Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Toward a
Consistent Design of
Structural Concrete
74
CONTENTS
Synopsis............................................. 77
Acknowledgment......................................147
References...........................................146
The truss model is today considered tie-models condense all stresses in com-
by researchers and practitioners to be pression and tension members and join
the rational and appropriate basis for the them by nodes.
design of cracked reinforced concrete This paper describes how strut-and-
beams loaded in bending, shear and tor- tie-models can be developed by fol-
sion. However, a design based on the lowing the path of the forces throughout
standard truss model can cover only a structure. A consistent design ap-
certain parts of a structure. proach for a structure is attained when
At statical or geometrical discontinu- its tension and compression members
ities such as point loads or frame cor- (including their nodes) are designed
ners, corbels, recesses, holes and other with regard to safety and serviceability
openings, the theory is not applicable. using uniform design criteria.
Therefore, in practice, procedures The concept also incorporates the
which are based on test results, rules of major elements of what is today called
thumb and past experience are usually "detailing," and replaces empirical pro-
applied to cover such cases. cedures, rules of thumb and guess work
Since all parts of a structure including by a rational design method. Strut-and-
those mentioned above are of similar tie-models could lead to a clearer under-
importance, an acceptable design con- standing of the behavior of structural
cept must be valid and consistent for concrete, and codes based on such an
every part of any structure. Further- approach would lead to improved
more, since the function of the experi- structures,
ment in design should be restricted to The authors are aware of the en-
verify or dispute a theory but not to de- couraging fact that, although they pub-
rive it, such a concept must be based on lished papers on this topic earlier,1.2.3
physical models which can be easily they are neither the first nor the only
understood and therefore are unlikely to ones thinking and working along these
be misinterpreted. lines. It was actually at the turn of the last
For the design of structural concrete* century, when Ritter*' and Mcirsch s in-
it is, therefore, proposed to generalize troduced the truss analogy. This method
the truss analogy in order to apply it in was later refined and expanded by
the form of strut-and-tie-models to every Leonhardt, ° Rusch, 7 Kupfer, 8 and others
part of any structure. until Thurlimann's Zurich school, a with
This proposal is justified by the fact Marti lu and Mueller," created its scien-
that reinforced concrete structures carry tific basis for a rational application in
loads through a set of compressive stress tracing the concept back to the theory of
fields which are distributed and inter- plasticity.
connected by tensile ties. The ties may Collins and Mitchell further consid-
be reinforcing bars, prestressing ten- ered the deformations of the truss model
dons, or concrete tensile stress fields. and derived a rational design method for
For analytical purposes, the strut-and- shear and torsion."
In various applications, Bay, Franz,
Leonhardt and Thurlimann had shown
'Following a proposal by Dr. J. E. Breen and that strut-and-tie-models could be use-
Dr. A. S. C. Bruggeling, the term "structural fully applied to deep beams and corbels.
concrete" covers all loadbearing concrete, including
reinforced, prestressed and also plain (unrein-
From that point, the present authors
forced concrete, if the latter is part of a reinforced began their efforts to systematically ex-
concrete structure. pand such models to entire structures
76
Synopsis
Certain parts of structures are de- ing structural concrete, which includes
signed with almost exaggerated accu- both reinforced and prestressed con-
racy while other parts are designed crete structures.
using rules of thumb or judgment This report shows how suitable
based on past experience. How- models are developed and proposes
ever, all parts of a structure are of criteria according to which the model's
similar importance. elements can be dimensioned uni-
A unified design concept, which is formly for all possible cases. The con-
consistent for all types of structures cept is explained using numerous de-
and all their parts, is required. To be sign examples, many of which treat
satisfactory, this concept must be the effect of prestress.
based on realistic physical models. This report was initially prepared for
Strut-and-tie-mode Is, a generalization discussion within CEB (Comitd
of the well known truss analogy Euro-International du Beton) in con-
method for beams, are proposed as nection with the revision of the Model
the appropriate approach for design- Code,
t n
-^ t,
b)
IIFH 2. h—L
h
I
Fig. 1 D-regions (shaded areas) with nonlinear strain distribution due to (a) geometrical
discontinuities; (b) statical and/or geometrical discontinuities.
78
Fig. 2. Stress trajectories in a B-region and near discontinuities
(D-regions).
corbels and splitting tension at pre- design procedure for the B-regions are
stressed concrete anchorages. And even then readily available and only the
these approaches usually only lead to strut-and-tie-models for the D-regions
the design of the required amount of remain to be developed and added.
reinforcement; they do not involve Stresses and stress trajectories are
a clear check of the concrete quite smooth in B-regions as compared
stresses. to their turbulent pattern near discon-
The inadequate (and inconsistent) tinuities (see Fig. 2). Stress intensities
treatment of D-regions using so-called decrease rapidly with the distance from
"detailing," "past experience" or "good the origin of the stress concentration.
practice" has been one of the main rea- This behavior allows the identification
sons for the poor performance and even of B- and D-regions in a structure.
failures of structures. It is apparent, In order to find roughly the division
then, that a consistent design lines between B- and D-regions, the
philosophy must comprise both B- and following procedure is proposed, which
D-regions without contradiction. is graphically explained by four exam-
Considering the fact that several de- ples as shown in Fig. 3:
cades after MOrsch, the B-region de- 1. Replace the real structure (a) by the
sign is still being disputed, it is only rea- fictitious structure (b) which is loaded in
sonable to expect that the more complex such a way that it complies with the
D-region design will need to be sim- Bernoulli hypothesis and satisfies
plified with some loss of accuracy. equilibrium with the sectional forces.
However, even a simplified methodical Thus, (b) consists entirely of one or sev-
concept of D-region design will be pref- eral B-regions. It usually violates the
erable to today's practice. The preferred actual boundary conditions.
concept is to use the strut-and-tie-model 2. Select a self-equilibrating state of
approach. This method includes the stress (c) which, if superimposed on (b),
B-regions with the truss model as a spe- satisfies the real boundary conditions of
cial case ofa strut-and-tie model. (a).
In using the strut-and-tie-model ap- 3. Apply the principle of Saint-Wnant
proach, it is helpful and informative to (Fig. 4) to (c) and find that the stresses
first subdivide the structure into its B- are negligible at a distance a from the
and D-regions. The truss model and the equilibrating forces, which is approxi-
d ht^
+ B
d=h
{c1
hlMI l t i M3 h2
V ^^
M1 VM M3
c b1
(c)
+ i U.
-dr r+–d 2 = h2
{ d1
iB / B
80
a]
IL l I 4 3 TTTTT r I- m
h
t t^
(C) d=h_,
+ I
rth
tf1:!II!1IIIIle!!!:
(a]
^`. d=b
D ^ ^ I^
f
Fig. 3.4. T-beam.
Fig. 3. Subdivision of four structures into their B- and D-regions, using Saint
Venant's principle (Fig. 4).
F a
6=0\i0
6 ^ d=h
b) F
y4______
2y!_2
?_iTIh
HI
d=h d
_' Y
" x x
1.0 h 10 h
dydy
1,0 h 1,0 h
mately equal to the maximum distance ation may influence the extent of the
between the equilibrating forces them- D-regions but needs no further discus-
selves. This distance defines the range sion since the principle of Saint-V€nant
of the D-regions (d). itself is not precise and the dividing
It should be mentioned that cracked lines between the B- and D-regions
concrete members have different stiff- proposed here only serve as a qualita-
nesses in different directions. This situ- tive aid in developing the strut-and-
82
p h
B B t
^ B
/a2h
c) }
B ^' B
B B
^a
0 ^h
f^4h
hI h B
01"Okol UIF^ B
I >Zh^•4h1
r r
f ► f
Fig. 6. A frame structure containing a substantial part of B-regions, its statical system and
its bending moments.
84
Fig. 7, Prismatic stress fields according to the theory of
plasticity (neglecting the transverse tensile stresses
due to the spreading of forces in the concrete) are
unsafe for plain concrete.
analysis and B-region design provide sectional effects by a statical system may
also the boundary forces for the D-re- be omitted and the inner forces or stress-
gions of the same structure. es can be determined directly from the
Slabs and shells consist predom- applied loads following the principles
inantly of B-regions (plane strain dis- outlined for D-regions in Section 3.3.
tribution) - Starting from the sectional However, for structures with redundant
effects of the structural analysis, imagi- supports, the support reactions have to
nary strips of the structure can be mod- be determined by an overall analysis
elled like linear members. before strut-and-tie-models can be
If a structure consists of one D-region properly developed.
only (e.g., a deep beam), the analysis of In exceptional cases, a nonlinear fi-
hrte,
9, reg an O-region
/ truss
f
—multiple truss
Mlz
t t4.--
single truss —-
tt
multiple truss (steps) --^
C) beam
oc
T model
Cclx)
I)
Cclx-a1
aI^i Mx
E
-1 11
VIx al ^
xo
vx I T
vix a}^^ Tw _
Ts(x-a) o
w
8' x Tslx)
xb S
,h—a-z cot 8 —
8 ——
Cc Ix } —M ll - V2x Co t o
Cw I x }_ s V(x)
cwlxl b z sn
B Ismeo ed dogcrd stress)
Z
Twlx- l = V (x} –– V(xJ a nil length of beam)
t w o) = z rat 9 (pEr
TS (xl= M x) • -
V cot 8
Fig- 8. Truss model of a beam with cantilever: (a) model; (b) distribution of inner forces;
(c) magnitude of inner forces derived from equilibrium of a beam element.
86
Table 2. Overall structural behavior and method of overall structural analysis of statically
indeterminate structures.
Corresponding method of analysis
Limit Overall of sectional effects and support reactions
state structural behavior
Most adequate Acceptable
nite element method analysis may be tures for the sectional effects using a
applied. A follow-up check with a strut- linear elastic analysis is conservative.
and-tie-model is recommended, espe- Vice versa, the distribution of sectional
cially if the major reinforcement is not effects derived from plastic methods
modelled realistically in the FEM may for simplification purposes also be
analysis. used for serviceability checks, if the
structural design (layout of reinforce-
ment) is oriented at the theory of elas-
3.2 Comments on the Overall ticity.
Analysis
In order to be consistent, the overall 3.3 Modelling of Individual B- and
analysis of statically indeterminate
D-Regions
structures should reflect the realistic
overall behavior of the structure. The 3.3.1 Principles and General Design
intent of the following paragraph (sum- Procedure
marized in Table 2) is to give some After the sectional effects of the B-re-
guidance for the design of statically in- gions and the boundary forces of the D-
determinate structures. Some of this regions have been determined by the
discussion can also be applied to stat- overall structural analysis, dimensioning
ically determinate structures especially follows, for which the internal flow of
with regard to determining deforma- forces has to be searched and quantified:
tions. For uncracked B- and D-regions,
Plastic methods of analysis (usually standard methods are available for the
the static method) are suitable primarily analysis of the concrete and steel stress-
for a realistic determination of ultimate es (see Table 1). In the case of high
load capacity, while elastic methods are compressive stresses, the linear stress
more appropriate under serviceability distribution may have to be modified by
conditions. According to the theory of replacing Hooke's Law with a nonlinear
plasticity, a safe solution for the ultimate materials law (e.g., parabolic stress-
load is also obtained, if a plastic analysis strain relation or stress block).
is replaced by a linear or nonlinear If the tensile stresses in individual B-
analysis. Experience further shows that or D-regions exceed the tensile strength
the design of cracked concrete struc- of the concrete, the inner forces of those
88
- 10 l-a La lh
a)
I IH -k i T l I I
L// t-/--.
Cj ^J C1 ^ `l il Z
T --- strut
tie
a^- a
b)
A^ Mfr
0,5 ____
1 t5 d r2F
QG Z' a/1-01
70° 0,3
/P I art/pt
Q
1
0
0.5 0,5 0.7 9.8 09 1.0 1.1 1,? 1,3 1,6 1,5 lbd/t
maximum moments and zero shear and discussed later in Section 5.1.
for simplicity be kept constant between For the D-regions it is necessary to
two adjacent points of zero moments. develop a strut-and-tie-model for each
Refinements of B-region design will be case individually. After some training,
pi
loodpoth
cjr
T 1 ti'–—`r
IA lB
A B
IF
15'
S /^
A '
I II
B B P
F B B
F
this can be done quite simply. De- principal compressive stresses or the
veloping a strut-and-tie-model is com- more important struts and ties can be lo-
parable to choosing an overall statical cated at the center of gravity of the cor-
system. Both procedures require some responding stress diagrams, C and T in
design experience and are of similar rel- Fig. 9a, using the y diagram given
evance for the structure. there.
Developing the model ofa D-region is However, even if no elastic analysis is
much simplified if the elastic stresses available and there is no time to prepare
and principal stress directions are avail- one, it is easy to learn to develop strut-
able as in the case of the example shown and-tie-models using so-called "load
in Fig. 9. Such an elastic analysis is paths." This is demonstrated in more
readily facilitated by the wide variety of detail by some examples in the next
computer programs available today. The section.
direction of struts can then be taken in 3.3.2 The Load Path Method
accordance with the mean direction of First, it must be ensured that the outer
90
C
al
e hi Cl
Ir I 1 ^ `7^ - Q ^f
ILL Y s p _P L ^ ^
Fig. 12.1. A typical D-region: (a) elastic stress trajectories; (b) elastic stresses;
(c) strut-and-tie-models.
a a
IF
" t r ,,
dI4
d'r ICT jCr
1 t
8 t !
A I I
Fig. 12.2. Special case of the D-region in Fig. 12.1 with the load at the
corner; (b) elastic stresses; (c) strut-and-tie-models.
II ^
Iv Ti
Al Tc
shear force'
A B c
moment
b) A B m P '
I I
I !
H )
f/
C AT tc
strut
tie
_.^ load path
-mtea anchorage length of the bar
Fig. 13. Two models for the same case: (a) requiring oblique reinforcement;
(b) for orthogonal reinforcement.
begin and end at the center of gravity of stress concentrations (support reactions
the corresponding stress diagrams and or singular loads).
have there the direction of the applied Obviously, there will be some cases
Ioads or reactions. They tend to take the where the stress diagram is not com-
shortest possible streamlined way in pletely used up with the load paths de-
between. Curvatures concentrate near scribed; there remain resultants (equal
92
a) good b) bad
UIII i LnT TTY_ i P (L;1 lrlul .LU.11111 P
r I I I
11d_I i t d=I
Fig. 14. The good model (a) has shorter ties than the bad model (b).
in magnitude but with opposite sign) bined approach is applied in Fig. 12 and
which enter the structure and leave it the numerical example in Section 5.2.1.
again on U-turn or form a whirl as illus- In Fig. 12.1 the vertical struts and ties
trated by forces B or Figs. 11 and 13a. are found by the load path method as
Until now, equilibrium only in the di- explained in the previous examples:
rection of the applied loads has been The structure is divided into a B-region
considered. After plotting all load paths and a D-region. The bottom of the D-re-
with smooth curves and replacing them gion is acted on by the stresses (p) as
by polygons, further struts and ties must derived for the adjacent B-region.
be added for transverse equilibrium These stresses are then resolved into
acting between the nodes, including four components: The two compressive
those of the U-turn. forces Cs + C. = F, which leaves two
While doing so, the ties must be ar- equal forces T Z and C Y. The forces C,
ranged with proper consideration of and C, are the components, respec-
practicality of the reinforcement layout tively, on the left hand and right hand
(generally parallel to the concrete sur- side of the vertical plane which is de-
face) and of crack distribution require- terrnined by the load F. By laterally
me nts- shifting the load components into the
The resulting models are quite often given positions, transverse stresses are
kinematic which means that equilib- generated.
rium in a given model is possible only The corresponding horizontal struts
for the specific Ioad case. Therefore, the and ties are located at the center of
geometry of the appropriate model has gravity of stress diagrams in typical sec-
to be adapted to the load case and is in tions which are derived from an elastic
most cases determined by equilibrium analysis (Fig. 12.1b). Their nodes with
conditions after only a few struts or ties the vertical struts also determine the
have been chosen. position of the diagonal struts (see Fig.
A very powerful means of developing 12.lc).
new strut-and-tie-models for compli- The example in Fig. 12.2 shows that
cated cases is the combination of an the tie T 3 of Fig. 12.Ic disappears, if the
elastic finite element method analysis load F moves toward the corner of the
with the load path method. This com- D-region.
b)
R Q
f ^ AI f # 1i
e) + 2l
f-;
I I`1
r 1
r r
f
high medium low long
tl)
L---4-- -r-+
i I I
I r r I
^ I 1
+7Tt i tf
4i
Y r `I I it t !_, I '-, 4
r ^ ly ^^ I II
Fig. 15. The two most frequent and most useful strut-and-tie models:
(a) through (b), and some of their variations (c) through (e).
94
3.3.3 Model Optimization Thereby, special methods such as those
In Fig. 13 one load case has been given in Ref. 17, which consider devia-
solved with two different models. The tions of reinforcement directions from
left part of Figs. 13a and 13h shows how the principal stress directions, are not
they were developed by the load path needed.
method and how they are connected to Doubts could arise as to whether the
the overall sectional effects of the D-re- correct model has been chosen out of
gions. The ties T 1 and Tx in Fig. 13a several possible ones. In selecting the
would require inclined reinforcement, model, it is helpful to realize that loads
which is undesirable from a practical try to use the path with the least forces
viewpoint. and deformations. Since reinforced ties
Therefore, a tie arrangement has been are much more deformable than con-
chosen in Fig. 13b which can be satis- crete struts, the model with the least and
fied by an orthogonal reinforcing net shortest ties is the best. This simple
with the bars parallel to the edges. criterion for optimizing a model may be
b)
' I
c) srbT d)^
a-o rr
+ r
rr,
I II 5rr
(see also fig. 35)
Fig. 16. One single type of a D-mode& appears in many different structures: here four
examples are given.
t I s __
column - -------H
T 1
Fig. 17. (a) Deep beam on three supports; (b) end of a beam or slab
with anchorages of three prestressing tendons. Both cases are
identical if the reactions in (a) and the prestressing forces in (b) are
equal.
96
ferent designations only because they react with "bending" in the one case
appear under different circumstances. and with "splitting tension" in the other
For example, the deep beam in Fig. 17 case, but simply with tension and com-
"does not care" whether its identical pression.
loads result from supports or from pre- Numerous other strut-and-tie-models
stressing tendons. It, therefore, does not are found in Ref. 3.
PC I JOURNAL/May-June 1987 97
all a2) o3)
I _ F1_{!.) IGIlGla]{)1III1iTI[JIIJi]11111
I ^
C _ C C
C
1
c c `
s ^
C T TC
C C^
^ 1C O
EE
` f
Fig. 18. Some typical examples of strut-and-tie-models, their stress fields, nodes and
corresponding reinforcement (if any is provided).
98
(b) The "bottle" (see Fig. 20b). length and width.
(c) The "prism" or parallel stress If one of the struts or ties represents a
field (see Fig. 20c), being the limit concentrated stress field, the deviation
case of both a = 0 and hla = 1. of forces tends to he locally concen-
trated also. On the other hand, for wide
Nodes concrete stress fields joining each other
The nodes of the model are a simpli- or with tensile ties, which consist of
fied idealization of reality. They are many closely distributed reinforcing
formally derived as the intersection bars, the deviation of forces may be
points of three or more straight struts or smeared (or spread) over some length.
ties, which themselves represent either Therefore, in the former case the nodes
straight or curved stress fields or rein- are called singular (or concentrated)
forcing bars or tendons. A node as intro- nodes, whereas in the latter case they
duced into the model implies an abrupt are called smeared (or continuous)
change of direction of forces. In the ac- nodes. Nodes A and B in Fig. 18a1 serve
tual reinforced concrete structure this as typical examples of both types of
deviation usually occurs over a certain nodes.
e)
Fig. 18 (cont). Some typical examples of strut-and-tie-models, their stress fields, nodes
and corresponding reinforcement (if any is provided).
HH
I^-he12^1
t
anch rOge length
b3 b4
nnchort^ge length
Fig. 19. Examples of the basic types of nodes: (a) CCC-nodes. Idealized "hydrostatic"
singular nodes transfer the concentrated loads from an anchor plate (a,) or bearing plate
(a2 ) into (bottle shaped) compression fields; (b) CCT-nodes. A diagonal compression
strut and the vertical support reaction are balanced by reinforcement which is anchored
by an anchor plate behind the node (b,), bond within the node (b2), bond within and
behind the node (b,), bond and radial pressure (b,).
IPISI
Failure Criteria for Concrete the prisms between those cracks are
The strength of the concrete in com- ragged and narrow. The reduction of
pression fields or within nodes depends compressive strength is small or nomi-
to a large extent on its multiaxial state of nal if the tensile forces are carried by the
stress and on disturbances from cracks reinforcement and the cracks are wide
and reinforcement. enough apart.
(a) Transverse compression is favor- (c) In particular, cracks which are not
able especially if it acts in both trans- parallel to the compressive stresses are
verse directions, as for example in con- detrimental.
fined regions. Confinement may be pro- In 1982, an empirical formula for cal-
vided by transverse reinforcement or by culating the strength of parallel concrete
bulk concrete surrounding a relatively compression fields with transverse ten-
small compression field (see Fig. 21). sion was published by Collins et al.,2a
(b) Transverse tensile stresses and the and 2 years later a similar formula was
cracks caused by them are detrimental.rs introduced into the new Canadian
The concrete may fail considerably CSA-Standard A 23.3-M 84. 24 These
below its cylinder strength if the trans- formulas summarize the influence of
verse tension causes closely spaced such significant parameters as crack
cracks approximately parallel to the width, crack distance and crack direc-
principal compression stresses such that tion by the transverse tensile strain E,
c1 ) C2)
d1 ) dz)
l I
t f
Fig. 19 (cont.). Examples of the basic types of nodes: (c) CTT-nodes. A compression
strur is supported by two bonded reinforcing bars (c,), respectively, by radial pressure
from a bent-up bar (c1); (d) TTT-nodes, as above with the compression strut replaced by
a bonded tie.
` 1 1; J j r 1 I J 1 I 1 1 1 G 1411111J4
I I i
I
I II I r
I
ir ^I II
^tllfft/f fff cd ffittfll^ g^f d 1fi11t11^ a^fcd
— aV^-I
Fig. 20. The basic compression fields: (a) the "fan"; (b) the "bottle"; (c) the "prism".
which, however, is not readily available Note that f , denotes the concrete
in the analysis. compressive design strength, which is
For practical purposes, the following related to the specified compressive
simplified strength values of f , are strength f, and which in turn depends
proposed for dimensioning all types of on the safety factor of the designated
struts and nodes: code of practice. According to the CEB
f *! = 1.0 f,: for an undisturbed and Code,f^d is determined by:
uniaxial state of compressive 0.85fc
stress as shown in Fig. 20c;
fir = 0.8 f': if tensile strains in the ye
cross direction or transverse ten- where y, = 1.5 is the partial safety factor
sile reinforcement may cause for the concrete in compression and the
cracking parallel to the strut with coefficient 0.85 accounts for sustained
normal crack width; this applies loading, In the CEB Code, 2 0 = 1.0 in
also to node regions where ten- all cases and the load factors for dead
sion steel bars are anchored or and live loads are 1.35 and 1.5, respec-
crossing (see Fig. 19b); tively.
f, = 0.6 f,: as above for skew cracking The increase in strength due to two-
or skew reinforcement; or three-dimensional states of compres-
= 0.4 fCd: for skew cracks with ex- sive stresses may be taken into account
traordinary crack width. Such if the simultaneously acting transverse
cracks must be expected, if mod- compressive stresses are considered re-
elling of the struts departs signifi- liable.
cantly from the theory of elastic- Skew cracks are not expected, if the
ity's flow of internal Forces (e.g., theory of elasticity is followed suffi-
due to redistribution of internal ciently closely during modelling. This
forces in order to exploit a means that the angle between struts and
maximum ultimate capacity). ties entering a singular node should not
102
a^ --- b7
-- - ,confining
reinforcement
be too small. However, skew cracks may reinforcing bars such as loops. Fur-
also be left over from a previous loading therrnore, geometrical discontinuities
case with a different stress situation. (e.g., reentrant corners) can cause stress
Before deciding on one of the given concentrations which are represented
strength values, both transverse direc- by a singular node.
tions must always he considered. Although numerous possibilities exist
for detailing nodes (and despite the fact
that they all behave somewhat differ-
General rule ently), in most cases their forces balance
Since singular nodes are bottlenecks each other in the interior of the node
of the stresses, it can be assumed that an through direct concrete compressive
entire D-region is safe, if the pressure stresses, which is a helpful observation.
under the most heavily loaded bearing The ideal tie anchor (with a plate)
plate or anchor plate is less than 0.6 ff,, transfers the load "from behind" and
(or in unusual cases 0.4 f,.) and if all thus causes compression in the node
significant tensile forces are resisted by (Fig. 19h,). Also, bond is essentially a
reinforcement and further if sufficient load transfer via concrete compressive
development lengths are provided for stresses which are supported by the ribs
the reinforcement. Only refinements of the steel bar (Fig. 19h 2 and b 3 ) and by
will be discussed in the following Sec- radial pressure in bent bars (Fig. 19b,).
tions 4.2 through 4.5. Even in these cases the flow of forces
can be visualized by strut-and-tie-
models with singular nodes at the ribs of
4.2 Singular Nodes the bar. If the se models require concrete
Singular nodes equilibrate the forces tensile ties, this is valuable information
of the ties and struts acting on them rel- for the design engineer. However, for
atively abruptly as compared to the practical purposes, the anchorage and
smeared nodes. The deviation of the lap lengths of the applicable codes of
forces occurs over a short length or small practice should be used.
area around the theoretical nodal point. In summary, then, dimensioning sin-
Such nodes originate mainly from single gular nodes means:
loads or support reactions and from con- (a) Tuning the geometry of the node
centrated forces introduced by the with the applied forces.
reinforcement through anchor plates, For CCC-nodes it is helpful, though
bond, or radial pressure inside bent not at all mandatory, to assume the bor-
p al- f cd B
ao.2[0 0 Hp
j B iC
* C—
a O 1' f cd Cr 0 22 1• tanplcns2 ^p
....-lo_--__._
1^ 1
aZ Q2
_C o3,o1 tcnp
a3
at°aZccs2W Q1=ap
b)
01_.
C)
op f*
±t + o t y f ^
Fig, 22. A proposal for the dimensioning of typical singular CCT -nodes with different
reinforcement layouts: (a) multilayered tie (a 3 relatively large, o < a,); (b) single layer tie
(a 3 small a-z>v,); (c) special case in between (o-2 =o 3 ); (d) same type as (b) with pressure
from a compression field.
104
field is largest at the origin of the con- length of the anchorage is selected fol-
centrated load, i.e., next to the bearing lowing the designated code. The design
plate or anchor plate (see Figs. 9 and engineer must ensure that it is located
10). The ties and plates should be ar- within and "behind" the node (Fig. 19b2
ranged accordingly. and b 3 ). Anchorage begins where the
transverse compression stress trajec-
(b) Checking whether the concrete tories of the struts meet the bar and are
pressures within the node are within the deviated; the bar must extend to the
limits given in Section 4.1. other end of the node region in order to
This condition is automatically satis- catch the outermost fibers of the de-
fied for the entire node region, if the viated compression stress field (Fig.
stresses along the horderlines of the 18b 3 , c3).
node do not exceed those limits and if
the anchorage of the reinforcement in
the node is safe. If the reinforcement is 4.3 Smeared Nodes
anchored in the node region, cracks are Since D-regions usually contain both
possible and correspondingly the con- smeared and singular nodes, the latter
crete strength for cracked concrete will be critical and a check of concrete
applies. stresses in smeared nodes is unneces-
For CCT-nodes with bonded rein- sary. However, if a smeared CCT-node
forcement arranged according to Fig. 22, is assumed to remain uncracked, the
a check of concrete stresses a, respec- tensile stresses of the corresponding
tively, o in the adjacent compression concrete stress field need to be checked
struts is sufficient. Since in most cases it (Section 4.5). An example of this case is
is apparent from the geometry of the Node 0 in Fig. 18c1 and the stress field
node which pressure out of the two in Fig. 18c2.
struts controls, only one of them needs Safe anchorage of reinforcement bars
to be analyzed. An analysis on the basis in smeared nodes must be ensured fol-
of Fig. 22 rewards reasonably the ar- lowing the rules for singular nodes
rangement of multilayered reinforce- (Section 4.2).
ment distributed over the width a g (Fig.
22a) compared with a tie consisting of
one layer only (Fig. 22b and d). 4.4 Concrete Compression Struts
—Stress Fields C,
(c) Ensuring a safe anchorage of ties in
the nodes (except for CCC-nodes). The fan-shaped and prismatic stress
In the case of anchor plates, this in- fields do not develop transverse stresses
volves a check of the bending strength and accordingly the uniaxial concrete
of the anchor plate and of the welded strenth fed applies. If transverse stresses,
connection with the tie. In this case a cracks or tension bars cross the strut, the
smooth surface of the tie where it cross- strength may be based on the values
es the node is better than good bond given in Section 4.1.
quality because strain compatibility The bottle-shaped compression stress
with the bonded bar will tend to crack field (Fig. 20b) applies to the frequent
the node's concrete. case of compressive forces being intro-
In the case of directly anchored rein- duced into concrete which is unrein-
forcing bars, hook or loop anchorages forced in the transverse direction.
(with cross-pressure in CCT-nodes) are Spreading of the forces causes biaxial or
preferred. Generally, the minimum triaxial compression under the load and
radius allowed by the applicable code is transverse tensions farther away. The
selected. transverse tension (combined with lon-
For straight bar anchorages, the gitudinal compressive stresses) can re-
nfinement
b) * o*
pa
la
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 BY +—b
IF--po- a-t
^^^ 0,21
II*ate ^1,31a ^
Fig. 23. Dimensioning plane bottle shaped stress fields: (a) diagrams giving safe
pressure values P d with regard to cracking and crushing of plain unreinforced concrete
stress fields, yielding of transverse reinforcement and biaxial compression failure in the
bottle neck region; (b) geometry of the stress field; (c) model and reinforcement layout of
stress field with transverse reinforcement w.
106
suit in early failure. Again, the failure failure.
criteria from Section 4.1 apply. For compression struts with trans-
The general rule given at the end of verse reinforcement the failure loads
Section 4.1 usually makes the calcula- analyzed with the model in Fig. 23c are
tion of stresses within the stress field also given in Fig. 23a. It can be seen that
unnecessary . However, for questionable a reinforcement ratio:
cases, computational aids should be
provided to facilitate the safety check. w = --0.06
aJ9y
108
ilure zonF
failure zone AAc
Fig. 24. Assumption of a failure zone for the check of the tensile
strength of a concrete tension tie T.
concrete stresses
with torture zcne
fe without
failure zone A A,
(crack)
Fig, 25. Progressive failure of a beam because of a local failure zone, which
increases maximum tensile stresses a., to U., f^.
fct
^c fc
b)
tc,
-1
0.5fc'
Jf ct
c)
fCf
}
fct
4.8 Concluding Remarks even if used only to find out if, and
Despite the fact that the major princi- where, reinforcement is needed. In a
ples have been set forth in this chapter, structure with reasonable dimensions
much research work remains to be done which is not over-reinforced, the con-
with respect to the more accurate di- crete compressive stresses are usually
mensioning of the concrete ties and not the main concern. Furthermore, it is
struts. This, however, should not pre- much more important to determine
clude application of the proposed pro- where the tensile strength of the con-
cedure as a whole. Current design crete is utilized, and then to react with
methods of D-regions are, in fact, worse reinforcement if possible, than to quan-
because they simply ignore such un- tify the strength of the concrete ties.
solved questions, In the next chapter the application of
Following the flow of forces by strut- the foregoing principles is elaborated
and-tie-models is of considerable value upon with many design examples.
5. EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION
With an unlimited number of exam- reveal weak points in a structure which
ples it might be shown, that tracking otherwise could remain hidden m the
down the internal forces by strut-and- design engineer if he approaches them
tie-models results in safe structures and by standard procedures.
quite often provides simple solutions for The major advantage of the method is
problems which appear to be rather to improve the design of the critical D-
complicated. It should, however, also he regions. However, the authors also be-
admitted that it sometimes takes some lieve that the concept will lead to more
effort to find the appropriate model. realistic and workable codes of practice
However, the strut-and-tie-model is al- also for the B-regions. Therefore, the
ways worthwhile because it can often B-regions are first discussed here by ap-
am
L1LIFH]
Ui I
Fig. 27. Various cross sections of beams and their webs.
I
plying truss or strut-and-tie-models to
them. Thereafter, some U-regions are Vf
treated (see Refs. 1 and 3 for additional
design examples).
Finally, the basic approach to pre-
stressed concrete is discussed and illus-
_ 0.5M1
trated with several examples.
vw + CT 1 Vw bm
5.1 The B-Regions
The plane rectangular webs consid-
ered here apply not only to beams with
rectangular cross section but may also Vf hm
be part of a T, 1, double tee or box beam –bm—#-
(see Fig. 27). The shear loading may re-
sult from shear forces or from torsion Fig. 28. Shear forces as a result
(see Fig. 28), the axial forces from ex-
of torsion.
ternal loads or prestress (see Section
5.3).
As discussed above, the web of a B-
region modelled with the same criteria than the well known analysis of the truss
as proposed for the strut-and-tie models forces and the check of the compressive
of the D-regions would in most cases stresses of the concrete and the tensile
lead to a standard truss (Fig. 8), with the stresses of the reinforcement. Since this
inclination (f of the struts oriented at the analysis of the truss includes the chords,
inclination a of the principal compres- possible problems like the staggering
sive stresses according to the theory of effect or the question why both chords
elasticity. are simultaneously in tension at the
The design of beams for bending, points of inflection (moments – 0, shear
shear and torsion is then nothing more forces 4 0) are solved automatically.
Reqao
O
q krefeld, Thurston
q Bresler, Scorde/ s of I •
® Rujagopalan, Ferguson
Petterson
• Leorhardt, Walther
0,2 • ,Yaddadrn et a!. •
Taylor
a Braestnup et al. a o
^1o^ s^^^ a / / V E^ I a
,
yQ q
5' / \'gym ^'8^ A^`r • 1 R
• V
0 b Z.tc
9 005 010 0,15 d ZO OZ5 030 Q35
Fig. 29. Comparison of the required amount of vertical stirrups in a beam according to experiments, to different codes and to a
strut-and-tie-model analysis, corresponding to Fig. 33, Ref. 15.
It should be mentioned also, that in 45 degrees, depending on the amount of
contrast to the bending theory, truss stirrup reinforcement and the width of
models are capable of dealing with the web expressed by b,,,lb. If, in addi-
stresses perpendicular to the beam's tion, axial compressive forces such as
axis and variable shear forces along the prestress act, a is a priori smaller than 45
axis: degrees but deviates less, that is, the
(Note that these shear forces are not smaller a, the closer it is to the angle
compatible with Bernoulli's assumption given by the theory of elasticity. 11
of plane strains as defined for the However, the fact remains that the
B-regions.) explanation of the real stirrup stresses
Why then, if everything appears to be only by the standard truss would imply
so simple, is there a "shear riddle" and the assumption of struts with less than
why has the "shear battle" been waged realistic inclinations, in extreme cases
for so many decades. In fact, the endless down to d = 15 degrees. Other known
discussions on shear could be "put to explanations are also not satisfactory: An
bed" if design engineers contented inclined compression chord would si-
themselves with the same level of accu- multaneously reduce the inner lever arm
racy (and simplicity) in the B-regions as z, which is not compatible with the B-
they do for the D-regions. region assumption of plane strains and
Since in principle it makes no sense to can, therefore, develop only in the D-
design B- and D-regions, which are regions which extend from the supports;
parts of the same structure, at different the pure arch or direct struts with tie ac-
levels of sophistication, there would be tion can only be applied if the tie is not
very good reasons for such a comparable bonded with the surrounding concrete
accuracy in every aspect of the analysis. or to "short" beams, i.e., beams without
However, at present this seems not to be B-regions; the dowel action of the rein-
appropriate mainly because of historical forcement, though leading in the right
reasons, i.e., since so many researchers direction, can only to a small degree be
have invested so much time investigat- responsible for the effect under discus-
ing the B-regions, they have found that s ion.
(under certain conditions) savings in What does really happen in the web?
stirrup reinforcement are possible com- On the following pages it will be shown,
pared to simple truss design. that it is the concrete's tensile strength
Fig. 29 shows the well known plot (in and aggregate interlock in the web
dimensionless coordinates) of the ulti- which really causes the reduction of the
mate shear forces V. versus the amount stirrup stresses. Readers who are satis-
of stirrups a„ (cm 2/m) required to carry V. fied with this explanation or with the
for beams in pure bending and shear. If pure truss design of B-regions may now
the straight line according to the truss jump ahead to Section 5.2. The authors
model with 45 degree struts (MOrsch) is wrote what follows not with the inten-
compared with the compiled test re- tion of adding one more paper to the
suIts, it is found that a large discrepancy shear dispute, but only to show the ef-
results, mainly in the region of low to fectiveness of the strut-and-tie-model
medium values of V,,. approach even for such cases.
The discrepancy is reduced if smaller After the principal tensile stresses
angles of inclination of the struts than have reached the tensile strength of the
those taken from the elastic stresses at concrete, the web cracks at angles as
the neutral axis are assumed. In fact, discussed above. Consequently, fol-
from test results it is observed that the lowing the direction of the load, indi-
angle a of the initial crack from pure vidual pieces of the web, only con-
shear can be up to 10 degrees less than trolled in their movement by the
T ^F
i C '
Q
,tr. fps
stirrup tie-canerete strut
;, stirrup
AFF
fl
c) food path 2
Fig. 30. Internal forces in the web due to shear: (a) kinematics of load path 1 if acting
alone (8 = a); (b) through (c) load paths 1 and 2 in the web if acting combined (0 < a).
114
paths 1 and 2 is solved by plastic su-
perposition of both the stirrup and the
interlock forces, making use of the fact
that aggregate interlock is sufficiently
ductile. However, since a biaxial failure
criterion for the concrete has to be ap-
plied, a reproduction of the analytical
description (Ref. 15) would go beyond
the scope of this paper. The result is v =vertical movement
plotted in Fig. 33 and compared there w=crock opening
with results from experiments. ti =sliding
It is important to note that the beam
"remembers" the initial inclination a of Fig. 31. Displacements in the web because
the diagonal cracks. This permits the ofthe crack.
logical introduction of the effect of pre-
L1
stress into web design, resulting in sav-
ings of stirrup reinforcement but also in
an earlier compressive strut failure. crack face
The analytical curve in Fig. 33, which
gives also the actual inclinations B - a as
a function of V, must be cut off before it Tc R c
C Tc
intersects the abscissa (where 0 = d2), R
because a minimum of stirrup reinforce-
ment is necessary in order to guarantee Tc= resultant of the tension field
that a truss model can develop at all. As Cc= resultant of the compression field
shown in Fig. 34, it is necessary to avoid R = force of the aggregate interlock
that the flanges separate from the web
after a diagonal crack has formed.
R
Of course, the longitudinal and trans-
verse spacing of the stirrups must further
be limited to ensure a parallel diagonal /
compression field. If the spacing is too
large, the smeared diagonal compres- Fig. 32. Aggregate interlock force R and
sive strength may be less than that taken corresponding compression C. and tension
for Fig. 33, because the stresses con- T, in the concrete.
centrate in the nodes with the stirrups
(Fig. 35).
To use load path 2 in the practical de- to replace the curved branch of the dia-
sign of the webs of B-regions — if it is gram in Fig. 33 by a straight line. It is
considered desirable to be more sophis- only important that the design engineer
ticated there than in the D-regions, is aware that reliance is- placed on the
where aggregate interlock or the con- concrete tensile strength in the web if
crete tensile strength is neglected - this method is used to reduce the re-
simple diagrams may be derived from quired amount of stirrups. Fig. 29 corn-
Fig. 33. Even easier (and corresponding pares the amount of stirrup reinforcer
to the present CEB Model Code), it may ment derived in this way from the strut-
he sufficient to reduce in the "low shear and-tie-model with that from different
range" the acting shear force for stirrup codes and tests.
design by an amount which is attributed One might also ask whether the full
to load path 2. design strength f,d can be exploited in
For that purpose, it may be sufficient the compression chord of a beam, be-
0,40
f^_-
Ramapo lnn KS , Ferguson P M ,
0 . 25 -- -- o Regan PE
--
0 RodrquesJJ,BionchmiAC,Viest1M,
Kesler C E // /
020 _ o Taylor R.
6 0
010 — a
O,OS /o.
/// - 250 ^o 0 0-^• A - o
19. b z fc
Fig. 33. Required amount of vertical stirrups in a web according to the strut- and-tie- model
(for crack inclination a = 38 degrees), compared with simple truss analogy and tests.
cause the chord is subject also to tensile the forces in the compression chord as
strains in both transverse directions. In much as it increases the tension chord
the horizontal direction such stresses forces. However, if the chord forces are
are quite obvious in the flange of T- correctly derived from the truss model,
beams with transverse bending and the compression strength should be as-
transverse tension from the flange con- sumed to be only 0.8 ff, according to
nection. In addition, there is vertical Section 4.1.
tension from compatibility with stirrup Consider, in addition, a special but
tensile strains. Some cross tension also very frequent B-region, namely, beam or
exists in both directions in rectangular column with rectangular cross section
beams (Fig, 35). loaded by an axial force in addition to
The neglect of this fact in practical de- shear forces and bending moments. This
sign is to some extent balanced by the case is typical also for prestressed
usual neglect of the staggering effect in beams. If the axial force is large enough
the compression chord, which reduces to keep the resultant of the normal force
compression chord
^— stirrup y
web c—
s
stirrup T r s web 1
C
tension chord
T5 • CC 20
a) .........__— ^_........ _ b
^
/ iJI
Fig. 35. The compression strut in the web with stirrups.
and of the moment within the kern of chord of the adjacent B-region, thereby
the cross section, the standard truss creating transverse tensile stresses.
model no longer applies. Instead, all These stresses can be assessed by the
internal forces, including the shear force more refined model in Fig. 36c. Stirrups
V, may be represented by a single in- may be used to cover them; however,
clined compression strut as in Fig. 36b. the model shows that tensile forces are
Looking closer at the transition be- inherently quite different from the shear
tween such special B-regions and those forces in other B-regions but similar to
represented by the truss model, it is those in the bottle shaped compression
found that the compression stresses dis- strut.
tributed over the whole section have to Speaking of B-region design, there
converge into the narrow compression remains the issue of "beams without
shear force
compression force
^^ nA I
resultant within
kern-zone
resultant within lever arm z
model compatible with the standard truss model
Li1'[JE
C)
± ,^^ Ikernzone
forces of stirrups
d)
.
forces of stirrups
Fig. 36. Beam with compressive axial load: (a) sectional forces; (b) simplified model with
a compression strut between the trusses: (c) refined model for a rectangular cross
section with vertical tensile forces; (d) refined model for a I-beam.
118
shear reinforcement." Subdividing such Strut-and-tie-model
beams into B- and D-regions first of all Forces in the struts and ties
reveals that an arch-and-tie explanation Dimensioning of ties: reinforcement
only applies if the two D-regions of the Check of stresses of critical struts and
opposite supports touch, leaving no sig- nodes
nificant B-region in between (see also Reinforcement layout
Fig. 38a). Unbonded tensile chord re- Solution:
inforcement also stimulates arch-and-tie (1) External equilibrium: reactions
action, in other words it increases the
length of the D-regions. The web of a A=3x --= 1.07 MN
real B-region, however, can carry shear 7.0
loads only with the help of the con- B=3x =
4 5 = 1.93 MN
crete's tensile strength. There are sev- 7.0
eral approaches based on rational mod- F=A +B– 3.00 MN
els to exploit this finding.12.16 (2) Elastic stress analysis
Again, as above, aggregate interlock is
This is a rather complicated structure.
involved and, therefore, an analytical
If the design engineer is not yet suffi-
solution is rather complicated. On the
ciently experienced with modelling, he
other hand, the design engineer must
will first employ an elastic finite ele-
know and understand what actually
ment program and plot the elastic stress-
happens. Thus, it would realistically re-
es (see Fig. 37b) for orientation of the
flect the present situation to replace the
permissible shear stresses of the current strut-and-tie-model.
codes by the equivalent permissible (3) Modelling
concrete tensile stresses. Unfortunately, The whole structure is essentially one
the stresses in the web are not uniformly D-region. Two short B-regions are dis-
distributed. Therefore, calibrated aver- covered in the linear parts to the left and
age admissible tensile stresses must be below the hole (see Fig. 37c).
given in codes. The load path connecting the reaction
For completeness, it should be men- B and its counterpart within F is readily
tioned that a B-region contains several plotted (see Fig. 37c). The positions of
micro-D-regions, which again can be Nodes 1 and 2 are typical (see Fig. 15)
understood and designed with strut- and the forces C and T balancing these
and-tie-models. Fig. 35b shows why a nodes in the horizontal direction are
stirrup must he closed on the top and thus also given.
bottom in a rectangular beam in order to Before continuing modelling on the
take the cross tension from the strut left side, the right side may be finished:
support. The strut between Nodes 1 and 2 will
spread and cause transverse tensile
5.2 Some D-Regions forces as sketched in Fig. 37d; option-
ally, it can be treated as a bottle shaped
5.2.1 Deep Beam With a Large Hole
stress field as sketched in Fig. 371i and
(Numerical Example)
described later on.
Given: Now the left side's boundary forces
Dimensions (see Fig. 37a) are clearly defined (Fig. 37e) and it can,
Factored loadF, F = 3 MN therefore, be modelled independently
Concrete compression design strength from the right side. (In passing, it may
ff,1 = 17 MPa be mentioned that the fictitious separa-
Reinforcement design yield strength tion line between the two sides is where
f„d = 434 MPa the overall shear force of the deep beam
Required: is zero and the bending moment is
I FF-3MN
O i
A 8
41.5 X05
t ^5 25
70
a) dimensions [m] and load
tiJI__
compression stresses
tens on stresses
b) elastic stresses
120
B
I1 \
^ t
Bi
I
BZ-rN^on
A
).5A
105E
0.5 T
A2=05A
CZ=05C
I ` it
I 'I
I jl
I T4 ^
4 5 0T =05T
ArO5A
122
bottle
node 2
arpa
h) complete strut-and-tie-model
- d
'(b.net
L^LTI I L^`L 11
i) reinforcement
C-- 1
ref ined sump€ohed main reinforcement
n1
Tt -
s fig 74 ti^A h
1 1
^i
Bi
tl
cl
♦- t
.rlHH
!
d)
e r e e e ^^-
t ^?
stirrup forces
Fig. 38. Load near the support; transition from beam to beam.
maximum. Therefore, only the horizon- the respective tie forces is given in the
tal forces 177 =1 CI connect the two table below.
sides.)
Forces C and A meet at Node 3 and Force Req'd.
their resultant is given. From the bottom Tie [MN I A, [cm 2 l Use (c? Fm I
the reactionA enters the structure verti-
cally and it is assumed that it remains in T 1.07 24.6 8#7
this direction until it has passed tho T, 0.535 12.3 4#7
hole. The B,-region is thus a centrically
loaded column. T., 0.535 12.3 4#7
In fact, part of the reaction A could T, 0.535 12.3 2x7#5 0.08_
-
also he transferred via the B 2-region by
T 0.535 12.3 2x5#4 0.3__-
bending moments and shear forces.
Comparing the axial stiffness of B, with T2 1.07 24.6 2x7#5 0.08_
-
the bending stiffness of B 2 , this part is
'I' 1.07 24.6 2x7#5 0.08_
obviously negligible. This fact is also -
confirmed by the elastic stresses, which 17 0.535 12.3 2x5#4 0.3__-
are very small there (Fig. 37b). Of
1', 0.535 12.3 2x7#5 0.08_
course, some nominal reinforcement -
will be provided in the member below T9 0.663 15.2 4#7
the hole for distribution of cracks due to T, ° 0.402 9.2 or bottle check
imposed deformations.
Figs. 37f and 37g give two different T„ 0.402 9.2 (see below)
strut-and-tie-models for the Ieft side of Note:! cm 0.155 in.
the deep beam. It is seen that there is
some similarity with a beam having a (5) Check of the concrete stresses
dapped end. The model in Fig. 37f is Stresses under the bearing plates:
based on 45 degree struts and on ties
3.0 - = 10.7 MPa < 1.2f.4
also at 45 degrees from the struts. This 0.7 x 0.4
gives a reinforcement layout, which for (biaxial compression)
practical reasons is orthogonal. CrA_ 1.07
The model in Fig. 37g assumes a 45 -=.).4MPa<0.8fd
0.5 x 0.4
degree tie at the corner of the hole 1.93
which is known to be effective in similar 0 8 = ----=9.7MPa<0.8ff4
0.5 x 0.4
cases like opening frame corners or
(compression with transverse tension
dapped beams. Each model in itself
from tie)
would be sufficient but - looking at the
The most heavily loaded node is the
elastic stresses of Fig. 37b - a combi-
support B. Following Fig. 22a and the
nation of both appears to be better than
detail of Node 2 in Fig. 37h:
either of them. Therefore, it is assumed,
that each model carries half the load. 9.7
Finally, Fig. 37h shows the superpo- Pa = v^ =
sition of both models of the left side in- [ 1 +=
0 5 tan 29° l cost 29°
l 0.5 1
cluding the right side as described be- = 8.1MPa<0.8f4
fore. When comparing model and elastic
stresses one finds a satisfactory coinci- Bottle shaped stress field at right side:
dence. The geometry of the model is in- pa=8.1MPa
deed oriented at the elastic stress fields. pa= 8.1
=0.48
fed 17
(4) Design of the ties From Fig. 23a for a = 0.68 m and b
The reinforcement requirement for 2.0 m and hla = 3.4, the permissible
126
cot 9t
i
,i Tw=V w i
1
az•cof9
0) Tw=V
rcote ----
T ry TW =V I^ z
^ w cot"^= z
T
4hhhlhhhl Iw=V
111111'
^ Tw=V
b
chord only if B, satisfies the above given the B 2-region in Fig. 41b do not coincide
relation. (the stress diagrams, of course, do) is
due to the different grouping of stresses
5.2.3 Corbels
for the struts with respect to modelling
Some of the so-called problems of of the D-regions D2 and Dg.
corbel design result simply from the Balancing the applied forces between
fact that the individually different the two boundaries of each D-region
boundary conditions are not con- (Fig. 41b) shows that two tension
sequently considered. Each case leads chords develop, the first one as us-
to a different strut-and-tie -model (Figs. ual, right below the upper edge of the
40 and 41). Furthermore, from Fig. 40d corbel, and a second one in the lower
it becomes evident that the compression part of the corbel. Their forces are in this
strengths of the struts, which according case T, = 0.23 F 2 and TZ = 0.32 F2 , re-
to Fig. 23 are a function of alb, depend spectively.
via a,,, on the detailing and via a, s and a,R The compression struts of the same
on the depth x of the bending compres- corbel are not critical because the sing-
sion zone of the column. ular nodes in the D, and D, regions with
The modelling of a deep corbel is maximum compressive failure strengths
shown in detail in Fig. 41: The stresses of 1.2f according to Fig. 23 keep the
in the column of Fig, 41a may be compressive stresses in the rest of the
evaluated according to standard structure relatively low.
methods or the theory of plasticity and
are then applied to the D-regions to- 5.2.4 Details of a Box Girder Bridge
gether with the corbel load F 2 . The fact The critical D-regions of a box girder
that the vertical struts at both sides of bridge are described by strut-and-tie-
1 ,
I ;
\ I,
1 '^
ssary
$L
i
b)
$ f r,
• i
^^ t r
. .
f•
1 ^
3
f /
1 I p
• I
. 1
,' I
it m
/ 1
_J. 1
t
128
e)
♦ R45
I,
4 ti
\
♦ i r
T.T
r .
Fig. 40. Different support conditions lead to different strut-and-tie-models and different
reinforcement arrangements of corbels.
+2
T2 = 0.82 (2 V,) in the diaphragm. C^ sin B
850KN
B^
F2 =425 KN
110,
Ty r
Fz
1 LJ
,
o It ° 3Tz
04 b) c)'
Fig. 41. Deep corbel projecting from a column: (a) B- and D-regions; (b) boundary forces
of the D-regions and their models; (c) reinforcement layout.
130
The B.1-region is designed for a con- beam's tension chord.
stant tensile force: In a similar way, the D;-region at the
TZ M1, 6 15 ^ – 5.35 Fa
The lever arm z = 1.15 m is deter-
other end of the opening may be treated.
The transverse tension forces are:
T,=V =Fdand
mined from the assumption of plane Tg =(T,–T.) tan H2
strain in the cross section in the middle =(T,–T2 –V cot 0)tan H2
of the opening by standard methods. = (8.79 F4 – 5.35 F, – 1.66 F4) tan 50'
Therefore, B., has to carry the axial com- = 2.12F4
pressive force C = T,, (eccentrically with A striking result of this example are
respect to the axis of the B 2-region) plus the stirrup forces which in some places
the differential moments AM = M – M , considerably exceed the "normal shear"
plus the total shear force V. reinforcement for a beam without open-
Under the combined action of these ings (Fig. 44d).
forces, the B, region shows the transi- This example also shows, however,
tion from the column type B-region on that it sometimes takes some effort to
its left end (resultant C 3 ) to the truss develop a realistic strut-and-tie-model.
type B-region at the other end (C g , C5, But if it is considered how many tests
T3 ) (see Fig. 36). For simplicity, the have been carried out and how many
model of the B,-region is extended papers have been written on beams with
somewhat into the D 2 and D3-regions, openings without finishing the case, it
leaving over for modelling only the D,' was worth this effort.
and D3 regions in Fig. 44b.
With known boundary conditions 5.2.6 Overlap of Prestressing Tendons
from B1 , B, and k, the model for the D,-
region can be developed (Fig. 44c): In Fig. 45a the flow of forces in the
Looking for the counterparts of C„ C2 given cross section is investigated with
and T, at the opposite side of the D,- its B- and D-regions. In a longitudinal
region it helps to split up C 3 into three section through the blister, the B-regions
forces C , C' and C'.,' in order to estab- of the cross section may also appear as
tablish the load paths, which balance D-regions, because the curvature forces
their horizontal components: (C 3'5 = C1; of the tendons are line loads.
,_ (a) Prestress only
Vertical equilibrium in the D2-region Loads acting on the D-regions are the
is established by a vertical tension tie TK anchor forces of the tendons P. the
and by a vertical compressive strut C. known concrete stresses along the
Their forces depend on the choice of boundaries hetween B- and D-regions
their position. Knowing that they repre- and the curvature forces Pa l from the
sent transverse stresses which are inside tendons (Fig. 45b). The horizontal com-
the D 2-region and that these stresses ponents of all forces follow two load
tend to fill the available space, the re- paths, whose position and direction is
sultant tension TS is chosen in the mid- given at all D-region boundaries.
dle of the D2-region and the resultant The relatively small shift of the load
compression C. at the right end of D,, path in between must be accomplished
(which is inside D 2 ). Then: by deviative forces within the D-
Ts = (T2 – T1 ) tan B, regions. This is a rather strict condition,
= (5.35 Fd – 3.92 F,,) tan 46° which limits the freedom of choice for
= 1.48F4 the bends of the load paths. A further
The tie force T5 may be interpreted as help in finding appropriate nodal points
the transverse tension necessary to an- of the model is again the tendency of the
chor the differential force T, – T l of the deviative forces to fill the available
tensron
WE b)
compression
!III.IIII! B rT r T r7 p
^ I I I ^ D
I I I
I I I
ft
1 1 !, SI k
I • 1
I I 1^ I ^1'
I I I I I
I ^ I I t
B
C^ d)
^
.'v5
r ^
II I!
"T ^r
I I
1 t
132
e)
'►C 1 a^_ I
t F I 71
II
u I I I.
B
I I
I I I
k T I
1 1
1 l
t ^ B
1 1
Fig. 42. Strut-and-tie-models of typical D-regions of a box girder bridge: (a) tensile
flange with opening; (b) compression flange with opening; (c) web supported by
diaphragm; (d) pier and diaphragm with single support; (e) other model for diaphragm;
(f) pier and diaphragm with two supports; (g) pier on a pile cap.
L1 T±J
[)
IC
Fig. 43. Diaphragm of a box girder bridge: (a) D-regions and
model of the web near the diaphragm: (b) diaphragm and
model: (c) prestressing of the web and the diaphragm.
134
107 °
a) _
5
Zc
1375kN
m 03 CC 04
C, B' 0Z
5;0
11 d
F 6.15 ^a2 +
moments M
y z
shear forces V
lvi O
b}
C^ C^ C4 C6
C^^ DZ C3 C3
^ B^ - --^ ^ a3 C7
'^ T3
T, TZ Tz T
EF---T:::;4 i:j:
C)
d)
f
stirrupsfl
iz
T5 05Fd
T5=2.1F,
n IDF
T8
T,
_I
__ __
—stondird design B-regon
e)
Fig. 44. Beam with opening: (a) B- and D-regions, sectional forces: (b) reduced
D-regions at both ends of the opening with boundary loads from the B-regions:
(c) strut-and-tie-models of the 0 2-and D,-regions; (d) distributed forces for the
design of the stirrups; (e) reinforcement layout.
0
0)
g2 ^a1
I ^-
P- P
curvature forces P aj Z
n, T nag
c)
TzzT-P
crock
T1
Tz
- iii.
INNNI!!!h oil
r
7m:
Fig. 45. Overlap of prestressing tendons: (a) layout, B- and D-regions; (b) model for
prestress only; (c) model for prestress and additional load T d ; (d) layout of the transverse
reinforcement.
136
forceinent T, = 0.53 T2 , not the splitting open several millimeters wide, even if
action as for prestress alone. the B 1-region is reinforced for crack dis-
The overlap of the prestressing ten- tribution in the usual way. Therefore, in
dons results in twice the prestressing this case not very large tendons with
force within the blister, which therefore good bond properties have to be applied
remains basically uncracked and rela- or additional parallel wall reinforcement
tively stiff. The strains of the tendon in must be provided, which takes over
excess of the initial prestress will much of the tendon forces, before the
therefore accumulate within the bond tendons enter the blister.
length of the tendon in the blister and
5.2.7 Beam With Dapped End
cause a crack at the jump of the wall
thickness. It is common practice to suspend the
For large bond lengths this crack may reaction F of the beam in Fig. 46 besides
tII
F
II
11r-11—
s^
f
L
-T3 =F
-'ice
^^
13= zcot*—+
144414 1444111 lUrlill
+]
ILL!1
rz^ t3=1
al
^c
Tff] a^
T
bl
______ fll+ifr
Fig. 47. Girder with bent top flange.
the dapped end (T, = F). But the com- overlapping the reinforcement coming
plete strut-and-tie-model clearly re- from both sides with an elegant loop.
veals that it is not sufficient to simply The strut-and-tie-model supplies facts
add T, to the regular "shear reinforce- for a rational reinforcement layout.
ment" which amounts to the vertical tie
5.2.10 Frame Corner
forces t 3 = F/1 3. In fact, there are addi-
tional vertical tensile forces T 2 = F be- The frame corner with opening mo-
cause the horizontal tie force T at the ment, more often discussed by re-
recess needs to be anchored. The tie searchers than actually occurring in
force T 2 is distributed over a length 1 2 < practice, can be modelled quite differ-
l 3 and therefore t 2 is clearly considerably ently (Fig. 49). Obviously, the design
larger than t 3. If, as usual, an additional engineer has to choose between a rela-
horizontal force H acts at the recess, the tively simple reinforcement combined
necessary amount of vertical stirrups with a reduced moment capacity (Fig.
further increases. 49a,b) or a more sophisticated solution
(Fig. 49c,d,e). The consequent applica-
5.2.8 Tapered Beam With Bent Top tion of strut-and-tie-models makes the
Flange designer aware of what is occurring
The girder in Fig. 47a obviously pro- while offering a rational choice.
duces a vertical tension force T at the
bend of the compression chord. But
5.3 Prestressed Concrete
where does it go? The straight horizon-
tal tension chord cannot equilibrate it. As a last example, it will be shown
The model shows that stirrups in the that looking at prestressed concrete
web are necessary throughout this web beams through strut-and-tie-models
even in regions without shear forces. helps to understand their behavior
Looking at Fig. 47b, it is apparent that which today gets hidden behind so
the compression chord is narrowed by many black box rules. There is a common
the stirrups, resulting in a concentration denominator of all types of prestress:
of compression stresses over the web. post-tensioning, pretensioning and un-
Furthermore, unfavorable tensile bonded prestress can be understood as
stresses in the transverse direction of reinforced concrete which is loaded by
the flange appear. an artificial loading case, i.e., prestress.
As any other Ioading case, it simply
5.2.9 Stepped Beam
has to be introduced into the analysis of
The stepped beam in Fig. 48 is fre- the structure according to the actual
quently used and is usually detailed by history, e.g., for post-tensioning: con-
138
>H
___ ri $fti
ILJP
b1
d? ^
J l
Fig. 49. Different strut-and-tie-models and the corresponding reinforcement for a frame
corner with positive moment.
140
e} E' i :i
Fig. 50. Loads due to prestressing (anchor forces, friction forces,
deviation forces due to the curvature of the tendon) acting (a) on the
prestressing steel; (b) on the reinforced concrete member.
142
-- -- compression
tension
edge cut
a) result t R F
L :J r:
a —T chord
moment -
shear force
normal force
b1
forces P and A the simplified model is where the total resultant force remains
the same for any type of cross section within the kern zone of the girder sec-
(compare Fig. 54a with Fig. 53a). tion (Fig. 54b). This is because the lon-
The detailed strut-and-tie-model of gitudinal forces here are mainly con-
the prestressed I-girder (Fig. 54) shows centrated in the flanges. Therefore, only
that a truss already develops in the area a part of the prestressing force can join
Fig. 53. (a) Simplified strut-model of a beam with its rectangular cross section
"fully prestressed"; (b) detailed strut-and-tie-model.
01 F
blweb
c) top f[ange
.-.
d) bottom flange
Fig. 54. Strut-and-tie-models of an I-girder with full prestress: (a) simplified model;
(b) through (d) detailed models of the web, top flange and bottom flange, respectively.
144
with the support force to flow into the iluenced by the axial force due to pre-
web. The effective resultant force in the stressing only via the inclination a of the
web is, therefore, smaller and at a web crack, which is shallower than for a
greater angle than in the prestressed nonprestressed beam, corresponding to
girder with a rectangular cross section. the shallower inclination of the princi-
It is, however, still at a smaller angle pal tensile stresses in the concrete when
than in the nonprestressed reinforced cracking begins.
concrete girder. This effect of a can be considered in
The chords in the two flanges are the web design as discussed in Section
linked to one another via the web struts 5.1 (B-regions). From there it is shown
and ties. In this way, compression forces that the greatest possible inclination of
are introduced into the flanges (Fig. 54c, the diagonal strut is parallel to the crack
d). The strut-and-tie-model shows that in the web. The ultimate load capacity
the spreading of the forces from the of the diagonal struts in a web of a pre-
width of the web to the width of the stressed concrete girder is therefore
flange generates transverse forces in the somewhat smaller than that of the web
flange. The transverse reinforcement of a girder without prestressing, how-
must be distributed in accordance with ever, it requires less stirrup reinforce-
the length and intensity of the introduc- ment for a similar beam and load.
tion of forces.
5.3.6 Dimensioning the Prestressing
5.3.5 The Loadbearing Behavior of the Steel for the Different Types of
Web Prestressing
The strut-and-tie-model of the pre- As already mentioned above, the pre-
stressed girder with rectangular cross stressing steel can and will serve as reg-
section shows, that the stirrup forces in ular reinforcement, if it is bonded with
the part of the girder where the total re- the concrete, in other words it acts as the
sultant force remains in the kern zone of tensile chord of the truss, developed for
the section result from the spreading of the structure loaded with prestress and
the compression forces (Fig. 52b, 53b). other loads. If the capacity of the pre-
The "shear reinforcement" in that area stressing steel still available after pre-
is in reality a "tensile splitting rein- stressing Tp,r , r, i cannot alone cover the
forcement." As soon as the truss model force of the chord, reinforcement must
develops in the web (which as shown be supplemented in such a way that the
happens for a rectangular beam further total chord force T rd can be taken by
away from the support than for a beam the prestressing steel (p) and the rein-
with a profiled section), the dimen- forcing steel (s):
sioning of its struts and ties follows as
discussed for the B-regions of reinforced Tchord = TA,ehorrt + T..char,i
146
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper is a progress report of the (Pavia), P. Regan (London) and J. Per-
work in this field at the University of chat (Paris).
Stuttgart. The authors want to acknowl- Finally, the authors wish to thank the
edge the contributions of several former reviewers of the PCI JOURNAL who
and present members of their Institute, offered us critical but constructive help.
mainly K. H. Reineck, D. Weischede, In particular, we wish to thank J. E.
H. G. Reinke and P. Baumann. Breen (Austin) and J. G. MacGregor
The authors further received valuable (Edmonton). It is by no means their fault
contributions and encouraging support if the paper is still a burden to the
through many critical discussions with reader.
colleagues; thanks go mainly to Lastly, the authors hope that this
B. Thiirlimann (Zurich) and M. P. Col- paper will generate fruitful discussions
lins (Toronto), who also promote the in the interest of producing quality con-
idea of a consistent design of concrete crete structures. To this end, we wish to
structures and to the members of the thank the Editor of the PCI JOUR-
CEB Commissions concerned, in par- NAL for offering us such a prominent
ticular T. P. Tassios (Athens), G. Macchi forum.
148
With and Without Reinforcement), 29, No.2, March-April 1984, pp. 28-61.
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19. Konig, G., "Control of Cracks in Rein- sponse of Reinforced Concrete to In-
forced Concrete and Prestressed Con- plane Shear and Normal Stresses," Pub-
crete," Proceedings 1 of the Tenth Inter- lication No. 82-03, University of Toronto,
national Congress of the FIP, New March 1982.
Delhi, 1986, pp. 259-268. 24. Design of Concrete Structures for
20. Niyogi, S. K., "Concrete Bearing Buildings, CAN3-A23.3.M84, Canadian
Strength — Support, Mix, Size Effect," Standards Association, Rexdale, Ontario,
Journal of the Structural Division, 1984.
ASCE, V. 100, No. ST8, August 1974, pp. 25. Marti, P., "Truss Models in Detailing,"
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21. Schober, H., "Ein Modell zur Be- cember 1985, pp. 66-73.
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im Stahl- and Spannbeton" (A Model for Structures, Comite Euro-International
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of Post-Tensioned Girder Anchorage Beams and Beams), Bericht No. 83, In-
Zones," PCI JOURNAL, V. 29. No. 1, stitut fur Baustatik and Konstruktion,
January-February 1984, pp. 64-109, and V. ETH Zurich, July 1978.
150