TOPIC 2

MECHANICS OF LANGUAGE

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of the unit, students should be able to:

i. Construct grammatically correct sentences. (PLO 1, C3, LL1)

CONTENT:

A helpful guide to write a report is to know the mechanics of report writing. Aspects such
as active and passive voice and direct and indirect speech must be taken into consideration in
reporting what a researcher has collected in order to have a very neat and organised writing.
 e

l
e
c
t
u
2.1 Direct r Speech
e
r
s
a
i
 d ‘Direct
,
“ speech’
H
a is when
v we
e
report a
y
o
u

c
o
m
p
l
e
t
e
d

y
o
u
r
a
s
s
i
g
n
m
e
n
t
?
”
speaker’s words exactly. Usually, the speaker’s word is written between
speech marks (“ ”).
 Looking at the example stated above, to report the lecturer’s words, said
is used. It is called ‘the reporting verbs’. To display the way of speaking,
the attitude or the emotions of the speakers, there are other verbs that can
be used too.

“You
shoul
d
acce
pt his
offer,
” my
husb
and
advi
sed.
She
shou
ted,
“I
hate
you!”
“No
furth
er
com
ment
”, the
contr
over
sial
singe
r
repli
ed.
The
head
 ess
anno
unce
d,
 Other examples of ‘reporting verbs’ are“Ther
as follows:
e will
be a
meet
ing in
10
minu
tes.

shouted,
exclaimed,
growled,
muttered,
mumbled,
groaned
(ways of
speaking)
volunteered,
insisted,
suggested,
advised,
explained
observed,
commented,
complained,
boasted,
threatened
(speaker’s
attitude)
answered,
replied
 As for the position of the reporting verb, it can go before, after or in the
middle of the speaker’s words. On top of that, the reporting verb is in the
simple past tense.
 The
mini
ster
repli
ed,
“No
com
men
t.”
“You
shou
 If
ld
we
inve
st in
shar
es,”
my
brot
her
advi
sed.
“On
the
othe
r
han
d,”
said
the
judg
e,
“the
priso
ner
has
bee
n
co-
oper
ative
.”
 putting the reporting verb before the speaker’s words, the subject must go before
the verb, as usual.

subject reporting verb

 However, the M normal

y
word order can be
changed and a the
u
subject can be n put after
the verb if the t reporting
verb comes s after the
c
speaker’s words r
e
a
“Ther m
e
e’ d
s ,
a “
cr P
 This is also l
oc e
applicable if the
od a
reporting s‘ verb
ile e
comes in P the
he
middle of sl the
re! h
speaker’s ” ue words.
ta
m
y ts
he
be e
st ,
d’
fri o
en o
rs
d !
sc ”a
re i

a d
 “S
ed H
. oy
wa
“Ther
e’ lh
oi
 On the other s v hand,
the word order a ed cannot
la
be changed if cr y the
oc !n
subject is a ”,
od
pronoun.
ile s
h‘
he e
re! s
eh
” x
sc cu
lt
re
a
a i
mt
m
e
ed dh
.e
m
y (
od
be
n
st lo
yo
fri
en or
n
d.
e
q
ou
r
di
ec
r
k
pl
o
sy
s.
i
b’
l‘
e
)P
l
e
a
s
e
,
 S
y
a
h
ACTIVITY 1 i
d of the gaps. Remember to use
Choose a reporting verb from the box and put it into one
the simple past tense. The first one has been done forayou.
n
shout announce sing demand inquire ask

s
a
1. _- The manager announced, “There will be a short briefing after lunch.”
i
2. “Where’s your wallet?” ___________ the robber ___________.
d
3. “Excuse me,” ___________ she ___________. “Are you Mr. Zahar?”
,
4. “Curry puff! Curry puff!” ____________ the hawker ____________.
5. ___________ Noraini’s children ____________ “Twinkle twinkle little star… How I wonder
‘
what you are?”
s
6. “Are we leaving?” ____________ John ____________.
h
u
t

t
h
e

d
o
o
r

2.2 Reported Speech

 In ‘reported speech’ the speaker’s idea is reported as a part of our own
sentence.
  Most of the time, the speaker’s words are changed into a subordinate
clause beginning with that.
 Direct speech: ‘You need an operation.’
 Reported speech: The doctor said that I needed an operation.

Main sentence Subordinate ‘reported clause’

 In informal
T
English, h that will not be
e
used;
c
o
u
n
s
e
l
o
r

s
a
i
d

n
e
e
d
e
d

s
o
m
e

r
e
s
t
.
ACTIVITY 2
Rewrite these direct speech sentences as reported speech. You do not need to change
any verb tenses.
1. The report states, “Men are more patient as compared to women.”

2. “The residents have the rights to do lodge a report on this matter,” said the
policewoman.

3. “There is no gold in Kuala Lipis,” said the old lady. (informal)

4. The witness said, ‘The woman with the dragon tattoo stole the briefcase.”

5. The lecturer praised, “The students are very diligent and self-reliant.”

6. Ain said, “Ariff always bullied Halim outside the class.” (informal)

 We normally report what someone said in

the past. Therefore the reporting verb is usually
in the simple past tense.
 I
t
o
l
d

t
h
e

t
Reporting verb
o
Tu
 But, a hr present tense is
ei
sometimes
s
used in lt reporting verb.
 at When reporting
wh what is said in
C
a written texts,
st e.g. literature
o
tt and law:
n
ah
s
te
u
er
m
se
e
Sa r 
rast w
ha When
sa
as reporting
ysc
sh t generally
o
ema
d held views:
wa r
p
u
sn’ h
l
t aato
g
the t
i
sc te
n
enlr
eat n 
ofhf e
fa When we
the
a
ir want to
mu t
rdci b suggest that
ky
er.
n
the
(aef . speaker’s
nd r opinion
l
s
ifa hasn’t
yo t changed:
uw i
asil
o
ke l
n
d b
Sae
i
ras
noh
w,a
u
shn
n
egc
woe
o
d
uld
n
 lr
sao
yll
the
e
sad
me.
thi
ng
)

ACTIVITY 3
Choose the best tense for the reporting verbs in these sentences.

1. The dictionary (says/said) _____________that video comes from a Latin word.

2. Haziq rushed in and (says/said) _____________ there was a crocodile in the
river.
3. The policeman (tells/told)
_____________Imran that he had
driven through a red traffic light.
4. Most people (say/said) _____________
that they dream in colour.
5. Suhaimi (says/said) _____________
that she had a sad childhood.

T
 h
e

r
e
s
i
d
e
n
t
s

o
f
t
h
e

c
 The verb in the reported clause, like the reporting verb, is usually in the past
o
tense. n
d
o
m
i
n
i

 But if the speaker’s words are still true, u

m
we can use the present tense.

s
a
i
d

t
h
e
y

w
 n
t
e
d

T t
h h
e
s e
Past tense verb; because the uPresent tense verb; because this is
survey was done in the past. rstillntrue now.
v
e i
y g
i
h
n
d t
i m
c
a a
t r
e k
d
t e
h t
a
r
t
6 e
0 m
%
o
o v
f e
s
c d
h .
o
A
o
l
c c
h
o
il
d m
r p
e
n a
a n
r
y
e
l
a s
t
p
c
h o
k k
 y e
ki s
d m
s
. a
n
 Sometimes it is hard to choose between a past tense and a present tense in the
reported clause. Compare these sentences.
r
e
v
e
a
l
 In (1), I am thinking mainly about Bukhari’s promotion situation ‘at the time of our
e
discussion’, so I choose past tense.
 In (2) I am thinking mainly about Bukhari’s dpromotion situation ‘as it is now’, so I
choose present tense.
t
Oh
ria
git
ACTIVITY 4
nt
Look at the verb in italics in these reported speech sentences. Is the verb in the past
alh
tense, or the present tense? Provide brief explanations.
we
r
or
e
1. Rashdan told us his father owns a rambutan orchard.
ds
:
w
‘Y
a
os
2. Rashdan told us his father owned a rambutan orchard.
ur
pr
a
o
ms
3. The policeman said that Harris was driving
h much too slow.
oti
oo
r
n
t
is
a
4. Ammar complained that his book was torn.
n
g
ot
e
g
uo
ar
f
 u
nt
M
ep
a
ep
la
d.’
yr
R
.o
ef
5. Professor Dr. Aizat explained that the economy of Malaysia is growing.
ps
ora
tei
dd
sp
eh
e
ec
h
h
(1
a
):
d
I
 Past perfect tense is used if we wish to emphasize that something happened
tol
n
before the speaker spoke, we can use past perfect tense.
de
Bv
e
uk
hr
ar
b
ACTIVITY 5 i
e
Rewrite these direct speech sentences as reported hi speech. Use a past perfect verb in
e
s
the reported clause, to make it clear that the action happened earlier.
n
pr
1. Fitri said, “I saw Mujahid’s son in the supermarket.”
ot
mo
2. The thief confessed, “I stole the gold.” oti
oH
nu
n
3. My girlfriend exclaimed, “I have never donewsuch a thing!”
g
a
a
s
r
n
y
ot
gb
 arf
ao
ntr
ee
e.
4. The builder said, “I completed the work last T
Monday.”
d.
h
R
e
e
5. Liyana whispered to her, “Amira has already gone home.”
p
o
orf
tef
di
sp
c
ee
r
ec
hs
(2
 In changing pronouns and other words when a reporting, the basic rule here is ~
):
use your common sense. The words must be d changed to fit the situation of your
I
own sentence. m
 tol
You may need to change words like I, me, yours, mine. This depends on who is
i
reporting and who is listening and reading. dt
 Direct: I told Bukhari, ‘Your promotion
Bt is not guaranteed.’
 Reported: I told Bukhari that your promotion was not guaranteed.’
uke
hd
ar
it
hih
a
s
t
pr
t
o
h
m
e
oti
y
o
nh
isa
nd
ot
gc
 m
ar
m
a
i
nt
t
et
ee
d.d

f
r
I told Bukhari,
a
“Your promotion
is not u
d
guaranteed.”
.
I told Bukhari
your promotion
was not
 guaranteed.’ Words
(I am reporting
to Bukhari later)
I told Bukhari
that his
promotion was
not guaranteed.
(I am reporting
to someone
else)
You told me my
promotion was
not guaranteed.
(Bukhari is
reporting to me)
referring to time and place may also need to be changed. Look at these
examples;

Yen Wah said, ‘Mei came here this morning to see these books.’
 if the report is made the next day in the same place:

Yen Wah said that Mei came here yesterday morning to see these books.
  if the report is made two days later from another place:

Yen Wah said that Mei went there on Tuesday morning (or two morning
ago) to see those (or some) books.

ACTIVITY 6
Report Rossidi’s words in different ways, according to the instruction.

Rossidi told Akmal, ‘I came here this morning to see you.’

1. Rossidi is reporting to Akmal the next day. They are in the same place.

2. Akmal is reporting to someone else one month later, in the same place.

3. Rossidi is reporting to someone else one month later, in a different place.

4. Someone else is reporting to Akmal two days later in the same place.

5. Two people are talking about Rossidi and Akmal a few days later.
 O
u
r

c
o
a
c
 To h
report an
instruction, to + basic verb is
used instead i of a that-
clause. n
 s Direct: “Put a
coin in t the slot.”
 Reported: The
r
instruction told
u
you to put a coin in the
c
slot.
t
e
d

u
s
 Among the common
t reporting verbs
are tell, o order and
instruct.
 In the p examples
above, l take note that
all a these verbs
y
must take an object;
you, us, his men
d
e
f
e
n
s
i
 e
l
y
.
 To show how the speaker spoke, other Tuseful examples are point out, deny,
expect, hope, believe, claim and think. h
 We can change the speakers words to summarize the main idea.
e

o
f
f
 This can be reported by someone else as:i
c
e
 We have to be careful in changing the tense of a modal verb in reported speech.
T r
If we h change the
tense of e a modal, the
P o
ri Tr meaning will
m
be e hd changed as
well. M ee
 in Direct:
is Pr
Safwan te ri e said, “You
r
should s md lodge a
ai e complaint.”
 d, Reported:
‘T Mh
Safwan h i i said I should
er
lodge a e ns complaint.
is i
 Modals are n very useful as
o sm
an indirect way of
a t e
reporting b somebody’s
u en
words. s r
 Direct: e “I think I’ll sign
of st
up for Business
p ao
o
w i
er da
.’
Communication,” Amdan said. t d
 Reported: Amdan said he might sign uph for Business Communication.
v
aa
t n
t c
he
 .
r
e
w
a
s
ACTIVITY 7
n
Change this statement into reported speech in an indirect way, by making a
o
summary of the idea. You may find several possible
a answers.

b all taxes by next year.’ (Report this in

1. The candidates said, ‘Our party will abolish
u
next day’s newspapers. Avoid using said.)
s
e
2. “From next week, everybody will have to begin work at 7.45 a.m.,” declared the
o
Director. (Report this to a colleague the following week.)
f
p
o
3. Mrs. Lee told her neighbor, “I’m sorry.wWe won’t be able to come for dinner
tomorrow night.” (You are Mr Lee. Reporte this on the day after the dinner.)
r.
(
s
4. Two years ago Mr Fang told his wife, “I would like to write my will, so I can die in
i
peace.” (Report this for a magazine article.)
m
p
l
e
r
e
p
o
rt
)

 T
When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:
h
 pronouns
e
 present tense verbs (3rd person singular)
P
 place and time expressions
ri
 tenses (backshift)
m
e
M
i
 i
s
t
e
r
 Also note that you have to: i

 n
transform the question into an indirect question
s
 use the interrogative or if / whether
i
s
Type Example
t
with interrogative direct speech “Why don’t you speak English?”
reported speech e asked me why I didn’t speak
He
d
English.
without interrogative direct speech “Do
t you speak English?”
reported speech He
h asked me whether / if I spoke
English.
a
t
t
h
e
r
e
w
a
s
n
o
a
b
u
s
ACTIVITY 8 e
o
Change these direct speech questions into reported questions. Be careful: in many of
f verb tense.
them you will need to change the pronoun or the
p
o
1. “Do you know the answer?” the instructor asked Hazila.
w
e
r.
(
m
o
 e
p
r
e
c
2. “Did you see the badminton match?” Aziz asked me.
i
s
e
3. “Where do you live?” Kenneth asked the boys.
)
T
h
e
4. “How much does the car cost?” Zainuri wondered.
P
ri
m
5. “Are you afraid?” Shah asked Kamal.
e
M
i
n
i
s
t
e
r
d
e
n
i
e
d
t
h
2.3 Active and Passive Voice
a
 There are two special forms for verbst called voice:
h
 Active voice e
 Passive voice w
a
s
a
b
 s
i
n
g
 h This is the voice that we use most of
The active voice is the "normal" voice.
i
the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active
voice, the object receives the action ofsthe verb:
p
o
Active Subject Verb Object
Cats weat fish.
e
r
 The passive voice is less usual. In the
. passive voice, the subject receives the
action of the verb: (
s
Passive Subject Verb
u Object
Fish are eaten by cats.
m
 The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:
m
a
Subject Verb Object
r
Active Everybody drinks water.
Passive Water is drunk
y by everybody.
)
 The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the
"normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we
look at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to
conjugate it.

 The structure of the passive voice is very simple:

subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle

 The main verb is always in its past participle form.

 Look at these examples:

Subject Auxiliary Verb (to Main Verb (Past
be) Participle)
Water is drunk by everyone.
100 are employed by this
people company.
I am paid in euro.
We are not paid in dollars.
Are they paid in yen?
o we want to make the active object more important

o we do not know the active subject

Subject Verb Object

give importance to active object President was killed by Lee Harvey
(President Kennedy) Kennedy Oswald.
active subject unknown My wallet has been ?
stolen.

 Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten by
cats).
 Look at this sentence:
 He was killed with a gun.
 Normally we use by to introduce the passive object. But the gun is not the
active subject. The gun did not kill him. He was killed by somebody with a
gun. In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a gun. The
gun is the instrument. Somebody is the "agent" or "doer".
 We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive
tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle form and the
auxiliary verb is always be. To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary
verb. So, for example:
 Present Simple: It is made
 Present Continuous: It is being made
 Present Perfect: It has been made

 Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:

Infinitive to be washed
Simple Present It is washed.
Past It was washed.
Future It will be washed.
Conditiona It would be washed.
l
Continuous Present It is being washed.
Past It was being washed.
Future It will be being washed.
Conditiona It would be being washed.
l
Perfect Simple Present It has been washed.
Past It had been washed.
 Future It will have been washed.
Conditiona It would have been washed.
l
Perfect Continuous Present It has been being washed.
Past It had been being washed.
Future It will have been being washed.
Conditiona It would have been being washed.
l

ACTIVITY 9
Rewrite the sentences below using passive voice.

E.g.: Salbiah writes a report.

Ans: A report is written, or,
A report is written by Salbiah.

1. Siti Aisyah rescued two tigers.

2. The engineers handed in the reports.

3. Yan crashed into the red van.

4. Fathiah sang the songs.

5. Maisarah has forgotten the module.

6. The technician has repaired the LCD projector.

7. They play football.

8. Anuar puts the backpack on the floor.

9. The boys had won the match.

10. The lecturer is not going to open the door.

11. He bought three oranges.

12. We won the competition.

13. The young man stole the green bandwagon.

14. The police had arrested the thieves.

15. Sofea drew the portrait.

16. The shark bit the old man.

17. Tom and Max ate four chicken burgers.

18.

Oliver taught the children.

19. Victoria rode the brown horse.

20. Grandmother told good stories.