1

١
Principles of Geophysics (250G)
(Seismic Prospecting Methods)
Compiled by
Prof. Dr. Abudeif A. Bakheit
Email : abakheit
abakheit57
57@yahoo.com
@yahoo.com

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 Seismic methods

Seismic methods may be classified into two major

divisions depending on the energy source of the seismic
waves;
One in
O i which
hi h the
th natural
t l shock
h k waves from
f earthquakes
th k
are interior, is called earthquake seismology.
The other, in which the seismic waves are generated by
artificial explosions at selected sites to obtain
information about regional or local structures, is called
exploration seismology.
seismology
3
 Seismic Prospecting
Definition
 Basis of the seismic method is the timing of artificially
generated pulses of elastic wave energy that propagates
through
g the gground.
 These pulses of elastic wave energy or seismic waves
are detected
d t t d using
i electromagnetic
l t ti ttransducers
d called
ll d
geophones.

4
 Wave propagation
•Ray-
y ppaths:
Lines that show the
direction that the
seismic wave is
propagating
p p g g and are
perpendicular to the
wave front.
•Wave- front:
Is a surface of
constant wave, the
leading edge of a
wave disturbance.

Elastic
El ti wave energy spreads
d outt from
f a point
i t
5
source as an expanding sphere of energy
 Terminology of Seismic Waves

 Characteristics of Waves
 Measurements of a wave
 Wave period – the time interval
between the passage of two
successive crests
 Frequency – the number of
repetitions per unit time
 f = 1/T unitit is
i Hertz
H t (number
( b off
repetitions/sec)
 Velocity - wave speed – time it
takes the wave front to traverse
a known distance
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Elastic Moduli/ Elastic constants/ coefficients
 Exploration
E l ti seismology
i l iis concerned
d with
ith elastic
l ti
deformation. Velocities in earth materials depend on
physical properties of earth materials such as densities
and elastic moduli.
 Modulus = stress/strain

 The higher the value of the modulus, the stronger the

material and the smaller the strain produced by a
material,
given stress
Elastic constants include:
 Bulk modulus K
 Shear Modulus 
 Young’s
g modulus E
 Poisson’s Ratio  7
 Definition of Elastic Constants
B lk modulus
Bulk d l

 Bulk modulus is the Stress/strain ratio

under simple compression.
 It is a measure of how much force is
needed to change the volume of the
material without change in shape
shape.
 The bulk modulus (K) is a measure of the
capacity of the material to be
compressed or the incompressibility of
tthee material.
ate a
 it is defined as volumetric stress over P = Pressure
V= Volume
volumetric strain, and is the inverse of
compressibility K = P (volume stress)8
v/v (volume strain)
 Shear or Rigidity Modulus
 Denoted by S or sometimes μ, μ is defined as
the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain.
 Taken as an indication off the strength off a
material under shear forces. Shear modulus is
usually measured in GPa (Gigapascals)
 If a material has a large shear modulus, it will
take a large force applied to deform it. Gases
and fluids can not support shear forces, they
have shear modulus of zero.

Shear stress (F/A)/shear strain tan

 Young's modulus (E) or modulus of elasticity

 Also called elastic modulus or tensile modulus is a measure of the

stiffness of a given material.
 It is defined as the ratio of the uniaxial stress over the uniaxial
strain
 The Young's modulus allows engineers and other scientists to
calculate
l l the h behavior
b h i off a material i l under
d load.
l d
 It can be used to predict the amount a wire will extend under
t i or to
tension, t predict
di t the
th load
l d att which
hi h a thin
thi column
l will
ill buckle
b kl
under compression

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 Poisson ‘s ratio ( , or )

 When a sample of material is stretched in

one direction, it tends to get thinner in the
other two directions. Poisson's ratio (  )
iss a measure
e su e of
o thiss tendency.
e de cy.
 It is defined as the ratio of the strain in
the direction of the applied load to the
strain normal to the load. For a perfectly
i
incompressible
ibl material,
i l the
h Poisson's
i
ratio would be exactly 0.5.

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 Seismic Waves
 Four most important types of waves:
 Body waves -
 Compressional (longitudinal, primary or P-waves)
 T
Transverse ((shear,
h secondary
d or S
S-waves))
 Surface waves -
 Love waves (transverse, horizontal)
 Rayleigh waves (circular, reverse of water wave motion)

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Seismic Waves

Body waves
Compressional
p
(longitudinal, primary or
P-waves))

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 Types of seismic waves
 Body
B d waves
 Primary (P) waves
 Push-pull (compress and expand) motion,
changing the volume of the intervening material
 Travel through solids, liquids, and gases

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Seismic Waves

Body waves :
transverse (shear,
(
secondary or S-waves)

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Types of seismic waves

 Body waves
 Secondary (S) waves
 Slower velocity than P waves
 Slightly greater amplitude than P waves
 Second to appear at recording station
 Travels through
g solids only
y

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Surface
Su ace Waves
a es

 Surface waves propagate along the Earth's surface.

 Their amplitude
p at the surface of the Earth can be very
y
large, but decays quickly with depth.
 Surface waves propagate at speeds that are slower than
S waves.
 They have amplitudes that decay with distance from the
source more slowly than is observed for body waves

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 Seismic Waves

Surface waves -
 Love waves:
are essentiallyy horizontallyy
polarized shear waves (SH
waves)
 Love waves travel with a
slower velocity than P- or S-
waves, but faster than
Rayleigh waves.

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 Seismic Waves
Surface waves :
Raleigh waves
 Also known as the Rayleigh-
Lamb Wave or "ground roll”
 Particle moves in a circle or
ellipse like water waves, but
in opposite direction
 If one measures particles
deeper in the material, the
particles move slower
slower, then
reach a "no movement"
depth.
 Its velocity is slower than
Love waves

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Seismic wave velocities in rocks
Material P wave Velocity (m/s) S wave Velocity (m/s)
Air 332 --
Water 1400-1500 --
Petroleum 1300-1400 --
Steel 6100 3500
Concrete 3600 2000
Granite 5500-5900 2800-3000
Basalt 6400 3200
Sandstone 1400-4300 700-2800
Limestone 5900-6100 2800-3000
Sand (Unsat.) 200-1000 80-400
Sand (Sat.) 800-2200 320-880
Clay 1000-2500 400-1000
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Glacial Till (Sat.) 1500-2500 600-1000
Snell’s Law & Critical Refraction
•Because seismic sources radiate
waves in all directions. Some ray
m st hit interface at e
must exactly
actl the critical
angle, ic
•This critically oriented ray will then
travel along the interface between the
two layers.
•If more oblique
q than critical,, all wave
energy is reflected The reflected
energy is useful too
too.

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E l
Exploration
ti Seismology
S i l

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 Seismic reflection

•The travel time to each geophone for the direct

wave in the first layer is simply

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24
•The
Th travel
t l time
ti for
f the
th reflected
fl t d wave for
f a 2-
2
layer model can be expressed as follows.

Where :
t is the travel time
h1 is the depth to the first interface (thickness of the first layer
V1 is the velocity of seismic waves in the first layer

25
The equation
q in the last slide can be
re-formatted as

The second equation is in a standard format for

expressing a hyperbola curve.

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 Seismic refraction

•Seismic refraction only consider the first arrivals -so

so
simple and easy to use
•The detection depth is about 1/4 to 1/10 of your
geophone spread

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28
 Travel Time curves

Refracted arrival

Direct wave

Determining the shape of the travel-time curves versus offset is

the primary task in the refraction seismic method. 29
 Direct wave
Analysis of travel time curves
Critically
Cross over distance
refracted wave

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•At the crossover distance xcross the travel times to a
particular
ti l geophone
h are the
th same for
f the
th direct
di t wave and
d
the refracted wave, so we have

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Reflection and refraction Travel Time curves 32
3 layers – 2 interfaces

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34
Multilayer Seismic Refraction Travel Time curves 35
Determining
g depth
1. Using intercept time time at x =0

F one interface
For i t f – 2 layers
l

For two interfaces – 3 layers

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Determining Depth

2. Using the crossover Distance

conds)

Depth Layer1
y
el Time (millisec

L2
Layer2
y
L1
Trave

Xco
Source to Geophone Distance Xco V2 -V1
L1 = Layer
y 1 D1 =
2 V2 V1
V2+V1
L2 = Layer 2
V1 = Velocity of Layer 1 = 1/Slope of L1
V2 = Velocity of Layer 2 = 1/Slope of L2
Xco =Crossover Distance 37
Velocity Model

38

Note the difference in length of the direct wave

 Field Procedures

 Equipment:
 gy Source - apparatus
Seismic energy pp for delivering
g
seismic energy into the ground
 Geophones -devices
devices capable of measuring
ground motion generated by the seismic source
 Seismograph - stores the ground motion detected
by a number of geophones

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Field Procedures

• This device consists of a mass hanging on a spring. When the ground moves,
the mass (because it has inertia) remains motionless.
•Wrapped around the mass is a strand of wire. Surrounding the wire-wrapped
mass is a magnet that is fixed to the Earth.
•As the earth moves
moves, the magnet moves up and down around the massmass. The
magnetic field of this moving magnet produces an electrical voltage in the wire.
•This voltage can be amplified and recorded by a simple voltmeter. It is relatively
easy to show that the voltage recorded by the voltmeter is proportional to the
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velocity (speed) at which the ground is moving.
•Different geophones are used for different types of survey.
• For refraction surveying the typical natural frequency is 14 Hz;
• For detailed shallow reflection 100 Hz;;
• For surface waves 1.5 Hz
• 40 Hz can capture both refraction and reflection
reflection.
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42
43
 Field Procedures
Important notes:
 Spend time to know as much as possible about the local
geology
l off the
th study
t d area.
 Use spread length at least 3 times the target length
 Geophones must be well coupled with firm ground
 Can fill holes with water before placing geophones
 Lay cable along a line of equal elevation
 A id very windy
Avoid i d areas and
d ttraffic
ffi noise
i
 Think about the source you will be using
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Problems interpreting refraction data

 High Velocity Layer

O
Over Low
L V
Velocity
l it L Layer
– no critical refraction
 only
l one llayer seen

45
Problems

 Hidden Layers (LVZ between

two high velocity zones)
 Only two layers seen in the
time distance curve.
 No critical refraction between
V1 and V2, hence V2 layer will
not be seen
 Depth to V3 layer will be much
thicker

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Problems
 Hidden L
Hidd Layers (Blind
(Bli d Z
Zone-
thin layer with high velocity)
 The travel-time curve would
show 2 layers only.
 It is overtaken by the rapidly
travelingg head wave coming g
from the V2-V3 boundary.
 Depth calculated would be
too shallow

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Applications
pp of Seismic Refraction

 Depth and thickness of geologic strata

 Ground water exploration applications as aquifer
thickness, buried valleys, mapping water table
elevation
 Engineering geology applications as depth to
bedrock Waste disposal site evaluation
bedrock,
 Providing velocities for seismic reflection
i t
interpretation
t ti
 Detection of subsurface fracture system.
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Seismic Refraction;
Advantages and Limitations

 Advantages
 Determination of depth and soil/rock velocity
 Infer soil competency, weathering, fractures
 Acquisition and processing less expensive than reflection
 Limitations
 R
Resolution
l ti lless th
than reflection
fl ti surveys
 Large impact source may be required
 Increased rock velocity with depth required
 “Hidden layers” may be detected, but possibly not interpreted
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 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY

What is an EARTHQUAKE?

An earthquake is the motion, shaking or trembling

of the ground produced by sudden displacement of
rock in the Earth's crust.

They result from tectonics, volcanism, landslides,

and collapse of caverns.
caverns

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 Surface waves

Body waves

51
The effect of an
earthquake may be
manifested in any of
the
h following
f ll i forms:
f
Surface faulting,
landslides soil
landslides,
liquefaction, and
structural damage
damage.

٥٢ 52
Earthquake parameters
- Focus (hypocenter)
- Epicenter
- Focal Depth
- Epicenter
p ce te Distance
sta ce

53
 Seismograph (Seismometer)
Earthquake Recording
- A seismograph, or seismometer, is an
instrument used to detect and record
earthquakes. Generally, it consists of a mass
attached to a fixed base.
-During
D i an earthquake,
th k th
the b
base moves and d
the mass does not. The motion of the base
with respect
p to the mass is commonly y
transformed into an electrical voltage. The
electrical voltage is recorded on paper,
magnetic tape
tape, or another recording
medium.
-This record is proportional to the motion of
the seismometer mass relative to the earth,
but it can be mathematically converted to a
record of the absolute motion of the ground
ground.
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55
56
57
 Foreshocks
Foreshocks are relatively smaller earthquakes that precede
the largest earthquake (mainshock) in a series.
Not all mainshocks have foreshocks.

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Earthquakes Intensity Scale and Magnitude Scale

-The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in terms of

both intensity and magnitude.
magnitude However,
However the two terms are
quite different, and they are often confused.
IIntensity
t it is
i based
b d on the
th observed
b d effects
ff t off ground d
shaking on people, buildings, and natural features. It varies
from place to place within the disturbed region depending
on the location of the observer with respect to the
earthquake
q epicenter.
p
Magnitude is related to the amount of seismic energy
released at the hypocenter
yp of the earthquake.
q It is based on
the amplitude of the earthquake waves recorded on
instruments which have a common calibration. The
magnitude of an earthquake is thus represented by a single,
٥٩ 59
instrumentally determined value.
The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale:

•The effect of an earthquake on the Earth's surface is called

the intensity. The intensity scale consists of a series of certain
key responses such as people awakening, movement of
furniture, damage to chimneys, and finally total destruction.

•The intensity scale of earthquakes currently used in the

United S
States is the Modified Mercalli ((MM)) Intensity
y S
Scale.It
was developed in 1931 by the American seismologists Harry
Wood and Frank Neumann.

• This scale, composed of 12 increasing levels of intensity that

range from imperceptible shaking to catastrophic destruction,
destruction
is designated by Roman numerals. It does not have a
mathematical basis;; instead it is an arbitrary
y ranking
g based on
observed effects. 60
 The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMI).
I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions.
II Felt
II. F lt only
l by
b a few
f persons att rest,
t especially
i ll on upper floors
fl off buildings.
b ildi D li t l suspended
Delicately d d objects
bj t
may swing.
III. Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Many people do not
recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibration similar to the passing of a
truck. Duration estimated.
IV.Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors
disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars
rocked noticeably.
V. Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows broken. Unstable objects overturned.
Pendulum clocks may stop.
Vl Felt by all,
Vl. all many frightened.
frightened Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster.
plaster Damage
slight.
Vll. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well-built
ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys
broken.
Vlll. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings
with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns,
monuments, t walls.
ll Heavy
H f
furniture
it overturned.
t d
IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame structures thrown out of
plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations.
X. Some wellwell-built
built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with
foundations. Rails bent.
Xl. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent greatly. ٦١ 61
Xll. Damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
Isoseismal lines:
- An isoseismal ((line)) is a
contour or line on a map
bounding points of equal
intensity for
f a particular
earthquake.

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Earthquake Magnitude:
• The magnitude is a number that characterizes the relative size of an
earthquake.
q Magnitude
g is based on measurement of the maximum
motion recorded by a seismograph.
• Several scales have been defined, but the most commonly used are
1 local
1. l l magnitude
it d commonly l referred
f d tto as "Ri
"Richter
ht magnitude,“
it d “
2. surface-wave magnitude (Ms),
3 body
3. body-wave
wave magnitude (Mb)
(Mb), and
4. moment magnitude (Mw).
All magnitude scales should yield approximately the same value for
any given earthquake.

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Richter magnitude scale

•The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of

th California
the C lif i IInstitute
tit t off T
Technology
h l as a mathematical
th ti l d
device
i tto compare ththe
size of earthquakes.
The magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the logarithm of the
•The
amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs. Adjustments are included for
the variation in the distance between the various seismographs and the
epicenter of the earthquakes.
•On the Richter Scale, magnitude is expressed in whole numbers and decimal
f ti
fractions. F example,
For l a magnitude
it d 5.3
5 3 might
i ht be
b computed t d for
f a moderate
d t
earthquake, and a strong earthquake might be rated as magnitude 6.3.
• Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale,
scale each whole number increase
in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude;
•As an estimate of energy, gy, each whole number step p in the magnitude
g scale
corresponds to the release of about 31 times more energy than the amount ٦٤ 64
associated with the preceding whole number value.
Richter magnitude scale

•Earthquakes with magnitude of about 2.0 or less are usually called

micro
i earthquakes;
th k th are nott commonly
they l felt
f lt by
b people
l andd are
generally recorded only on local seismographs.
•Events
E t with
ith magnitudes
it d off about
b t 4.5
4 5 or greater--there
t th are severall
thousand such shocks annually--are strong enough to be recorded
by sensitive seismographs all over the world.
world
•Great earthquakes, have magnitudes of 8.0 or higher. On the
average one earthquake of such size occurs somewhere in the
average,
world each year.
•Although
Although the Richter Scale has no upper limit,
limit the largest known
shocks have had magnitudes in the 8.8 to 8.9 range.
•Recently,
Recentl another scale called the moment magnitude
magnit de scale has
been devised for more precise study of great earthquakes. 65
S i i it In
Seismicity I Egypt
E t

٦٦ 66
 Seismicity In the World

Earthquakes depicted on the seismicity

y maps are taken from the USGS/NEIC PDE catalog
g

67

Last update 28 November, 2005

68
Ring of Fire:
•The
The "Ring
Ring of Fire",
Fire , also
called the Circum-Pacific
belt, is the zone of
earthquakes
th k surroundingdi
the Pacific Ocean--about
90% of the world's
earthquakes occur there.
•The next most seismic
region (5(5-6%
6% of
earthquakes) is the Alpide
belt (extends from
Mediterranean region,
eastward through Turkey,
Iran and northern India
Iran, India.
69
 REFERENCES
-Dobrin and Savit (1986): Introduction to geophysical
prospecting4th Ed. ,McGraw Hill book company, New York,
867p.
-Reynolds, J.M., (1997): An introduction to applied and
environmental geophysics John Wiley & Sons, Chichester:
796 P.
-Sheriff, R.E. and Geldart, L.P. (1995): Hand book of exploration
seismology. Cambredge University Press. 592P.
-Telford,W.M., Gildart,L.P., Sheriff,R.E., and Keys,D.A. (1976):
Applied Geophysics , Cambridge University Press, 860 P.
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