Control Engineering

Dr. Ramkrishna Pasumarthy

Electrical Engineering Dept.
IIT Madras
Module 1: Lecture 4
Examples of Modelling
 Example: Cruise Control of a Car
• Cruise control refers to the control of velocity of a car on a road
• Accelerating force (𝐹) is the input
• Car velocity (𝑣) is the output
• Position of car is measured from its displacement (𝑥) from a reference
• A simple model is developed to control car velocity (𝑣)

𝑥
𝐹

Module 1: Lecture 4 3
 Modelling for Cruise Control
1. Purpose of the model
– Model for controlling car velocity
2. Define boundaries
– Car is taken as the system to be controlled
– Road forms part of the environment
3. Postulate a structure
– In this system, thermal energy is converted into kinetic energy
– Some part of the energy is lost due to friction between the road and the
car
– Mass of the car 𝑀 and damper 𝐵 capture the above energy conversions
– For simplicity, we neglect rotational inertia of the wheels

Module 1: Lecture 4 4
 Modelling for Cruise Control
𝑥

𝐵 𝑀

𝐹 Physical Model
Reference

4. Select variables of interest

– Displacement 𝑥 and velocity 𝑣 are variables of interest

Photos Courtesy: Module 1: Lecture 4 5

 Modelling for Cruise Control
5. Mathematical description of each model elements
– Accelerating force: 𝐹𝑎 = 𝑀𝑥
– Frictional force: 𝐹𝑓 = 𝐵𝑥
6. Apply relevant physical laws
– Frictional force (𝐹𝑓 ) is to be subtracted from input force (𝐹) to get
the accelerating force (𝐹𝑎)
𝐹 − 𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑎
𝐹 − 𝐵𝑥 = 𝑀𝑥
Substituting 𝑥 = 𝑣, 𝐹 − 𝐵𝑣 = 𝑀𝑣
𝐵 𝐹
7. Final mathematical model 𝑣 + 𝑀 𝑣 = 𝑀
Module 1: Lecture 4 6
 Example: Transformer
• An electrical device to transfer electrical energy
from one circuit to another based on faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction
• Transformer mainly has a core, a primary
winding and a secondary winding
• Energy transfer happens by inducing voltage in
the secondary winding through the core by
supplying an alternating electrical source at the
primary winding

Module 1: Lecture 4 7
 Why Model a Transformer?
200
• Consider the problem: A 10 𝐾𝑉𝐴, 𝑉, 50 𝐻𝑧, 1 − ϕ transformer is
400
operating at 0.8 power factor. Calculate the efficiency of transformer
operating with load at following percentage of rated value:
a. 100% b. 80% c. 50% d. 25%

Module 1: Lecture 4 8
Modelling Transformer

𝐼0

Module 1: Lecture 4 9
 Modelling Transformer
1. Purpose of the model
– Model for analysing losses and efficiency
2. Define boundaries
– Transformer is the system
3. Postulate a structure
– In this system, electrical energy is transferred from one circuit
(primary) to another (secondary) with change in voltage & current
– Some part of the energy is lost due to core losses 𝑃𝑖 (hysteresis loss &
eddy current loss), copper losses 𝑃𝑐 (loss due to resistance) and flux
leakage
– For simplicity, we neglect saturation of the core
Module 1: Lecture 4 10
 Modelling Transformer
3. Postulate a structure
– Resistors (𝑅1 & 𝑅2 ) quantify the copper losses in windings and
connected in series with the source and load
– Inductors (𝐿1 &𝐿2 ) quantify the flux leakages in windings and
connected in series with the source and load
– Resistor (𝑅0 ) quantifies heat loss in core due to eddy currents and
connected in parallel with the core winding
– Inductor (𝐿0 ) quantifies hysteresis loss in the core and connected in
parallel with the core winding

Module 1: Lecture 4 11
 Modelling Transformer
3. Postulate a structure
– This physical model is referred to as the equivalent circuit of a
transformer

𝐼0

Module 1: Lecture 4 12
 Modelling Transformer
• Using the equivalent circuit, efficiency of a transformer can be calculated
for any given loading
• Many other problems can be solved using the equivalent circuit, without
any physical means
• Equivalent circuit parameters are determined using standard tests such as
Open Circuit (OC) test and Short Circuit (SC) test
• In OC test (or no-load test), rated voltage is applied on LV side and HV side
is kept open
• In SC test, LV side is shorted and voltage is increased until rated current
flows on HV side

Module 1: Lecture 4 13
 Modelling Transformer
• In OC test, the power and current drawn are almost equal to the core loss
𝑃𝑖 and the no-load current 𝐼0 respectively
• Shunt parameters of equivalent circuit (𝑅0 & 𝑋0) are approximated using
𝑃𝑖 and 𝐼0
• In SC test, the power drawn is almost equal to copper loss 𝑃𝑐
• Series parameters of equivalent circuit (𝑅1 , 𝑋1 , 𝑅2 & 𝑋2) are approximated
using 𝑃𝑐 and short circuit current on LV side 𝐼𝑠𝑐
• Using the circuit parameters, calculation of efficiency and regulation
becomes possible mathematically

Module 1: Lecture 4 14
 Example: Simple Pendulum
𝑃
• A simple pendulum consists of a mass 𝑀
hanging from a string of length 𝐿 and fixed at
a pivot point 𝑃 𝐿
𝜃
• Pendulum oscillates back and forth when
released at an angle to its equilibrium point
𝑀
• We derive a mathematical model to study
the motion of the pendulum

Module 1: Lecture 4 15
 Modelling Pendulum
1. Purpose of the model
– Model for studying the motion of a simple pendulum
2. Define boundaries
– Pivot, string and mass form the system
3. Postulate a structure
– In this system, energy transformation happens between potential
and kinetic energies successively
– System is similar to a rotational mechanical system
– Models are derived for both cases of neglecting and considering
friction
Module 1: Lecture 4 16
 Modelling Pendulum
𝑃
𝑇𝑟 , 𝜔
𝑇𝑓
𝐿
𝜃 𝑇𝑟 : Rotational torque
𝑇𝑓 : Frictional torque
𝑀 𝐽 𝐽: Moment of Inertia
𝜔: Angular velocity
𝜃
𝑀𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑀𝑔
4. Select variables of interest
– Angular displacement 𝜃 and angular velocity 𝜔 are variables of
interest

Photos Courtesy: Module 1: Lecture 4 17

 Modelling Pendulum (Lossless)
5. Mathematical description of each model elements
– Rotational torque: 𝑇𝑟 = 𝐽𝜔 = 𝐽𝜃 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝜃 (neglecting friction)
– Torque due to gravity: 𝑇𝑔 = 𝑀𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐿 𝑃
6. Apply relevant physical laws 𝑇𝑟 , 𝜔
– Both the torques act in opposite directions
𝑇𝑟 = −𝑇𝑔 𝐿
𝜃
𝑀𝐿2 𝜃 = −𝑀𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐿
7. Final mathematical model 𝑀 𝐽
𝑔
𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = 0 𝜃
𝐿 𝑀𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑀𝑔
Module 1: Lecture 4 18
 Modelling Pendulum (Lossy)
5. Mathematical description of each model elements
– Rotational torque: 𝑇𝑟 = 𝐽𝜔 = 𝐽𝜃 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝜃 (with friction)
– Torque due to gravity: 𝑇𝑔 = 𝑀𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐿 𝑃
– Frictional torque: 𝑇𝑓 = 𝐵𝜃 𝑇𝑟 , 𝜔
𝑇𝑓
6. Apply relevant physical laws
𝐿
𝑇𝑟 = −𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑓 𝜃
𝑀𝐿2𝜃 = −𝑀𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐿 − 𝐵𝜃
7. Final mathematical model 𝑀 𝐽
𝐵 𝑔
𝜃+ 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = 0 𝜃
𝑀𝐿2 𝐿 𝑀𝑔
𝑀𝑔 sin 𝜃
Module 1: Lecture 4 19
 Example: Predator-Prey Model
• To model the dynamics of a simple biological system in which there
are two species of animals
• One species (Prey) serves as a food source for the other (Predator)
• Prey grazes on vegetation
• The population growth of predator species and prey species are
described by the model
• Predator-prey model equations are derived based on observations
and assumptions

Module 1: Lecture 4 20
 Example: Predator-Prey Model
• Following assumptions are made in deriving the model equations:
1. Prey birth rate is proportional to the size of the population
2. Prey death rate is proportional to the size of the predator population
3. Predator birth rate is proportional to the sizes of both the predator and
prey populations
4. Predator death rate is proportional to the size of the predator population
5. Predator species is totally dependent on a single prey species as its only
food supply
6. Prey species has an unlimited food supply
7. There is no threat to the prey other than the specific predator

Module 1: Lecture 4 21
 Example: Predator-Prey Model
• 𝑥 𝑡 : population of prey species at time 𝑡
• 𝑦 𝑡 : population of predator species at time 𝑡
• Growth of both the populations over time are given by a set of non-
linear differential equations:
𝑑𝑥
= 𝛼𝑥 − 𝛽𝑥𝑦 Lotka-Volterra
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 equations
= −𝛾𝑦 + 𝛿𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑡
• 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾, 𝛿: Real parameters describing the interaction of both the
species

Module 1: Lecture 4 22
 Example: Predator-Prey Model
𝑑𝑥
= 𝛼𝑥 − 𝛽𝑥𝑦 (1)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
= −𝛾𝑦 + 𝛿𝑥𝑦 (2)
𝑑𝑡
• In the absence of predators i.e., 𝑦 = 0, the prey population
grows exponentially
• In the absence of prey i.e., 𝑥 = 0, the predator population
would decay exponentially to zero due to starvation

Module 1: Lecture 4 23
 Predator-Prey Model: Plots
2 4
• For 𝛼 = , 𝛽 = , 𝛾 = 1, 𝛿 = 1,
3 3
the plot of prey population Vs

Predator ( in thousands)
the predator population is as
follows:
• Each curve an initial condition
between 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 0.8 to
𝑥 = 𝑦 = 1.8 in steps of 0.1
1
• Fixed point is at 1,
2
Prey (𝑥 in thousands)
Module 1: Lecture 4 24
 Variant of Predator-Prey Model
• Drawback of previous model is that the prey population would
grow unbounded in absence of predator
• To make it realistic, we replace the exponential growth term in
Eq.(1) with two-term logistic growth expression:
𝑑𝑥
= (𝛼𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥 2 ) − 𝛽𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑡
• Thus, in the absence of predator, the prey population stabilises
at a value which is sustainable in the environment

Module 1: Lecture 4 25
 Variant of Predator-Prey Model
• Similarly, if predator has alternate food source, then the
predator population does not go to zero due to starvation
• In this case, we replace the exponential growth term in Eq.(2)
with two-term logistic growth expression:
𝑑𝑦
= 𝛾𝑦 − 𝑏𝑦2 + 𝛿𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑡
• In this manner, complex food chains can also be modelled by
modifying these equations and also adding new ones

Module 1: Lecture 4 26
 Summary : Module 1
 Introductions to systems and control

 Physical systems, types and steps in modelling electrical and

mechanical systems

 Examples of modelling real world systems

Module 1: Lecture 4 27
 Contents: Module 2
 Linearization of non-linear systems

 Why linearization is required

 Laplace transforms & its properties

 Inverse Laplace transform & its properties

 Significance of Laplace transforms

Module 1: Lecture 4 28