER
RECOVERED
PORE WATER
0
0
TIME
IV - 6
3) advantages of retort process
WATER OUT
WATER IN
GRADUATED TUBE
CORE
SOLVENT
HEATER
1) process
IV - 7
d) water condenses, collects in trap. Record
final water volume
Wi - Wdry - Vw ρ w
Vo =
ρo
where:
V V
Sw = w So = o
Vp Vp
2) disadvantages of leaching
a) process is slow
3) advantages of leaching
IV - 8
3. uses of core determined fluid saturation
0 SO 50
GAS
OIL
WATER
So ≅ 0 in gas zone
IV - 9
b. cores cut with oil base mud ("natural state" cores)
2) hydrocarbon saturation
3) oil/water contact
C. Electric logs
IV - 10
Example IV-1
You want to analyze a core sample containing oil, water and gas.
Wt initial = 216.7 gm
the sample was evacuated and the gas space was saturated with water ρ w = 1 gm/cm3
Wt new = 219.7 gm
Wt dry = 199.5 gm
calculate:
(1) porosity
(6) lithology
Solution:
water vol. = 13 - 3 ; Vw = 10 cc
IV - 11
ρo = 141.5 = 0.85 gm/cc
131.5 + 35°API
Vo = 7.2/0.85 = 8.49 cc
Vp = 8.49 + 3 + 10 = 21.47 cc
φ = 21.47/95 = 22.6%
Sw = 10/21.47 = 46.57%
So = 8.49/21.47 = 39.46%
Sg = 3/21.47 = 13.97%
lithology = limestone
IV - 12
Example IV-2
A core sample was brought into the laboratory for analysis. 70 gm of the core sample were placed
in a mercury pump and found to have 0.71 cc of gas volume. 80 gm of the core sample was
placed in a retort and found to contain 4.5 cc of oil and 2.8 cc of water. A piece of the original
sample weighing 105 gm was placed in a pycnometer and found to have a bulk volume of 45.7 cc.
calculate:
(1) porosity
(5) lithology
Solution:
φ = 10.14/43.52 = 23.31%
IV - 13
Sw = 3.50/10.14 = 34.5%
So = 5.63/10.14 = 55.5%
Sg = 1.014/10.14 = 10%
ρm = (91.71/33.38) = 2.75
IV - 14
Fluid Saturation Problem 1
Calculate porosity, water, oil, and gas saturations, and lithology from the following core analysis
data.
How should the calculated saturations compare with the fluid saturations in the reservoir?
after gas space was saturated with water, weight of core = 87.95 gm
Solution: γo = 141.5
131.5 + °API
γo = 141.5 = 0.825
131.5 + 40°
ρo = 0.825 gm/cc
Vp
(1) φ = Vb
Vp = Vw + Vo + Vg
Wo = 1.66 gm
IV - 15
Vo = Wo
ρo
Vo = 1.66 gm
= 2.01 cc
0.825 gm/cc
Vw = Vwrec - Wsat - Wi / ρ w
Vw = 5.57 cc
Vg = 1.55 cc
Vp = 9.13 cc
Vb = Wsat - Wimm
ρw
Vb = (87.95 - 48.95) gm
= 39.0 cc
1 gm/cc
φ = 9.13 = 23.4%
39.0
Vw
Vp
(2) Sw =
Sw = 5.57 cc = 61.0%
9.13 cc
So = Vo
Vp
So = 2.01 cc = 22.0%
9.13 cc
Vg
Sg =
Vp
Sg = 1.55 cc = 17.0%
9.13 cc
(3) Vm = Vb - Vp
IV - 16
Vm = 39 - 9.13 = 29.87 cc
Wdry
=
ρm Vm
= gm
ρm 79.17 gm/29.87 cc = 2.65 cc
. . lithology is sandstone
(4) water saturation at surface will probably be greater than reservoir water
saturation
IV - 17
Fluid Saturation Problem 2
Calculate porosity, water saturation, oil saturation, gas saturation, and lithology from the following
core analysis data.
How should the saturations you have calculated compare with the fluid saturations in the reservoir?
Sample 1 weighed 130 gm and was found to have a bulk volume of 51.72 cc
Sample 2 weighed 86.71 gm, and from the retort method was found to contain 1.90 cc of water
and 0.87 cc of oil
141.5
Solution: γo = 131.5 + °API
γo = 141.5 = 0.825
131.5 + 40°
ρo = 0.825 gm/cc
Vp
(1) φ = Vb
Vp = Vo + Vw +Vg
IV - 18
Vp = 3.99 cc/100 gm
= 2.19 cc x 100
3.99 cc
Sw = 54.8%
Vo
x 100
Vp
(3) So =
= 1.0 cc x 100
3.99 cc
So = 25.1%
Vg
x 100
Vp
(4) Sg =
= 0.80 cc x 100
3.99 cc
Sg = 20.1%
(5) Vm = Vb - Vp
= 39.78 - 3.99
Vm = 35.79 cc/100 gm
IV - 19
ρm = Wm
Vm
ρm = 97 gm/100 gm
35.79 cc/100 gm
ρm = 2.71 gm/cc
.. lithology - limestone
IV - 20
V. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK-FLUID SYSTEMS
A. Definition of resistivity
ELECTRICAL
CURRENT FLOW A
given a box of length (L) and cross-sectional area (A) completely filled with
brine of resistivity (Rw)
the resistance of the brine in the box to current flow may be expressed as
r = Rw L
A
r = resistance - ohm
L = length - meters
A = area - (meters)2
V-1
B. Nonconductors of electricity
1. oil
2. gas
3. pure water
4. minerals
5. rock fragments
C. Conductors of electricity
2. clay
AP
A
ELECTRICAL
CURRENT FLOW
Ap < A
Lp > L
V-2
2. resistance to electrical flow through the porous media is equal to the
resistance of a container of area Ap and length Lp filled with water
(brine)
RwLp
r= , water filled cube
Ap
R L
r = o , porous media
A
thus
RwALp
Ro =
ApL
where r = resistance of rock cube with pores filled with brine, ohm
3. Since
Ap
≅ porosity, φ
A
and
Lp
≅
L tortuosity, a measure of rock cementation.
then
RwALp
Ro =
ApL
V-3
becomes
Ro = f Rw, φ, tortuosity
Ro = f Rw, φ, tortuosity
2. can be written as
Ro = F R w
Ro
F=
Rw
3. cementation factor, m
F = C φ-m
where C is a constant
m is the cementation factor
b. thus
V-4
100
F 10
1
0.01 0.1 1.0
φ
when intercept = C
a. Archie's Equation
F = φ-m
b. Humble Equation
F = 0.62 φ-2.15
Lithology m values
V-5
Example V-1
Determine the porosity for a sandstone using Archie's and Humble equation .
The formation water's resisitivity was 0.5 ohm-meters. The formation rock 100% saturated with
this water was 21.05 ohm-meters.
Which of the two equations will give the most reasonable answer?
Solution:
F =21.05/0.5 = 42.1
Archie's: F = φ-m
φ2 = 1/F
φ= 1
42.1
φ = 15.41%
Humble: F = 0.62/φ2.15
φ2.15 = 0.62/F
φ = 2.15 0.62
42.1
φ = 14.06%
V-6
F. Resistivity Index, I, and Saturation Exponent, n
Rt
I=
Ro
-1 R -1
Sw = I n = t n
Ro
3. rearrange
Rt
Sw-n =
Ro
Rt
-n log Sw = log
Ro
V-7
100
Rt
10
Ro
1
.1 1.0
Sw
NOTE:
log y1 - log y2
slope =
log x1 - log x2
II) Use of Electrical Formation Resistivity Factor, Cementation Factor, and Saturation
Exponent
D. Ro = F R w
Ro 1n
Sw =
Rt
V-8
III) Laboratory measurement of electrical properties of rock
A. Apparatus
AC SOURCE
CORE
VOLTMETER
B. Calculations
1. resistance of core
E = Ir
I = current, amperes
r = resistance, ohms
∴ rcore = E
I
V-9
2. resistivity of core
r A
Rcore = core
L
substituting r = E into the equation
I
Rcore = EA
IL
C. Procedure
where
Rt = resistivity index = I
Ro
V - 10
D. Determine saturation exponent, n
Sw = Ro 1/n
Rt
= Ro
Swn Rt
Ro = Sw-n
Rt
Rt
log = -n log Sw
Ro
Rt
2. Plot log vs log Sw or log I vs log Sw
Ro
100
Rt
I= 10
Ro
1
.1 1.0
Sw
V - 11
Example V-2
Given the following data, calculate the electrical formation resistivity factor and saturation exponent
of the core.
Rw = 55 ohm-cm
I = 0.01 amp
D = 2.54 cm
L = 3.2 cm
E
Sw Voltage across
Water Saturation, % Core, volts
100.0 7.64
86.0 10.50
74.0 14.34
63.0 20.16
54.0 27.52
49.0 = Swir 34.67
Solution:
F = Ro
Rw
F = Ro 1210
= = 22
Rw 55
V - 12
saturation exponent
Rt
-n log Sw = log
Ro
rA Rt
Sw rt = E Rt = t Ro
I L
% (ohm) (ohm-cm)
1.00 1.000
.86 1050 1663 1.374
.74 1434 2271 1.877
.63 2016 3192 2.638
.54 2452 4358 3.601
.49 3467 5490 4.537
(.334,10)
10
Rt/Ro
1 (1.0,1.0)
.1 1
Sw
V - 13
-n = slope = log 10 - log 1
log .334 - log 1
-n = 1-0
-.4763 - 0
n = 2.10 = saturation exponent
NOTE:
Rt Et
=
Ro Eo
V - 14
E. Determine cementation factor, m, and constant C for electrical formation
resistivity factor equation
Ro
F=
c. Rw
F = C φ-m
100
F 10
1
0.01 0.1 1.0
φ
V - 15
Example V-3
The laboratory test of Example IV-2 has been repeated for several core samples from the reservoir.
Data is given below. Calculate the cementation factor and intercept for the formation resistivity
factor equation.
φ F
0.152 40
0.168 32
0.184 26
0.199 22
0.213 19
0.224 17
Solution:
F = C φ-m
100
10
F
1
.1 1
V - 16
slope = log 50 - log 10
= -2.21
log 0.137 - log 0.284
-m = slope = -2.21
intercept
log C = -.2082
C = 062 = intercept
V - 17
IV) Effect of clay on resistivity
BRINE
CLAY
1 = 1 + 1
RoA Rclay Ro
1 = 1 + 1
RoA Rclay F Rw
V - 18
3. plot
1
ROA
(OHM - M) -1
1 -1
RW (OHM - M)
1 = 1 + 1 1
RoA Rclay F Rw
where
1 = intercept
Rclay
1 = slope
F
V - 19
D. effect of clay
RoA
FA =
1. define Rw , clays reduced the apparent formation resistivity
factor
CLEAN SAND
F
SHALY SAND
FA
RW
100
CLEAN SAND
F 10
SHALY SAND
1
0.1 φ 1.0
V - 20
3. saturation exponent n is not constant when clay is present in
formation.
100
CLEAN SAND
Rt
Swn-1 = I
I= 10
Ro SHALY SAND n =?
V - 21
VI. MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS ROCK
I) Effective permeability
kA∆ρ
q=
µL
B. When pore space contains more than one fluid, the above equation becomes
k A∆Pο
qo = o
µoL
k A∆Pw
qw = w
µw L
kgA∆Pg
qg =
µgL
3. fluid saturations
VI - 1
E. Darcy equation for multiple fluids in linear flow, in oilfield units
k A P1 - P2
qo = 1.1271 x 10-3 o
µoL
k A P1 - P2 w
qw = 1.1271 x 10-3 w
µw L
kg A P1 - P2 g
qg = 1.1271 x 10-3
µgL
when k = md
A = ft2
P = psia
L = ft
q = res bbl/day
k
kro = o
k
k
krw = w
k
kg
krg =
k
B. It is normally assumed that the effective permeability at 100% saturation is
the same for all fluid in a particular rock. (not necessarily true in shaly sand)
VI - 2
1
1
NON-WETTING PHASE
Kr
2
WETTING PHASE
3
4
0
0 SWP, % 100
MINIMUM INTERSTITIAL S WP EQUILIBRIUM S NWP
krwp
1. = 1, only at S wp = 100%
k
2. rapid decrease in rwp as Swp decreases
krwp
3. = 0, at minimum interstitial Swp
krnwp
4. = 0, at equilibrium Snwp
VI - 3
B. Effect of saturation history
VI - 4
1
Krnwp
DRAINAGE
Kr
IMBIBITION
Krwp
0
0 SWP, % 100
VI - 5
3. the word "hysteresis" describes the process in which the results (kr)
are different when measurements are made in different directions
5. wetting preference for reservoir rocks is usually water first, then oil,
finally gas
VI - 6
C. Three phase relative permeability
100% GAS
VI - 7
3. relative permeability to oil in a three phase system
100% GAS
1%
10
20
40
60
VI - 8
4. Relative permeability to water in a three-phase system
100% GAS
Krw
10%
20%
40%
60%
80%
VI - 9
5. Relative permeability to gas in a three-phase system
100% GAS
50%
40
30
20
k
a. curves above indicate that rg is a function of saturations of
other phases present.
k
b. other research shows that rg is a unique function of gas
saturation
c. the other phases, oil and water, occupy the smaller pore
openings and wet the surface of the rock
k
d. therefore, rg should be dependent only on the total
saturation of the other two phases (i.e. 1-Sg) and
independent of how much of that total is composed of either
phase
k
e. thus rg can be plotted on Cartesian coordinates against So +
Sw
VI - 10
1.0
0.8
0.6
krg
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
So + Sw
a. water
b. gas
k
2) therefore rg is a function of Sg only
k
3) thus plot rg against Sg (or So + Sw) on rectangular
coordinate
VI - 11
c. oil
1.0
0.8
0.6
kro
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
So, %
Minimum Interstitial
Water Saturation
VI - 12
7. Flow in three-phase system
100% GAS
5% oil
5% gas
5% water
Region of three-phase flow in reservoir centers around 20% gas, 30% oil,
50% water
VI - 13
IV) Permeability ratio (relative permeability ratio)
A. Definitions
kg krg
permeability ratio = =
ko kro
2. When the permeability to gas is zero (no gas or gas below "critical
gas saturation") it is sometimes convenient to use permeability ratio
to represent the flow conductance of the rock to oil and water as a
ratio
k kr
permeability ratio = o = o
kw krw
A. Methods
B. Laboratory Methods
VI - 14
c. inject a mix of wetting-phase and non-wetting phase (start
with small fraction of non-wetting phase)
q µ L
ko = o o
A∆p
q µ L
kw = w w
A∆p
kr kro krw
0
0 Sw, % 100
VI - 15
h. determination of fluid saturations
1) resistivity
Ro 1n Eo 1n
Sw = =
Rt Et
2) volumetric balance
Wf = Wt - Wd
Wf = ρ oVo + ρ wVw
and
Vf = Vo + Vw
V = volume, cc
Sw = Vw/Vf
thus
VI - 16
Wf/Vf - ρ o
Sw = ρw - ρo
j. end effects
Pnwp = P wp
VI - 17
100 100
Oil Saturation, %
60 60
20 20
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Thermometer Inlet
Copper
Packing Nut Orifice
Electrodes
Plate
Differential
Pressure Taps
VI - 18
Example VI-1
The relative permeability apparatus shown above was used in a steady-state flow process to obtain
the data given below at a temperature of 70oF. See figure on previous page.
Oil Flow Water Flow Inlet Pressure Outlet Pressure Voltage Drop Electrical Current
cc/sec cc/sec psig psig volts amps
Solution:
1. Calculate absolute permeability using data with core 100% saturated with water
qwµwL
k =
A∆p
k = 0.482 darcy
VI - 19
2. Calculate effective permeabilities to oil and water
qoµoL
ko = A∆P
ko = 0.0134 darcy
qwµwL
kw = A∆P
kw = 0.2217 darcy
k
kro = o = .0134 = 0.028
k .482
k
krw = w = .2217 = 0.460
k .482
4. Calculate water saturations
Sw = Eo 1/2
Et
VI - 20
1.0
0.8
Relative Permeability
0.6
Kro
Krw
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
.1
.01
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw, % of pore space
VI - 21
6. The data permit certain checks to be made
F = 0.62 φ-2.15
F = Ro
Rw
F = 140 = 11.7
12
Φ = 1 1
.62 2.15 = .62 2.15
F 11.7
Φ = .255
VI - 22
2. Displacement (unsteady-state)(Welge)
b. procedure
4) measure
c. conditions
P + Po
Pm = i
2
3) flow is horizontal and core is short so that effects of
gravity can be neglected
d. calculations
Gipi
Gipv =
LAφ pm
VI - 23
pm = pi + po
, psi
2
LA φ = pore volume, cc
Np
=
Sgav LAφ
LA φ = pore volume, cc
Sgav
GAS BREAKTHROUGH
0
0 Gipv
VI - 24
4) determine fractional flow of oil, fo
d Sgav
fo =
d Gipv
koA ∆p
µoL
fo =
koA ∆p kgA ∆p
+
µoL µgL
ko/µo
fo =
ko/µo + kg/µg
kg 1 - fo
=
ko fo µo/µg
kg
where = permeability ratio of gas to oil
ko
Gipv
= cumulative gas
injected, pore volumes
VI - 25
e. advantages
2) rapid
f. disadvantages
k
1) results in kg/ko, not kro and rg
VI - 26
Example VI-2
The data from an unsteady-state displacement of oil by gas in a 2 inch diameter by 5 5/8 inch long
sandstone core are given below.
14.0 14.6
50.2 19.5
112.6 22.5
202.3 25.5
401.4 28.6
546.9 30.4
769.9 32.2
1226.5 33.4
3068.9 35.3
5946.6 35.9
Other data
G
Prepare to determine kg/ko by calculating Sgav and ipv.
Solution:
1. Calculate Sgav
Np
Sgav =
LAφ
Sgav = 14.6 cc
14.3 cm 20.27 cm2 .210
Sgav = 0.24
G
2. Calculate ipv
VI - 27
Gipi
Gipv =
LAφ pm
Gipv = 0.264 pv
3. Results
Sgav Gipv pv
0.24 0.264
0.32 0.945
0.37 2.12
0.42 3.81
0.47 7.56
0.50 10.3
0.53 14.5
0.55 23.1
0.58 57.8
0.59 112.0
VI - 28
Example VI-3
A core sample initially saturated with oil is flooded with gas. The following data was obtained:
Sgav Gipv pv
0.24 0.264
0.32 0.945
0.37 2.12
0.42 3.81
0.47 7.56
0.50 10.3
0.53 14.5
0.55 23.1
0.58 57.8
0.59 112.0
µo = 2.25 cp
µg = 0.0185 cp
S
Calculate and construct a fg verses Sgo plot. Convert gavg to Sgo. Determine kg/ko for each of
the given saturations. Construct a graph of kg/ko versus S go.
Solution:
1 - fo
kg/ko =
µ
fo o
µo
VI - 29
0.6
0.5
Sgav 0.4
fraction
0.3
0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Gipv, pv
100
10
kg/ko 1
.1
.01
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Sg, %
VI - 30
C. Field determination of permeability ratios
1. equations
kg A ∆p
qg µgL
qo = k A ∆p
o
µoL
thus,
kg qg µg
=
ko qo µo
qg Bg Rp - Rs
qo = 5.615 B o
thus
kg µgBg Rp - Rs
=
ko µo 5.615 Bo
2. procedure
VI - 31
Example VI-4
Discovery pressure for your well was 4250 psia, temperature is 200oF, and initial producing gas-
oil ratio was 740 SCF/STB. Stock tank oil gravity is 30oAPI and surface gas gravity is 0.7.
Production history and correlations indicate the bubble point at 3500 psia. Reservoir pressure is
now 3000 psia. Producing gas-oil ratio is 18,100 SCF/STB. What is kg/ko in the reservoir at this
time.
Solution:
Correlations covered in the fluid properties portion of this course yield the following value
of the physical properties of the gas and oil at 3000 psia and 200o F.
Rs = 560 SCF/STB
z = 0.86
µg = 0.0192 cp
µo = 0.75 cp
kg = µgBg Rp - Rs
ko µo 5.615 Bo
kg = 0.325
ko
VI - 32
VI) Uses of relative permeability data
kr
Log Response
0 Diagram
0 Sw, % 100
SP Log RT Log
h, ft
100% Water Production
100 % Sw
0
0 Sw, % 100
VI - 33
B. Determination of height of 100% oil production
kr
0 Log Response
0 Sw, % 100 Diagram
SP Log RT Log
100 % Sw
0
0 Sw, % 100
VI - 34
C. Effect of permeability on thickness of transition zone
kr Low K
High K
0
0 Sw, % 100
h = height of zone
of interest
h, ft
Low K
High K
0
0 Sw, % 100
VI - 35
D. Fractional flow of water as a function of height
kw A ∆ P
q q µw L
fw = q w = q +wq = = 1
tot o w ko A ∆ P kw A ∆ P ko µw
+ 1+
kw µo
µo L µo L
fw
100
0
0 Sw 100
100
0
0 1
fw
h
0
0 Sw 100
VI - 36
160
10 md
140
120
Height above free water level, ft
100
80
50 md
60
40
100 md
20
200 md
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
This figure indicates that lower permeabilities result in longer transition zones
Oil
Water
kr
0
0 Sw 100
Residual Oil
Saturation
VI - 37
F. Interpretation of fractional flow curve
4
fw
2 3
0
0 Sw 100
1. fw at water breakthrough
VI - 38
1 3
Water input
fw Pore vols.
0 0
0 100
Oil Rec - % Oil in Place
VI - 39
VII. STATISTICAL MEASURES
I) Introduction
Usually we can not examine an entire "population" (i.e. we can not dig up an entire
reservoir, cut it into plugs, and measure the porosity of every plug). We can only
"sample" the population and use the properties of the sample to represent the
calculations.
The classification of data for a large number of samples will often provide
VII - 1
II) Frequency Distributions
all data to respective class intervals. The midpoint of each class interval is called the
class mark.
B. Divide the range of numbers into a convenient number of equal sized class
intervals. The number of class intervals depends on the data but is usually
C. The number of observations for each class interval is the class frequency.
D. The relative frequency of a class is the frequency of the class divided by the
VII - 2
III) Histogram
The vertical scale is the number of data points - the class frequency - in each class.
The width of the rectangle corresponds to the class interval.
Frequency of Occurence
Mean
Magnitude of Variable
8
6
# of Samples
0
12 16 20 24
Porosity, %
8
6
# of Samples
0
20 60 100 140
Permeability, md
VII - 3
Net pay thickness data from 20 wells summarized as relative frequency data
10
8
Frequency
0
0 50 80 110 140 170 200
VII - 4
Sometimes the relative frequency is plotted on a histogram
.5
.4
Relative Frequency
.3
.2
.1
0
0 50 80 110 140 170 200
VII - 5
IV) Cumulative Frequency Distributions
Relative frequencies are summed and plotted at the higher ends of the class intervals
1.0 100%
.8 80%
.6 60%
.4 40%
.2 20%
0 0
0 50 80 110 140 170 200
VII - 6
Occasionally a "cumulative frequency greater than or equal to" distribution is
plotted. Relative frequencies are summed from the highest class interval and plotted
1.0
Cumulative % greater than or equal to
100%
.8 80%
.6 60%
.4 40%
.2 20%
0 0
0 50 80 110 140 170 200
Probability graph paper has been constructed so that data from certain probability
distributions plot as a straight line. Different probability paper is used for data with
different distributions
VII - 7
V) Normal Distribution
f(x)
Inflection point
of curve
a a
µ −a µ +a
Random variable x
This distribution is completely and uniquely defined by two values - the mean, m,
and standard deviation, σ.
VII - 8
VI) Log Normal Distribution
similar to a normal distribution except that it is skewed to one side. It is also called
an exponential distribution.
Mode
f(x)
Median (geometric mean)
Random variable x
This distribution can also be completely and uniquely defined by the mean, m, and
the standard deviation, σ.
If random variable xi are log normally distributed then the variables log xi are
normally distributed.
VII - 9
VII) Measures of Central Tendency
of data is arranged according to magnitude the average value tends to lie in the
center of these data. These averages are called measure of central tendency.
n
Σ xi
µ = i =1n
where xi = values of the variable of interest for each sample
nµ = number of samples
n 1/n
µg = π xi
i=1
VII - 10
VIII) Measures of Variability (dispersion)
variables, however it does not show the spread or variability of the variables on
A. Standard deviation - The square root of the mean of the squared deviations
about µ, where deviation is defined as the distance of the variable from µ.
n
Σ xi - µ 2
σ =
2 i=1
n-1
n
Σ xi - µ
MD = i=1 n
Σ fi xi - µ 2
j
σ2 =
Σ fi
j
xj = class mark
or
σ2 = Σ frj xj - µ 2
j
f
where rj = relative frequency for each class
VII - 11
IX) Normal Distribution
For the normal distribution the mean, median and mode have the same numerical
n
Σ xi
µ = i=1n
where i refers to each individual data point and, for classified data
Σ fj xj
j
µ=
Σ fj
j
or
µ = Σ frj xj
j
f
where rj is the relative frequency of the class.
xj is the class mark
VII - 12
.999 .999
Cumulative Frequency
Cumulative Frequency
.001 .001
Random variable x Random variable x
.999 .999
µ+a
distributed normally
distributed normally
Random variable x,
Random variable x,
µ µ
.001 .001
50% 50% 84.1%
VII - 13
Porosity and permeability data from a well in the Denver-Julesburg Basin
Porosity Interval
Interval Frequency Midpoint
(xi - µ)2 fi(xi - µ)2
i Percent fi xi fixi (xi - µ)
Σ fi xi
µ= = 745.0 = 17.7%
Σ fi 42
Σ fi xi - µ 2
j
σ2 = = 376.18 = 8.96
Σ fi 42
j
σ = 8.96 = 2.99%
VII - 14
Cumulative
Frequency Cumulative
Than or Equal to Frequency
Porosity Upper Limit of Expressed as
Interval, % Frequency Interval Percentage
7.0<x<10.0 1 1 2.4%
10.0<x<12.0 0 1 2.4%
12.0<x<14.0 1 2 4.8%
14.0<x<16.0 10 12 28.6%
16.0<x<18.0 12 24 57.1%
18.0<x<20.0 8 32 76.2%
20.0<x<22.0 7 39 92.9%
22.0<x<25.0 3 42 100.0%
42
26
24
22
20
Core porosity, %
18
16
14
12
10
8
2 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 96
VII - 15
X) Log Normal Distribution
For log normal distribution the median, mode, and mean have different numerical
values. The median has been chosen as the value of central tendency which best
n 1/n
µ = π xi
i=1
or
n
log (m) = 1 Σ log xi
n i=1
VII - 16
Cumulative
Frequency Less Cumulative
Permeability Than or Equal to Frequency
Interval Upper Limit of Expressed As
(millidarcies) Frequency Interval Percentage
0-50 2 2 4.8%
51-100 2 4 9.5%
101-150 4 8 19.0%
151-200 4 12 28.6%
201-250 4 16 38.1%
251-300 8 24 57.1%
301-350 4 28 66.7%
351-400 2 30 71.4%
401-450 4 34 81.0%
451-500 1 35 83.3%
501-700 5 40 95.2%
701-1000 2 42 100.0%
42
1000
Core permeability, md
100
10
2 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 96
VII - 17
PETE 306 HANDOUT 3/5/92
Purcell Approach
(ABW: pages 167-172)
P c = 2 σ cosθ
r
π r4
i ∆p
qi =
8µL
3. Darcy's equation,
qt = kA ∆p
µL
P c = dynes
cm2 k = cm2
σ = dynes
cm A = cm2
r = cm L = cm
q = cm
2 µ = poise = dynes-sec
sec cm2
∆p = dyne
cm2
1
2
Let V i = πr i L,
2
qi = Vr i ∆p, V = cm3
2
8µL
Since
r i = 2σ cosθ
Pci
σ cosθ 2 Vi
qi = ∆p
Pci 2 2 µ L 2
i = n σ cosθ 2 ∆p i=n V
qt = Σ Σ i
i=1 2µL 2
i=1 Pci 2
Since,
qt = k A ∆p
µL
i=n
σ cosθ 2
k = Σ Vi 2
2 A L i=n Pci
2
Define the fractional volume of ith capillary
Vi ,
si = s i = fraction
VT
and
φ = VT , φ = fraction
AL
i=n
σ cosθ 2
k=
2
φ Σ Si
Pci 2
i=1
i=n
σ cosθ 2
k=
2
φλ Σ Si
Pci 2
i=1
In integral form,
S=1
σ cosθ 2
k= φλ dS
2 2
S=0 Pc
3
PETE 306 HANDOUT 4/16/92
Purcell approach:
S=1
σ cosθ 2
k= φλ dS
2 2
S=0 Pc
S=Swt
σ cosθ 2
kwt = φλ dS
2 P2c
S=0
The relative permeability of the wetting phase is the ratio of the wetting
phase effective permeability to the absolute permeability
S=Swt
dS
P2c
S=0
krwt = kwt =
k S=1
dS
2
S=0 Pc
1
Similarly, the effective permeability of the nonwetting phase may be
expressed as
S=1
σ cosθ 2
knwt = φλ dS
2 2
S=Swt Pc
S=1
dS
2
S=Swt Pc
krnwt = knwt =
k S=1
dS
2
S=0 Pc
2
Burdine Approach:
λrwti = λi
λwti
The relative permeability of the wetting phase is the ratio of the wetting
phase effective permeability to the absolute permeability
S=Swt
dS
P2c
S=0
krwt = kwt = λrwt 2
k S=1
dS
2
S=0 Pc
λrwt = Swt - S m
1 - Sm
3
Similarly, the relative permeability of the nonwetting phase is the ratio
of the nonwetting phase effective permeability to the absolute
permeability
S=1
dS
2
S=Swt Pc
krnwt = knwt = λrnwt 2
k S=1
dS
2
S=0 Pc
The tortuosity ratio for the nonwetting phase is related to the minimum
wetting-phase saturation, Sm, and the equilibrium saturation to the
nonwetting phase, Se, as
λrnwt = Snwt - S e
1 - Sm - Se