Professional Documents
Culture Documents
co
e.
(Matric, F.A & B.A)
re
Allama Iqbal Open University
ef
By
in
nl
Muhammad Ramzan
llo
m
Extroverts and Introverts. ........................................................... 20
co
Verb .............................................................................................. 21
e.
Adverb .......................................................................................... 21
Preposition................................................................................... 21
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Conjunction ................................................................................. 22
ef
Interjection ................................................................................... 22
in
Negative and Interrogative Sentences ....................................... 22
nl
m
co
e.
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ef
in
nl
llo
.a
w
w
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Tags Question
Definition
A tag question is a grammatical structure. It refers to a declarative
statement or an imperative that are modified to become a question by
adding an interrogative fragment.
Use
Tag questions:
can be considered as an indicator of politeness, emphasis, or
irony;
m
they may suggest confidence or lack of confidence;
they may be confrontational or tentative;
co
in legal settings, tag questions can be found in leading
question.
e.
Form
Tag questions vary according to different factors such as the choice of
re
auxiliary, the negation.
The structure is generally as follows:
ef
Affirmative statement Negative Tag
he likes him doesn't he?
in
Negative statement Affirmative Tag
she doesn't care about him does she?
nl
llo
Examples
Statements
.a
m
You won't tell her, will you?
co
e.
Imperatives
Imperative Tag
keep quiet, won't you ?
will you? re
ef
would you?
in
could you?
Functions and examples
nl
2. We use tag questions when we are already sure of the answer and
just want confirmation (falling intonation with the tag question).
w
w
4. If we do not know the answer, these are real questions, and we use
a rising intonation with the tag question.
Important points
1. In the present tense, if the subject is 'I', the auxiliary changes to
'are' or 'aren't'.
I'm sitting next to you, aren't I?
2. With 'let's', the tag question is 'shall we'.
Let's go to the beach, shall we?
m
You've never liked me, have you?
co
5. When the subject is nothing, we use 'it' in the tag question.
Nothing bad happened, did it?
e.
6. When the subject is nobody, somebody, everybody, no one,
re
someone, or everyone, we use 'they' in the tag question.
Nobody asked for me, did they?
ef
7. If the main verb in the sentence is 'have' (not an auxiliary verb), it is
in
more common to use 'do' in the question tag.
You have a Ferrari, don't you?
nl
Degrees of Adjectives
Adjectives can express degrees of modification:
w
m
rich richer richest
co
lovely lovelier loveliest
beautif more most
e.
ul beautiful beautiful
re
Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and
superlative degrees:
ef
Irregular Comparative and
in
Superlative Forms
nl
much
w
m
co
Question words
Question words are also called wh questions because they include the
letters 'W' and 'H'.
e.
Question
Meaning Examples
words
who person re Who's that? That's Nancy.
ef
where place Where do you live? In Boston
in
reason Why do you sleep early? Because
why
I've got to get up early
nl
what
action
w
m
party?
Asking questions
co
1.If you ask about the subject of the sentence, simply add the question
word at the beginning:
e.
Example:
James writes good poems. — Who writes good pems?
re
2.If you ask about the predicate of the sentence (the part of a sentence
which contains the verb and gives information about the subject), there are
ef
three options:
If there is a helping (auxilary) verb that precedes the main verb ( foe
in
example, can, is, are, was, were, will, would...), add the question
nl
word and invert the subject and the helping (auxilary) verb.
Examples:
llo
If you ask about the predicate and there is no helping (auxilary) verb
and the verb is "to be", simply add the question verb and invert the
w
If there is no helping (auxilary) verb in the the predicate and the main
verb is not "to be", add the auxilary "do" in the appropriate form.
Examples:
They go to the movies every Saturday. — Where do they go to the
movies?
He wakes up early. — When does he wake up?
They sent a letter. — What did they send?
Look at some examples
Look at these five wh- questions. What information is being sought?
How are the questions formed--and how are they alike or different from
each other in their formation? Analyze each for subject and predicate.
m
Examples
co
#1. Whose car is blocking the entrance to the store?
#2a. Which textbook was used in SLA last summer?
#2b. Which textbook did the teacher use in SLA last
e.
summer?
re
#3. How carefully have you considered your future
career?
ef
#4. To whom did you send your job application?
#5. What did you do last summer?
in
In English there are seven ‗Wh…‘ questions. Here‘s what they are and
how they are used:
llo
Who is used for a person. Whose has the same meaning but it is always
followed by a noun.
w
m
i. Who are you?
co
ii. How old are you?
iii. Where do you work?
iv. Why do you work?
e.
v. What is your job responsibility?
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Write a paragraph describing your daily routine.
ef
I get up early in the morning and offer Fajar Prayer. I go for a morning
walk in the park. After walk I come back home and take bath. I take
in
breakfast and prepare my bag leave for school. I come back from school
about at 2 o clock. I do my lunch and offer Zuhar Prayer. After prayer I take
nl
rest and then do my home work. At evening time I go to play cricket with
my friends. I come back from ground about at 7 o clock. After a while a do
llo
reason. The general expressions used for accepting an invitation offer are:
Thank you for the offer.
w
m
That‘s very kind of you but I can‘t come as I won‘t be here on that day
co
Accepting and refusing politely may depend on what you are asked. For
example
e.
Would you like some cake?
Yes, please.
re
No, thank you
ef
Sure. Thanks I'd better not.
in
Okay. Thank you No, but thanks for offering.
nl
m
Ans: Why not I will surely join the talk show.
c) Your family is going to Lahore for a day. They want you to go with
co
them.
Ans:Thanks a lot, but you know I am busy in my exam.
e.
d) Your friend invites you on his birthday.
Ans: I am sorry; I have to go with my family on a weeding ceremony.
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e) There is a very good movie being shown in the cinema, your sister asks
you to accompany her.
ef
Ans: I‘d very much like to watch that movie.
in
i. Can we have a dinner together?
Ans: I would love to, but I am busy these days
nl
Do you know how to invite someone to your house for dinner or party?
Or, do you know what to say in English when someone invites you? Here
are some common expressions you can use.
Inviting Someone to Come to Your House for Dinner (Informal)
Wanna come over for dinner tonight? (Wanna = want to)
Wanna pop over for a quick dinner?
How about coming over for dinner tonight?
Care to come over for dinner tonight?
Inviting Someone to Come to Your House for Dinner (More
formal)
Would you like to come over for dinner tonight?
Would you care to join us for dinner at our house tonight?
I was just wondering if you would like to come over for dinner tonight.
Please come over for dinner tonight.
We'd be delighted to have you over for dinner tonight.
Accepting an Invitation (Informal)
Sure. What time?
Why not? When do you want me to be there?
Sure. When should I be there?
m
Yes! Want me to bring something?
I'd love to. I'll bring dessert.
co
Accepting an Invitation (More formal)
Thank you! I'd love to. Would you like me to bring anything?
Thank you very much! I'd be delighted to. What time should I be
e.
there?
re
Oh, certainly! Thank you. Do I need to bring anything?
Declining an Invitation (Informal)
ef
I can't. I have to work.
Tonight's no good. I have an appointment.
in
I'm busy tonight. Can I take a raincheck on that?
(*raincheck: if someone invites you to dinner on a night that you are
nl
busy, you can say, "Can I take a raincheck?" This means that you hope
they will invite you again on another night.)
llo
Examples:
w
Ann: Bob and I are having a little get-together at our place tonight .
Wanna pop over after work?
Jim: Sure, why not? What time do you want me to be there?
Ann: Around 6.
Jim: OK. Want me to bring something?
Ann: No. Just bring yourself.
m
Jan: No, but thanks for asking.
Brown: OK. See you this evening then.
co
Dialog 4: (a parent is making an invitation to her son's
teacher)
Jan: Mr. Brown, my husband and I were just wondering if you
e.
would like to come over for dinner this evening.
re
Brown: Well, I'd love to, but I have another appointment tonight.
Jan: Oh, that's too bad. Well, maybe next time then.
ef
Brown: Yeah! Thank you for asking. Enjoy your evening!
in
C. ? Why?
w
A. ? No.
B. ? I'd love to, but I have an appointment.
C. ? I'm busy tonight. Can I take a raincheck?
3. Which of the following answer is NOT appropriate?
A: My husband and I were wondering if you'd like to come over for
dinner this Saturday.
B: _____
m
co
4. Which of the following answer is NOT appropriate?
A: Would you care to join us for dinner tonight?
B: _____
e.
A. ?
B. ?
Yes, I would.
Thank you. I'd love to. re
ef
C. ? I'm sorry but I already have plans tonight.
in
A. ? OK. No problem.
B. ? Sure. Let's do it some other time.
w
m
I enjoy…
I‘m keen on…
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Expressing dislikes:
I don‘t like…
e.
I dislike...
I hate…
I abhor…
I can‘t bear... re
ef
I can‘t stand…
in
I detest...
I loathe...
nl
1. When these expressions are followed by a verb, the latter is put in the -
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ing form.
Examples:
w
m
Steve: Hello, darling. Do you fancy watching a film tonight?
Girlfriend: Oh, no thanks, I don't really feel like watching a film
co
tonight. How about going out instead.
Steve: OK. Do you feel like going to the theatre?
e.
Girlfriend: Oh, no. I hate it. Do you like eating at the new
Steve:
Chinese restaurant?
re
I don't mind. The Chinese cuisine is alright.
ef
Girlfriend: Well I really love it. Let's go.
in
Ans: Likes
1. I adore reading books
llo
Dislikes
1. I hate wating for a bus.
w
m
That‘s quite true, but……………….
I agree with you in principle, but…………..
co
Disagreeing
I‘m not sure I agree with you.
e.
I‘m afraid I don‘t agree.
I‘m afraid I disagree.
I don‘t share your opinion.
Disagreeing strongly re
ef
I don‘t agree at all.
I totally disagree.
in
Agreement:
It is worthwhile saying that silence is not understood as agreement. If
.a
you agree with an opinion or an idea, you are expected to say so.
Expressions
w
m
I cannot agree with this idea.
What I object to is...
co
I have my own thoughts about that.
Partial agreement:
e.
You can also agree but with reservation especially when there is a
doubt or feeling of not being able to accept something completely
Expressions
It is only partly true that... re
ef
That‘s true, but…
in
I can agree with that only with reservations.
That seems obvious, but...
nl
Extroverts are those people who are social by nature, like to make friends,
w
love to socialize and arrange parties and other fun activities. They
are‖doers‖ and like to keep themselves busy. Introverts, on the other hand
w
are quieter, less social, keep their feelings, thoughts and ideas to
themselves and take very little interest in social gatherings and functions. In
fact, most of them are ―thinkers‖.
Extroverts Introverts
Like to have a lot of friends Like to be on their own, enjoy
ones own company
Found of partying Dislike socializing and
partying
Love sharing things and Hate disclosing personal
personal details details
Love crowds Avoid large gatherings and
crowds
Interested about people and Prefer to be reserved and
social news observant
Good conversationalists Love to sit at home and enjoy
doing personal things such
as listening to classical music
and reading.
Love outdoor activities as
m
Enjoy a working environment
sports, picnics, trips, etc that is quieter and private
co
Prefer jobs that involve public Don‘t like to be noticed
dealing
e.
Verb
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A verb is a word like ask, make, wait, go and work. Most verbs refer to
ef
actions or states.
in
I want to go.
nl
Adverb
An adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb.
w
m
He sat on the table.
Conjunction
co
A conjunction is a word used to join words or sentences. Examples are:
e.
and, but, or, because, since, as, though etc.
James and Alice are cousins.
re
He is very hardworking but his brother is lazy.
ef
You can have tea or coffee.
in
Interjection
An interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling.
nl
It‘s snowing.
m
a
b They‘re working.
co
c It‘s spitting with rain.
d She‘s worried.
e You‘re watching television.
e.
re
3 Example: (he, she, it has; other persons, have;
ef
see unit 6, part 4, section 1.)
It’s got five doors/It has got five doors.
in
It hasn’t got five doors/It has not got five doors.
Has it got five doors?
nl
m
(infinitive: pay)
b He looks like his father. (infinitive: look)
co
c It dries soon. (infinitive: dry)
d It flies. (infinitive: fly)
e She washes down the kitchen walls once a month.
e.
(infinitive: wash)
re
ef
6 Revision exercise.
a It takes time.
in
b He‘s got three parrots.
c My car is being repaired.
nl
f It worries him.
g There‘s a man in the street.
.a
k We need a teacher.
l She can speak five languages.
w
m I work in Bristol.
n You can play tennis.
o They swim very well.
p She buys everything.
q He always pays everything for her.
r They want to stay at home.
s Margaret is very fond of classical music.
t There is a lot of bread.
u They keep on talking all the time.
v I can speak and write German.
w They‘ve got a bad reputation.
x She plays chess every week.
y We hate drinking whisky.
z She feels very lonely.
m
to do it.
co
Did I have (infinitive) to do it?
e.
b They made coffee.
re
c I saw you yesterday.
d My computer broke down.
ef
e They overslept yesterday morning.
in
the fly.
Did it kill (infinitive) the fly?
.a
10 Revision exercise.
a Tim broke the window.
b Jane listens to music every evening.
c It‘s bucketing down.
m
d We can park here.
co
e She‘s got a black eye.
f He denies it.
g They got married last year.
e.
h They came here yesterday.
re
i She fried two eggs.
j He helped her with her homework.
ef
k They wanted to beat him up.
l They robbed me yesterday.
in
m They take care of Jennifer.
n There was an armchair.
nl
m
Active and Passive Voice
co
There are two special forms for verbs called voice:
1. Active voice
e.
2. Passive voice
The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most
re
of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the
active voice, the object receives the action of the verb:
ef
active subject verb object
>
in
The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives
the action of the verb:
llo
m
Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:
infinitive to be washed
co
simple present It is washed.
past It was washed.
e.
future It will be washed.
conditional It would be washed.
continuous present
past re
It is being washed.
It was being washed.
ef
future It will be being washed.
conditional It would be being washed.
in
Exercise
w
m
See the difference between probability and possibility.
There are many ways to say that something will probably or improbably
co
happen.
Probability / improbabilty
e.
... may ...
might
can
could re
ef
... probably
in
will
nl
It's probable th
improbable at ...
llo
likely
unlikely
.a
suppose
w
guess
w
'd be if ....
surprised
Perh ...
aps will ...
May be
Examples of probability:
It is probable that my grandfather repairs my bike.
May be / perhaps the problem won‘t be serious.
It will probably rain this evening.
I‘m likely to do the work myself.
Examples of improbability:
No, probably not.
I don't suppose my grandfather will repair the bike.
I doubt my father will buy me a new computer, either.
She is unlikely to return home early this evening.
I'd be surprised if he got the best score.
It's unlikely he will find his lost keys.
Expressing probability in the past:
m
. m h Past
co
.. ay ave Participle
might
can
e.
could
of him.
nl
She can't have helped him in his crime as they have never met
before.
w
following expressions:
POSSIBILITY
NEUTRAL INFORMAL FORMAL
It’s possible/probable … Could be … I think there’s
It’s likely … If you ask me, possibility …
I expect … … I believe …
It may be … It looks as if … There’s always
It could/might/may be … You can be possibility of …
It is/looks/seems possible. sure … It’s more than
Is it possible to ... ? There’s a likely …
Is there any possibility of good chance ü It’s
... ? I reckon … reasonable to
What are the chances of I bet … believe …
...?
What possibility is there
that ... ?
What's the possibility of ...
?
m
v IMPOSSIBILITY
co
NEUTRAL INFORMAL FORMAL
I don’t think … Probably not. It’s very doubtful…
e.
It’s not likely … Impossible. It’s extremely
I don’t expect … Perhaps not. unlikely/improbable …
It’s not probable
…
May be not.
No way.
re I think there’s absolutely
no possibility of …
ef
It’s unlikely… Surely not. I think there’s very little
It’s impossible … Not a chance. chance of ..
in
That's not
possible.
nl
It's unlikely.
llo
Not a chance!
It was impossible
.a
to ...
There's no chance
w
of ...
It's not likely that
w
...
w
m
(A) agreement
co
(B) disagreement
(C) certainty
(D) uncertainty
e.
(E) impossibility
Betty :I‘d like to go to the cinema tonight, will you join me?
re
3)
Charlie : …. Its great.
(A) I don‘t think I‘ll go with you
ef
(B) Sure, I‘m really looking forward to seeing it
in
(C) I think I have the qualification to see it
(D) Oh really, but I don‘t like it
nl
When you ask for permission to use something that belongs to someone
else you have to do your best to be polite. It is desirable to use the word
"please."
m
Asking for Permission:
co
Can I go out, please?
May I open the window, please?
e.
Please, can I have a look at your photo album?
Please, may I taste that hot spicy couscous dish?
Do you mind if I smoke?
re
Would you mind if I asked you something?
ef
Is it okay if I sit here?
Would it be all right if I borrowed your mobile Phone?
in
Giving Permission:
nl
Sure.
No problem.
.a
Dialogue:
Liza, eight years old, is asking her mother for
permission to use the computer...
m
What would you do about ...? If I were you, I would ...
co
Accepting advice Rejecting advice
Yes, I agree with that. I'm sorry, i can't agree with that.
e.
That sounds like a good idea! I don't think that's a good idea.
re
OK, why don't we do that. I don't think we should do that.
That's very interesting. That's very interesting, but ...
ef
Reported Speech (Indirect Speech)
in
nl
said before.
Distinction must be made between direct speech and reported speech.
.a
She says:" she likes tuna fish." She says that she likes tuna fish.
w
She said: "I'm visiting Paris She said that she was visiting Paris the
w
m
2-Tenses
If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift
co
of tenses in Reported speech.
If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift
e.
of tenses in Reported speech.
re
Direct speech Reported speech
(no backshift) ―I write poems.‖ He says that he writes poems.
ef
(backshift) ―I write poems.‖ He said that he wrote poems.
in
No backshift
nl
You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in a past tense
(e. g. He said).
w
Example:
w
m
work when I arrived" work when he had arrived"
co
Past Progressive Past Perfect Progressive
He said: "I was playing football He said that he had been playing
e.
when the accident occured" football when the accident had
occured
Present Perfect Progressive
He said:"I have been playing rePast Perfect Progressive
He said that he had been playing
ef
football for two hours." football for two hours
in
Past Perfect Progressive Past Perfect Progressive
He said: "I had been reading a He said that he had been reading a
nl
newspaper when the light went newspaper when the light had gone
llo
off" off
Future Simple (will+verb) Conditional (would+verb)
.a
He said: "I will open the door." He said that he would open the door.
w
The verbs could, should, would, might, must, needn’t, ought to, used to do
not normally change.
Example:
He said, ―She might be right.‖ – He said that she might be right.
3-Place and time expressions
Place and time expressions change if the context of the reported statement
(ie the location and/or the period of time) is different from that of the direct
speech.
In the following table, you will find ways of transforming place and time
expressions into reported speech.
Direct Speech Reported Speech
today that day
now then
yesterday the day before
… days ago … days before
m
last week the week before
co
next year the following year
tomorrow the next day / the following day
e.
here there
this that
re
ef
these those
in
B. Reporting Questions
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:
nl
pronouns
place and time expressions
llo
tenses (backshift)
Also note that you have to:
.a
m
Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use to / not to + verb
co
(infinitive without "to")
e.
Example:
She said, ―Sit down." - She asked me to sit down.
re
She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be lazy
ef
For affirmative use to + infinitive (without to)
For negative requests, use not to + infinitive (without to).
in
D. Other transformations
nl
Example:
―You must read this book.―
.a
m
express our preferences in a number of ways. A few sentences that
express preference:
co
I prefer a glass of fresh juice in the morning.
I rather have fruit for lunch than a full meal.
e.
I like cotton clothes better than silk ones.
I would like to choose Maths as a subject.
re
I would opt to travel by train as it is cheaper.
Introducing yourself and other people
ef
Introducing yourself and others
There is a range of ways to introduce yourself and people.
in
Introducing yourself:
nl
My name is ...
I'm ....
.a
...
w
m
manager.
William: Hi! I'm William O'Brian. Nice to meet you,
co
Mr Alex Litterman.
John: William, please meet Mr Steve Lynch, my
e.
assistant
Jack: How do you do?
Nicolas: How do you do? re
ef
Things to remember:
in
When introducing yourself or other people in a formal situation
use full names. ("I'm Alex Litterman.")
nl
action.
When meeting people formally for the first time, we greet by shaking hands
w
m
Things to remember about greeting:
When you greet someone and say:
co
"How do you do?"
this isn't really a question, it just means "Hello".
e.
Making an Appointment
Making an appointment
re
Being able to make and cancel an appointment is an important
skill in English. You need to be able to:
ef
make an apppointment,
in
respond to an appointment and
cancel an appointment.
nl
Here are some expressions you can use to do this concisely and
clearly.
llo
Asking to meet:
.a
m
I really don't think I can on ...
co
Examples:
"Yes, Monday is fine."
e.
"Monday suits me."
"Thursday would be perfect."
re
"I'm afraid I can't on the 3rd. What about the 6th?"
"I'm sorry, I won't be able to make it on Monday. Could we meet
ef
on Tuesday instead?"
in
"Ah, Wednesday is going to be a little difficult. I'd much prefer
Friday, if that's alright with you."
nl
"I really don't think I can on the 17th. Can we meet up on the
19th?
llo
Cancelling an appointment
You can cancel an appointment as follows
.a
You know we were going to meet next Friday? Well, I'm very
sorry, but something urgent has come up.
I'm afraid that I'm not going to be able to meet you after all. Can
we fix another time?
Preferences
Talking about your preferences:
Questions about prefences
Which do you prefer tea or coffee?
Which do you prefer drinking science or physics?
Which do you prefer to drink juice or mineral water? (Notice:
prefer to + present simple)
Which do you like better basketball or football?
Do you prefer pizza or spaghetti?
Would you prefer to eat a cake or a fruit?
Would you rather eat a cake or a fruit?
Replies
I prefer baseball.
m
I'd prefer to drink juice
I'd rather drink mineral water
co
If I had a choice, I would eat a sandwich.
A cup of coffee would be suitable.
e.
Things to remember about preferences
1. "I'd prefer" + to + verb
2. "I'd rather" + verb
Making Invitations re
ef
Making invitations
in
Do you know how to invite someone to your house for dinner or to go to the
movies?
nl
responding to invitations
Inviting:
.a
Sunday?
How do you fancy going to the the restaurant for dinner?
w
m
That's very kind of you,
but actually I'm doing
co
something else this
afternoon.
e.
Well, I'd love to, but I'm
already going out to the restaurant.
re
I'm really sorry, but I've got something else on.
I really don't think I can - I'm supposed to be doing something
ef
else.
in
(*rain check: used to tell someone that you cannot accept invitations now,
but would like to do so at a later time:)
nl
Dialogue:
Mike and Ann are in a wedding party:
llo
The following English phrases and expressions are all used to make
suggestions and give advice to people.
Making suggestions:
Let‘s revise our lessons.
What about going to the cinema tonight?
How about playing cards?
Why don't we do our homework?
Couldn't we invite your grandmother to our party?
Shall we have a walk along the river?
What would you say to a cup of coffee?
Don't you think it is a good idea to watch TV?
Does it matter if we use your car?
Accepting suggestions:
Ok. Yes, let's.
Yes, I'd like to.
Yes, I'd love to.
What a good idea!
Why not?
m
Yes, with pleasure.
Yes, I feel like taking a walk.
co
That sounds like a good idea.
Refusing suggestions:
e.
No, let's not.
No, I'd rather not.
I don't feel like it.
I dislike going for a walk.re
ef
What an awful / bad idea!
in
Things to remember about suggestions:
1.The verb "suggest" can be followed by either:
nl
the theatre.
2."That" is optional:
.a
Dialogue:
w
watch Titanic?
Alan: No, let's not. We've seen the film many times before.
What about going to the library? We have to finish
our school project!
Alice: That sounds like a good idea. But when we finish
let's go to the cafè.
Alan: Yes, I'd love to.
Talking about Cause and Effect
Cause and effect
When we talk about an effect resulting from a
certain cause, we use expressions such as:
because, since, as, owing to, due to...
Examples
The police arrested him because he
broke into a bank.
The police arrested him since he broke
m
into a bank.
She can't read the letter as she is
co
illiterate.
He can't run fast for he is too fat.
e.
Owing to his intelligence, he managed to solve the problem.
Due to the bad weather, they didn‘t go for a picnic.
re
Other ways to express cause and effect:
You can also express cause and effect as follows:
ef
The cause of …is…
…is caused by / is due to …
in
Thanks to ...
Examples:
nl
warming
Global warming is caused by pollution.
.a
is due to
w
w
m
"Did she lose the election?"
"Yeah, thanks to you and to all the others who didn't bother to vote."
co
"The baby is awake thanks to your shouting."
Things to remember about cause and effect:
a. Due to, because of, owing to and thanks to are followed by a noun.
e.
b. Because, since, as, for are followed by a verb.
Due to + Noun because
re
Subject + Verb
ef
Because of since
in
Owing to as
nl
Thanks to for
llo
Examples:
Due to his laziness, he didn't pass the exam.
.a
Because / since /as / they are in love, they forgive each other's
w
mistakes.
Writing a Cause and Effect Paragraph
w
m
Punctuation rules
co
Punctuation marks are symbols which
1. organize the structure of written language,
e.
2. and idicate intonation and pauses to be observed when reading
aloud.
re
Punctuation marks are also used to avoid ambiguity. For example, "woman,
without her man, is nothing" has a different meaning from "woman: without
ef
her, man is nothing"
This is a summary of punctuation rules.
in
Read the punctuation rules and study the examples given.
End punctuation marks:
nl
Co. (Company)
M.P. (Member of Parliament)
w
m
I'd like to have a big, black, German car.
She speaks slowly, quietly and eloquently.
co
After the street address and city in an address:
34 Hassan II Street, Rabat, Morocco.
Before or after direct speech:
e.
He said,"I hate being treated like that."
re
"I'm sorry", she replied.
Before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
ef
He woke up late, so he had to drive to work.
Semicolons (;)
in
Semicolons are used instead of a full stop or period to separate
independent sentences:
nl
m
Quotation marks are used to quote speech, sentences or
words.
co
She said, "I love you."
e.
The Coordinating Conjunction
re
And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet—these are the seven coordinating
ef
conjunctions.
in
The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or
llo
spoon.
Rocky, my orange tomcat, loves having his head scratched but hates
.a
Rocky terrorizes the poodles next door yet adores the German
w
Rocky refuses to eat dry cat food, nor will he touch a saucer of squid
eyeball stew.
I hate to waste a single drop of squid eyeball stew, for it is expensive
and time-consuming to make.
Even though I added cream to the squid eyeball stew, Rocky ignored
his serving, so I got a spoon and ate it myself.
w
w
w
.a
llo
nl
in
ef
re
e.
co
m