A COURSE IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS A textbook of Mechanics, Dynamics and Statics for the applied mathematics section of Part II of the London University General Degree and of Part I of the Mathematics Tripos and for the corresponding First Degree courses at other universities (Oy DEREK F. LAWDEN,M.A. Professor of Mathematics, University of Canterbury, New Zealand General Editor SIR GRAHAM SUTTON, C.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. Director-General, Meteorological Office, Formerly Dean of the Royal Military College Pye aaa DONT MY CT eee Tw eer‘OLUME I of this work is devoted to \ / the mathematical theory of mecha- nics and Volume II to the field theories of gravitation, electromagnetism and hydromechanics. The development is from first principles, but it is assumed that the reader has completed an Intermediate Course of mechanics and is studying for a First Degree, with applied mathematics as a principal subject. The work is more than adequate as a text for the applied mathe- matics section of Part II of the London University General Degree (excluding the statistics) and will also be found suitable for the course in natural philosophy leading to Part I of the Mathematics Tripos and for the applied mathematics courses arranged by other universities for their non-specialist mathematicians, Every effort has been made to assist those students who must depend largely upon their own resources when studying the subject. All arguments are given in full detail and the results are illustrated by numerous examples taken from examina- tion papers set at Cambridge, London and the provincial universities. Each chapter concludes with a comprehensive set of exercises relating to its subject matter. The notation is modern and the techniques of vector analysis have been employed throughout. A knowledge of elementary vector algebra and calculus is assumed, but the more advanced ideas associated with the operators, ‘div,’ ‘grad’ and ‘curl’ have been developed ab initio as they are required. The fundamental laws of mechanics are carefully presented to be consistent with the special theory of relativity, and the difficulties associated with the definition of the electromagnetic field vectors in dielec- tries and magnetic media are also given special consideration. Answers are provided for all the exercises and there is an index to each volume. 40/- netA COURSE IN APPLIED MATHEMATICSPHYSICAL SCIENCE TEXTS General Editor SIR GRAHAM SUTTON, C.BE., D.Sc. F.R.S. Director-General, Meteorological Ofice, Formerly Dean of the Royal Military College of Seience, Shrivenkam, ‘and Bashforth Professor of Mathematical Physics. ADVANCED LEVEL APPLIED MATHEMATICS by C. G. Lampe, B.A., Ph.D. APPLIED MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS by C. G. Lanne, B.A., Ph.D. ADVANCED LEVEL PURE MATHEMATICS by C. J. TRANTER, O.B.E., M-A., D.Sc. TECHNIQUES OF MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS by C. J. Tranter, O.B.E., M.A., D.Sc. GENERAL PHYSICS AND SOUND (To Advanced and Scholarship Level) by D. H. Fewer, B.Sc., Ph.D. HEAT (To Advanced and Scholarship Level) by A. J. Woopatt, O.B.E., Ph.D., F.lnst.P. LIGHT (To Advanced and Scholarship Level) by C. B, Dats, M.Sc. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM (To Advanced and Scholarship Leve!) by C. G. Witson, M.Sc., A.Inst.P, EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS (To Advanced and Scholarship Level) by C. B. Daisn, MSc. D. H. Fenper, B.Sc., Ph.D. A COMPENDIUM OF MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS by Dororny S, Meyer, M.Sc. Sir GRrauam SuttoN, C.B.E., D.Sc., F.RS. ELECTRON PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY by J. Txomson, D.Sc. E. B. Canuck, B.Sc. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONICS by M. R. Gavin, M.B.E., D.Sc. J. E. Hourp, Ph.D. A COURSE IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS (Covering B.A. and B.Sc. General Degrees) by D. F. Lawnen, MA. PHYSICS FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS by W. P. Jorty, BSc. In Preparation REACTOR PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY by J. Warxer, Ph.D., F.Inst.P, D. Jaxeman, Ph.D., A.Inst.P, ELEMENTS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICSA COURSE IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS By DEREK F. LAWDEN, M.A. Professor of Mathematics, University of Canterbury, New Zealand VOLUME I Part I: Dynamics Part II: Statics dP THE ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES PRESS LTD 102 NEWGATE STREET LONDON, E.C.1First printed 1960 © Copyright Derek F. Lawden, 1960 Printed in Great Britain for the English Universities Press, Limited, by Richard Clay and Company, Lid., Bungay, SuffolkGENERAL EDITOR'S FOREWORD by SIR GRAHAM SUTTON, C.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. Director-General, Meteorological Office, Formerly Dean of the Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham, and Bashforth Professor of Mathematical Physics ‘Tue present volume is one of a number planned to extend the Physical Science Texts beyond the Advanced or Scholarship levels of the General Certificate of Education. The earlier volumes in this series were prepared as texts for class teaching or self-study in the upper forms at school, or in the first year at the university or technical college. In this next stage, the treatment necessarily assumes a greater degree of maturity in the student than did the earlier volumes, but the emphasis is still on a strongly realistic approach aimed at giving the sincere reader technical proficiency in his chosen subject. The material has been carefully selected on a broad and reasonably comprehensive basis, with the object of ensuring that the student acquires a proper grasp of the essentials before he begins to read more specialized texts. At the same time, due regard has been paid to modern developments, and each volume is designed to give the reader an integrated account of a subject up to the level of an honours degree of any British or Commonwealth university, or the graduate membership of a pro- fessional institution. ‘A course of study in science may take one of two shapes, It may spread horizontally rather than vertically, with greater attention to the security of the foundations than to the level attained, or it may be deliberately designed to reach the heights by the quickest possible route. The tradition of scientific education in this country has been in favour of the former method, and despite the need to produce techno- logists quickly, I am convinced that the traditional policy is still the sounder. Experience shows that the student who has received a thorough unhurried training in the fundamentals reaches the stage of productive or original work very little, if at all, behind the man who has been persuaded to specialize at a much earlier stage, and in later life there is little doubt who is the better educated man. It is my hope that in these texts we have provided materials for a sound general education in the physical sciences, and that the student who works conscientiously through these books will face more specialized studies with complete confidence.PREFACE My intention has been to write a book on applied mathematics which will be of assistance to students reading for science degrees at a level Jower than that of Honours. It is assumed that the reader has suc- cessfully completed a course of study in the subject to the Inter- mediate standard of his degree course or to the Advanced Level of the General Certificate of Education. It is also assumed that the reader will be attending a course of lectures in pure mathematics, during which he will study the theory of linear differential equations, both ordinary and partial, the definition and evaluation of surface and volume integrals and the notation and techniques of vector analysis. All these branches of the subject are now common to the courses arranged for this class of student by the various university bodies in the United Kingdom. Vector methods have accordingly been employed without comment at any point in the argument where it was felt they arise quite naturally. However, no previous knowledge of the properties of the vector operators “ grad”, “div” and “ curl” is assumed of the reader, these being developed ab initio as required. Since it is expected that the majority of the book’s readers will not be mathematical specialists, who could be expected to complete for themselves an argument not made fully explicit, very few links have been omitted from the chains of reasoning, with the result that the reader of average ability should be able to make considerable progress without outside assistance. This should commend the work to those many students who read for External General Degrees of London University by part-time attendance at technical-college classes. However, a serious attempt has been made to present a fairly complete logical structure. I have not therefore avoided diffi- cult passages in the development of the subject, either by ignoring them, appealing to the reader’s intuition or by offering an argument by analogy. The use of any of these stratagems may be justified in a book written for use by engineers or others who are primarily inter- ested in acquiring the facility to use a tool. However, it is assumed that the readers of this book are motivated, at least partially, by a desire to study applied mathematics for its own sake as an zsthetic- ally pleasing and elegant structure. Those engineers who appreciate that a proper understanding of the tools they employ will greatly assist them in their efficient use, should also find the book helpful. Another type of student to which the book may appeal is the man who is reading for Honours in mathematics but who, for one reason or viiviii PREFACE another, finds that the texts to which he is referred make too great a demand upon his abilities. The book should carry such a student a Jong way towards his goal, after which he may feel sufficiently con- fident to study more comprehensive texts. The subject matter of the book divides into four parts, Part I Dynamics (Chapters 1-10), Part II Statics (Chapters 11-18), Part III Field Theory (Chapters 14-18), Part IV Hydromechanics (Chapters 19-21), Part I includes a detailed discussion of the dynamics of a particle and of a rigid body moving in a plane, and an introduction to the theory of the general three-dimensional motion of a rigid body. This introduction explains how considerations of angular momentum may be employed to derive Euler’s equations for the motion of a rigid body pivoted at a fixed point, establishes Lagrange’s equations and illustrates their application by a number of easy problems on three- dimensional motion. In Part II equations of equilibrium for a system of rigid bodies acted upon by a three-dimensional system of forces are derived as particular cases of previously established dynamical equa- tions. This Part concludes with an introduction to the theory of elasticity. Part III gives an account of the Faraday-Maxwell theory of the electro-magnetic field together with an introduction to the Newtonian theory of gravitational attraction. The equations of the electro-magnetic theory are expressed in terms of an unrationalized Gaussian system of units, since the examination papers of the various university bodies which have been consulted indicate that such a system is normally employed by mathematical departments in their teaching. However, an appendix has been added at the end of this Part, in which an explanation of the advantages to be gained from rationalizing the unit system is given and the Giorgi system is described and related to the system employed in this book. In Part IV the equilibrium of a fluid in a general gravitational field is discussed. A chapter is devoted to the one-dimensional flow of an ideal fluid in a smooth pipe, the theory being illustrated by the problem, now very topical, of the rocket motor. The general equations of motion of an ideal fluid are obtained in a final chapter and the characteristics of a number of simple irrota- tional flows and flows due to rectilinear vortices are investigated. By analogy with electrostatics, the velocity potential ¢ is related to the flow velocity by the equation q = —grad ¢. Throughout the book important results and principles are illustrated by worked examples, some of which are original but many of which have been taken from examination papers set by the following bodies: Birmingham University (B.U.) Cambridge University (Mathematical Tripos) (M.T.) Durham University (D.U.) Leeds University (Le.U.)PREFACE ix Liverpool University (Li.U.) London University (L.U.) Manchester University (M.U.) Nottingham University (N.U.) Queen’s University, Belfast (Q.U.) Sheffield University (S.U.) Other problems, from the same sources, for working by the student, will be found in the sets of exercises at the ends of the chapters. The source of each such example or exercise is indicated according to the abbreviation scheme shown above. The author wishes to express his thanks to the bodies concerned for permission to make use of this material. The author is also indebted to Sir Graham Sutton, F.R.S., for a number of suggestions which have led to improvements in the text and to his brother, Mr. J. G. Lawden, who is responsible for the pre- paration of the figures and diagrams. D. F. Lawpen University of CanterburyCONTENTS PART I: DYNAMICS 1, Kinematics OF A PARTICLE . : 1.1. The Velocity Vector. Ee 1.2, Components of the Velocity Vector | 1.3. The Acceleration Vector. i 14. Components of the Acceleration Vector . 2. NewTon’s Laws, RecritinEar Motion. 7 : 2.1, Newton’s Laws of Motion 2.2. Work and Power. - ‘| . . 2.3. Rectilinear Motion of a Particle . . . . 2.4. Damped and Forced Oscillations. 3. CARTESIAN AND INTRINSIC RESOLUTES OF ACCELERATION . 3.1. Resolving the Equation of Motion. 3.2. Cartesian Components. Projectiles : 3.3. Cartesian Components, Elliptic Harmonic Motion . 3.4. The Energy Equation. 3.5. Tangential and Normal Components. "Motion on Wires. . . . . . 4, PoLarR RESOLUTES OF ACCELERATION 4,1. Central Forces 4.2. Inverse Square Law 4.3, The Energy Equation . 4.4, Time in an Orbit. 4.5. Kepler's Laws Pe eee eee eee 4.6. The fr-Equation of an orbit, Elliptic Harmonic Motion . . . 7 : 4.7, Motion on Rotating Wires : 4.8, Motion on Surfaces of Revolution . 5. Impursive Motion oF Particles 5.1. Impulse and Momentum 5.2. Newton’s Third Law . 53, Impact of a Pair of Particles xi 10 12 24 27 42 55 66 69 73 85 85 88 92 1oL 103 106 110 118 118 121 124xii CONTENTS 6. Motion oF A ParticLe System—I. 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4, 6.5. 6.6. Systems Involving a Small Number of Particles Vibration of Two Particles. Normal Modes . Energy Equation for a Particle System . Kinetic Energy of a Rigid Body / Conservative Systems of one Degree of Freedom. Stability of Equilibrium. Small Oscillations Stability of Rocking Bodies . 7, Kinematics oF A Ricip Bopy. MoMENTS OF INERTIA 7A. 7.2. 7.3. 44, 75. 76. Instantaneous Centre. Space and Body Centrodes. Motion of a Rigid Body about a Fixed Pivot . General Three-Dimensional Motion of a Rigid ‘Body Moment of Inertia of a Lamina Moment of Inertia of a Solid pee. Equimomental Systems 8. Motion oF A Particle SysteM—II 8.1. 8. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5, 8.6. 8.7. 8.8. 8.9. Equation of Motion of the Mass Centre . Conservation of Linear Momentum Isolated Systems. : Equation of Angular Momentum Conservation of Angular Momentum Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body in General Motion . Equation of AM for a Rigid Body in General Motion Initial Motion of a Rigid Body Motion with Variable Mass . 9. Impurstve Motion oF a Ricip Bopy 9.1, 9.2. Equations of Linear and Angular Momentus for Im- pulsive Motion Rater Elastic Impact of Rigid Bodies 10. THREE-DIMENSIONAL MOTION. LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS 10.1. 10.2. 10.3. 10.4. 10.5. 10.6. Rotating Frames of Reference. ‘AM of a Rigid Body Rotating about a Fixed Pivot Euler's Equations. : Kinetic Energy of a Rotating Rigid Body Lagrange’s Equations. Small Vibrations. Normal Modes. 131 131 133 139 145 152 159 169 169 173 177 179 182 185 191 191 197 201 203, 205 208 210 214 215 226 226 232 240 240 241 241 246 253 261CONTENTS PART II: STATICS 11. EguirisriuM AND EQUIVALENCE OF FoRcE SysTEMS 11.1. Equilibrium of a Rigid Body 11.2. Equivalence of Force Systems 11.8. Parallel Forces. Centres of Mass . . 11.4, Inertial Forces. Centrifugal Force 4 11.5. The Principle of Virtual Work . : 12. EguitipriuM OF STRINGS AND CHAINS 12.1. General Equations of Equilibrium . : 12.2, String Hanging in Equilibrium under Gravity 12.3, String in Contact with a Cylinder. . 13. DEFORMATION oF Exastic Bopies . 13.1. Internal Forces and Deformations. 13.2. Shearing Force and Bending Moment 13.3. Extension of a Bar . : . Flexure of a Beam . Whirling Shafts... . Analysis of Strain : . Analysis of Stress . Generalization of Hooke’s Law |. Simple Cases of Elastic Deformation ANSWERS . . . . . INDEX xiii 271 271 276 282 284 285 296 296 297 303 309 309 310 315 316 322 324 335 337 348PART L DYNAMICSCHAPTER 1 KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE 1.1. The Velocity Vector A particle is defined to be a body whose dimensions are negligible to the degree of accuracy in linear measurement to which we choose to work, The Earth is a body of approximately 4000 miles radius, whereas the radius of its orbit about the Sun is over 93,000,000 miles. If, therefore, it is sufficient for our purpose to specify the orbit to an accuracy of 0-1 per cent, the Earth may be treated as a particle. This we shall do in Chapter 4. Since, in the sense just explained, a particle has no extension, it is conveniently represented by a Euclidean point. Rotation of a particle cannot be detected without improvement in the accuracy of measure- ment. It follows that its motion is completely specified by that of the point. Let P (Fig. 1.1) be a point representing a particle at some time ¢. Let O be any identifiable point in the neighbourhood of P (e.g., the Fi. 1.1.—Position Vector of a Particle centre of the Sun when we are discussing the motion of a planet). 0 is not necessarily “‘ fixed”; indeed, we have not yet stated the mean- ing we shall attach to this term. Take 0 as the origin of rectangular Cartesian axes Ox, Oy, Oz in any identifiable, mutually perpendicular, directions (e.g., so as to pass through three known stars). These directions also are not necessarily fixed”. For example, it may be 34 A COURSE IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS (cH. convenient to allow them to rotate with the Earth when we are dis- cussing the motion of a projectile in its vicinity. These axes con- stitute a frame of reference against the background of which the motion of P may be described. The position of P at time ¢ may now be fixed by its coordinates (x, y, z) or, alternatively, by the vector OP. This vector is, accordingly, referred to as the position vector of P, and will be denoted by r. The quantities (x, y, z) are the projections of r upon the coordinate axes, and are therefore its components. r varies both in magnitude and direction as P moves; i.e., r is a function of # At time ¢-++ 34, let the particle be at P’, a point with position vector 1+ dt. It follows from the triangle law of addition of vectors, that ar is the vector PB’, Consider the vector Sr/3f, i.e., a vector in the direction of 8r, but differing from this vector in magnitude by a factor 1/8t. As 3¢—> 0 this vector tends to a limit both in magnitude and direction. The limit vector is termed the derivative of r with respect to ¢ and is denoted by dr/dt. This derivative clearly provides us with a precise measure of the rate of change of the position of the particle P at the instant # relative to the frame of reference. It is accordingly accepted as the definition of the velocity of P relative to this frame and at this instant. Denoting the velocity vector by v, we have dr v= (1) Before this definition of velocity is acceptable, we must show that it is in accord with the more or less vague ideas concerning this quantity commonly held, As 8¢—> 0, P’ approaches P along the particle’s path and 8 approaches the direction of the tangent to this track at P. The direction of the velocity vector is therefore along this tangent and specifies the direction of the motion of the particle in the frame of reference. Let A be any fixed point on the path of P and let s denote the length of the curve joining A and P. s will be reckoned positive if the particle arrives at P after it has passed through A. Then the arc PP’ may be denoted by 8s. As 8—>0 and P’ approaches P, the ratio PP’/3s approaches unity. It follows that the limits of the ratios PP’/S¢ and 8s/3¢ are identical. But the first ratio is the mag- nitude of the vector 8r/8¢ and has limit |dr/dt|. The limit of the second ratio is ds/dt = §. Hence v=|y= fi iy (1.2) ie., the magnitude of the velocity vector is the rate of increase of the distance of the particle from a fixed point on its path. v is termed the speed of P. Now suppose that each of two observers, moving relatively to one1) KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE 5 another, assesses the motion of P against the background of a reference frame which is fixed relative to himself. Let Oxyz, O’x'y’z’ (Fig. 1.2) be the two frames and suppose that corresponding axes always remain parallel, ie., there is no relative rotation of the frames. Let r be the position vector of P relative to the first frame and r’ the position Fic, 1.2.—Relatively Moving Frames vector of P relative to the second frame at the instant #. If p is the position vector of O in the second frame at the same time, we have vop+r (1.3) Differentiating this equation with respect to the time #, we obtain v=p+h (1.4) or v=V+y, (1.5) where V is the velocity of P relative to the first frame, v’ is the velocity of P relative to the second frame and V is the velocity of O in the second frame, i.e., of the first observer relative to the second. Equation (1.5) shows that, to calculate the velocity of a particle relative to a new frame of reference, to the velocity in the old frame we must add vectorially the velocity of this frame relative to the new. 1.2. Components of the Velocity Vector The velocity vector, like any other vector, may be regarded as the vector sum of three vectors in any three non-coplanar directions. The magnitudes of these three vectors are the components of the velocity in these three directions. Consider the motion of a particle moving in a plane. If two of the6 A COURSE IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS [cH. component directions lie in the plane and the third does not, the velocity component associated with the latter direction will be always zero and we shall ignore it. Suppose that the remaining pair of directions are taken, one along the tangent and one along the normal to the particle’s path at the instant ¢. Since v is a vector of magnitude $ in the direction of the tangent, (i, 0) are the éangential and normal components of the velocity respectively. Let the axes Ox, Oy of the frame of reference be taken in the plane of motion and let (x, y) be the coordinates of P at time #. Then, if i, j are unit vectors in the directions of the axes, the position vector of P is given by raxi+yi. . : (1.6) Differentiating with respect to #, since i and j are constant in magnitude and direction, we obtain v= dtfdt = xi + yi. (1.7) Thus, the Cartesian components of velocity are (%, ¥). This result does not depend upon the axes being rectangular, although it will generally be convenient to regard them so. If the axes are rectangular, squaring equation (1.7), we find that via at + 9, (1.8) since i- j= 0. Let (r, 0) be the polar coordinates of P relative to a pole O and initial line Ox in the plane of motion (Fig. 1.3 (a)). Then, if p, q are * @) Fig. 1,3—Polar Components of Velocity ‘unit vectors along and perpendicular to OP (in the senses indicated in the figure) respectively, we can write i ype eee (1.9)y) KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE 7 Differentiating, there results v=mtrp. (1.10) Since p is not necessarily constant in direction, its derivative is not, in general, zero. In time 8, 6 will increase by 80 and p will accordingly rotate through this angle into the position of p+ dp (Fig. 1.3 (8)). The magnitude of p + 8p is unity and hence, with p and 8p, forms an isosceles triangle with equal unit sides. From this triangle, we conclude that | 8p| = 86, to the first order. Hence 30 lim R {| = lim] But, as 8 > 0, the angle between p and 8p approaches a right angle and thus the limiting direction of 8p/3¢ is that of g. It now follows that p= oa. (1.1) Similarly, the reader should prove that a= —6p. (1.12) Substituting from equation (1.11) into equation (1.10), we find that v=ip + roa, (1.18) ive. the components of v along and perpendicular to OP are (7, 76) respectively. These are the polar components of velocity. Squaring equation (1.13), we obtain vw #2 202, (1.14) 6 is the rate of rotation of OP relative to the frame of reference. It is termed the angular velocity of Pabout the point O. The velocity of P being known, its angular velocity may be calculated from the formula 6= xg (1.15) Example 1. 4 point A moves in a counter clockwise direction round a circle of centre O and radius a with angular velocity w, and a point B moves counter clockwise round a concentric circle of radius 2a with angular velocity w,. If 0 is the angle OAB when the relative velocity of A and B is parallel to the line AB, prove that w? — 40,7 2 ! 2 tan? Tot provided that w, > 2a,. Find also the speed of B velative to A at that instant. (L.U,)8 A COURSE IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS [cx. The velocities of A and B are aw, and 2aw, respectively in the directions shown and relative to a frame within which 0 is stationary. Relative to an observer moving with 4, this frame has a velocity ‘aw, in the opposite sense to that of A's velocity. The velocity of B relative to A is therefore found by adding vectorially A’s velocity reversed to that of B. This is shown in the diagram. This rela~ tive velocity is in the direction BA, and hence, if it is resolved into components along and perpendi- cular to AB, the latter component is zero. But this component is the sum of the components of the vectors of which it is the sum. We therefore have the equation 2aw, cos LOBA — aw, sin (8 — 90°) = 0 cos OBA = — #1 cos Bag sint LOBA = 1 ~ 75 cost 6. (i Applying the Sine Rule to the triangle OAB, we obtain sin ZOBA = }sin8, i) and then, from equations (i) and (ii), a din? 0 = 1 — 77%, cos* 6. 2 Whence, dividing by cos* 6, 26 = sectg — 2 29 oe, dtantO = sect — 75 = 1+ tanto — 2 and the result stated follows by solving for tan? 9. ‘The component of the relative velocity in the direction BA is aw; cos (0 — 90°) — 2aw, sin LOBA = aw, sin @ — aw, sin 6 (using equation (ii) = a(w, ~ @,) sin 6. Example 2. 4 ship A is moving due East with constant speed u, whilst a second ship P is moving due North with constant speed 2u, and a third ship Q is moving North-east with constant speed 2x/2u. When A is at a point O, it is observed that P and Q cross the trach of A simultaneously at distances a and 2a respec- tively ahead of A. Prove that, when OA = x, the line joining A 10 the mid point of PQ is rotating in space about the vertical through A with angular velocity 12au 9a + 16x (L.U.) Let O, B, C be the initial positions of the ships 4, P,Q respectively. Take axes Oy and Oy as shown. The Cartesian components of the velocities of P and Q are (0, 2u) and (2u, 2u) respectively. At time ¢ after the ships areyj KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE 9 collinear, the coordinates of P are (a, 2ut) and of Q are (2a + Qut, Qu). If Mis the mid point of PQ its coordinates are (24 -+ wt, 2u!), and hence its Cartesian velocity components are (u, 2u). 4 has velocity components (%, 0) and the velocity components of M relative to A are accordingly (0, 2u). If ZMAx = 6 the resolute of this relative velocity perpendicular 4 Rew OlA* B c oN to AM is 2«cos@. Employing equation (1.1), we find that the angular velocity of M about A is w, where __ 24.008 0 °= aM But cos0 = AN/AM. Also, since A is the point (wf, 0) at time 4, AN = 3a and AM? = $a* + 4u*#. Hence QuAN _ Sau Daw AM? ~ fa? + 40P ~ 9a? + 16x*” where x = ut = OA. Example 3. An aircraft, moving along a straight track with uniform speed v, is under attack from a guided missile. The missile moves with constant speed nv, its motion being always divected towards its target. Show that the polar equation of the track of the missile, as observed from the aircraft, is 4 = sin 6 tan"}0, where the aircraft has been taken as pole and its direction of motion as the initial line. Deduce that, unless the missile's speed is greater than that of the target, the latier cannot be hit. Relative to the aircraft, a frame stationary relative to the ground has velocity v in a direction opposite to that of the © aircraft’s own motion. Rela- tive to the aircrait O, the missile P accordingly possesses a velocity which is the vector sum of: (i) its velocity ‘nv relative to the ground in the direction PO, and (ii) the velocity v of the ground relative to the aircraft. DIRECTION OF Ale MOTION10 A COURSE IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS (cH. Taking polar coordinates as shown in the diagram, we find that the polar resolutes of P’s velocity are 4 = —nv — vcosé i) = vsine. Gi) Dividing (i) by (ii), we obtain lay —n cosec 8 — cot 6. Integrating with respect to 6, we find that logy = —n log tan 39 — log sin 6 + constant, and hence r = A cosec 0 cot"$0 4 = sino tanryo, where 4 is a constant depending on the initial conditions. If the missile is to destroy the target, y must approach zero for some value of 6 This implies that 4jr—>c. Now tan}@—>o as @—>n. Let @=7—« Then sine . ¢ fanmhe * (de)* where ¢ is small. As ¢—>0, -"—>0 if » > 1. This implies that the missile will reach the target if its velocity is greater than that of the target. 1,3. The Acceleration Vector The acceleration of a particle is defined to be the rate of change of its velocity. The acceleration vector is therefore derived from the velocity vector in the same way that this vector is derived from the 7 = sine cot™te = = Qrelon, u+be c (a) @) Fic. 1.4,—The Hodograph position vector. Let v be the velocity of a particle P at time ¢ (Fig. 1.4 (a). Take v to be the position vector of a point Q relative to a frame having origin C (Fig. 1.4 (6). As v varies with the time, the point Q will move so as to trace out some locus. This locus is called the hodograph of the motion of P. At time ¢ + 8, the particle will haveyy KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE il moved to P’ and the velocity vector will have changed to v + dv. ‘The point Q will have travelled along its locus to Q’, where 0G’ = dv. The limit of the vector 3v/8¢ as 8: > 0, is called the acceleration vector of the particle at the time ¢ and is denoted by f. We have, therefore, dv r (1.16) Since v is the position vector of Q, f is clearly the velocity of this point and is in the direction of the tangent to the hodograph at Q. Now suppose that two observers assess the motion of P relative to two frames of reference, the first of which possesses a velocity V relative to the second and neither of which is rotating relative to the other. The velocities of P relative to the frames are related by equation (1.5). Differentiating this equation with respect to the time 2, we obtain the equation PoPLE (1.17) where f = V is the acceleration of P relative to the first frame, f’ = v’ is the acceleration of P relative to the second frame and F = V is the acceleration of the first frame relative to the second. Equation (1.17) shows that to calculate the acceleration of a particle relative to a new frame, we must add to its acceleration in the first frame the acceleration of this frame relative to the new. Example 4. Calculate the acceleration vector of a particle which moves around a circle of radius a with uniform angular velocity w. The velocity vector is of constant magnitude aw and, being always perpen- dicular to the radius through the particle, rotates with angular velocity w. aw Q The point Q accordingly describes a circle of radius aw (the hodograph) with angular velocity w and the magnitude of its velocity vector is aw’. This, then, is the magnitude of the acceleration vector of the particle. The direction of Q's velocity is perpendicular to CQ, ice., is in the direction PO. The direction of P's acceleration vector is therefore also along PO.12 A COURSE IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS [cH. 1.4, Components of the Acceleration Vector In this section we shall obtain expressions for the components of the acceleration of a particle moving in a plane, in the three pairs of direc- tions in which we have already resolved the velocity vector. Differentiating equation (1.7) once again with respect to #, we find that £ = dvdt = a + ji. (1.18) Thus the Cartesian components of acceleration are (#, J). Also, a further differentiation of equation (1.13) yields £=¥p + 7b + roa + bq + rbd. Substitution from equations (1.11) and (1.12) for p and 4 permits us to write the latter equation in the form f= @ — rp + (ro + 20a, (1.19) Equation (1.19) indicates that the polar components of acceleration ate # — r6? along OP, 1.20) and 16 + 2%0 = 14 42) perpendicular to OP. (1.20) Let t, n be unit vectors along the tangent and normal to the path of the point P, t being in the direction of motion and the rotation from t through a right angle to n being anti-clockwise (Fig. 1.5). Ift p\ ee x Fic. 1.5.—Unit Tangent and Normal makes an angle ys with the x-axis, by a method similar to that used to derive equations (1.11) and (1.12), the following equations may be obtained, tou, n=. 2. . (1.21)q. KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE 13 Employing the notation of Section 1.2, v= st. (1.22) Differentiating, this yields f= St-+ # = St+ sf. (1.28) Thus the tangential and normal components of acceleration are ) Writing § =v, the tangential components of acceleration can be written in any of the equivalent forms ~~ _We@_Wds_ w_ ay, f= 8 G-FG— EHR) The normal component of acceleration can also be manipulated into a number of forms thus fa = Sh = of where « is the curvature and ¢ the radius of curvature of the particle’s trajectory at P. Example 5. The thrust operating on a rocket in free space is divected so that the acceleration is always in a direction making a constant angle « with the velocity. Assuming plane motion show that, if v, is the speed at the commencement of the manauvre, vis the speed of any later instant and y is the angle through which the velocity vector has votated from its initial direction at this instant, vo, (1.25) v= veheote, Deduce that, if the rocket moves in a circle of radius a, va tana atana— vf where t is the time measured from the commencement of the manceuvre, The tangent to the rocket track makes an angle with the initial direction of motion, Taking this latter direction as that of the x-axis of the frame of reference, we see from equations (1.24) and (1.25) that the tangential and normal components of the acceleration are # and up respectively. Since the acceleration makes an angle « with the tangential direction tan a, 1a = cota. ody Integrating with respect to y, pipe = fe = pcota + constant log v = cot a + constant v= Adbesta, where 4 is an arbitrary constant. But v =v, when y= 0 and hence A=v, Thus, vebete, , @i4 A COURSE IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS (cu. If s is measured along the track from the initial position of the rocket and the latter moves around a circle of radius a, then s = aj. Hencev =i = aij and equation (i) yields WY % pene dt @ Ht 8 bee, Integrating with respect to y, ¢ = constant — x tan a e~Heote, i) When ¥ = 0, t= 0 and hence the constant is “tana. We can now solve for e¥ et in equation (ii) to obtain % coe. _atana 7 atane Substituting in equation (i) for e¥ ot, we find pa vee tan a atana— ot Assuming that « is a positive acute angle, so that tan « is positive, this equation shows that as ¢ increases towards 7 tana, v—>. Thecircular course cannot therefore be maintained for a time greater than < tana. Example 6. A particle, initially at vest at the origin, moves in a plane with an acceleration that is the resultant of a constant radial acceleration f outwards and @ variable acceleration equal to Qu times the velocity in a v direction perpendicular to the velocity, where w is constant. Show that its angular velocity about the origin is equal to w a f and find the polar equation of i> its path, taking the direction of f at the origin as the initial P Tine. (MT) Resolving the acceleration L component 2w radially and transversely, we obtain the components —2wusin¢ and 20 cos $ respectively. Equa. 6 \ tion (1.13) shows that these 0 components can also be writ- ten in the form —2ur), 2w7. The total acceleration in the radial direction is accordingly f — 2urd, and in the transverse direction is 2u#. This fact is expressed by the equations ¥ — Wl =f — 2urd, i ld 7 oH (78) = 2et. (ii) From equation (ii), we obtain 4 (°°) = 2urF Ze.i KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE 15 Integrating with respect to f, it follows that 7°) = wr* + constant A baot4 Unless A = 0, the transverse velocity r) > 0 asy—> 0. But the particle is at rest when = 0. We conclude that 4 = 0, Hence 6 = a, ie., the angular velocity of the particle about the origin is w. Substitution for 6 in equation (i) yields Fro =f. The general solution of this differential equation is = Boos ut + Csin at + Ly Band C being arbitrary constants. Whent = 0,7 a+4 0, wl = 0. Hence B= —flo*andC =0. Thus Y 4 (1 — cos wt). O, ie., Since the angular velocity of P about O is w and @ = 0 att = Equation (iii) is therefore equivalent to pease r=4,(1 — cos 6), and this is the polar equation of the path (a cardioid), Example 7. 0 is the centre of a o circular wire and A is a point on its circumference. A bead P moves around the wive with uniform angular velocity w velative to the wire, whilst the latter votaies about A in the same sense with angular velo- city U1 + /3)o. If ON is perpendicular to AP and Mis the mid point of ON, prove that the acceleration of the bead at any instant is (44 24/8)e%. Bi. Suppose the bead is at A’, diametrically opposite to 4, at 1=0. Let AX be the position of AA’ at this in- stant. At a later instant ¢, the wire will have rotated through the angle }(1 + 3) and the radius OP rong an angle at, as shown in the diagram, Then ZPAO = ZAPO = at. Take A as pole and AX as the initial line of polar coordinates (r, 6) of the bead. Then 0 = LPAX = 42 + V3)at, w@ y= AP=24N=2acostut, . . . (ii) where a is the radius of the wire.16 A COURSE IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS (cH. From (i), O = H2 + V3)o. % = —}awt cos ut. The polar components of the acceleration of P are therefore, f= — rb? tau! cos tut — daw'(2 + +/3)* cos fut —aest(4 + 24/8) cos dot = —(4 + 2y/3)a". NP fo=5u0%) From (ii), ; : [a%(4 + 24/3)eo cost fat] ~aX(4 + 24/3)u cos dut sin dut/2a cos tut = —fao%(4 + 24/8) sin dot —fo4 + 24/3)0N —w8(4 + 24/3)MN. J is therefore representable, both in magnitude and direction, by the vector (4+ 21/3)u*. PN. fy is similarly representable by the vector on (44 2y/3)ut. NM. The total acceleration of P is now given by the vector sum —> —> > > (4+ 2V/3)at. PN + (4 + 29/8)u?. NM = (4 + 2V3)u*. (PN + NM) = (4 + 2y8)0%. PM. EXERCISE 1 . Points P and Q are moving around two coplanar circles in the same sense and with the same angular velocities w. If @ is the distance between the centres of the circles and « is the acute angle made by PQ with the line of centres at any instant, show that the angular velocity of PQ at this instant is (1 - Poo ao. Particles P, and P, move around concentric circles of radii a, and ay in the same sense and with angular velocities «, and ay, all respectively. Show that the angular velocity of P, about P, is given by a — as Q= Hoyt a) + Ho, — 0) 25% where = P,P;. If P,, Pz represent two planets, it may be shown that w, = ut/at, o, = ila, where yu is a constant for the solar system, Deduce that, in this case, the motion of P,, as observed from Py, reverses its direction when the angle 0 between the radii to the planets is given by » og iain mag tte a + ay ne and prove that this equation always has a real root.y ia 10. 1 12. KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE 17 A point moves in the plane of axes Ox, Oy so that its x velocity com- ponent is always f times its y coordinate and its y velocity component is always & times its x coordinate. Show that its path is a rectangular hyperbola. A particle P moves in the plane of axes Ox, Oy such that its velocity makes a constant angle with OP. Show that the path is an equiangular spiral. If P’s angular velocity about O is constant, show that its speed is proportional to OP. . An aircraft moves with constant speed V along a straight line. If 7 is its distance from a fixed point 0, prove that % (vi) = V2 . A and B are two fixed points on a circle and P is a moving point. If (u, v) are the components of P's velocity resolved in the oblique directions AP, BP respectively, show that usin?a =7 — scosa, vsintx = %— # cosa, where AP = 7, BP = sand LAPB =a. Deduce that uw + vs = 0. (LT) . In Example 3, assuming that, at t = 0, the missile is at the point 7 = 4,0 =a, and that » >1, prove that the missile strikes the target when a(n — cos a) “oe — 1)” Prove also that the missile’s acceleration is always perpendicular to OP and of magnitude nv? sin 8/7. . A particle moves around the equiangular spiral r = ae? so that its angular velocity about the pole is constant. Show that the accelera- tion of the particle makes an angle 2« with the radius vector and is of magnitude v/v, where v is the speed of the particle. (LU) . A bead is constrained to move around a wire in the shape of a cardioid 7 =a{1 + cos 6) in such a way that its angular velocity about the pole isaconstant w, Show that the bead’s speed v, when it is at a distance y from the pole, is given by v = w\/2ay and that the magnitude of its acceleration is then (a%w* +- 2u%)t. A particle moves along the curve y = ¢ cosh 7 with constant speed v. Show that its acceleration has magnitude cv*/y?. . A particle moves in the plane of rectangular axes Ox, Oy. If (x, ») are its coordinates at time ¢, show that (#, 9) are the coordinates of the corresponding point on the hodograph with respect to parallel axes. Deduce that if x and y are quadratic functions of #, the hodograph is a straight line, ‘A particle P moves in a plane and has polar coordinates (r, 0). Its velocity always makes an angle @ with the radial coordinate 7. Show that its track is a straight line or a circle, In the latter case, show that, if the particle’s acceleration is always in the tadial direction and @ = 0 when f = 0, then ¢ is proportional to @ — sin 8 cos 0.18 A COURSE IN APPLIED MATHEMATICS (cH. 13. A particle moves in the plane of axes Ox, Oy so that its acceleration always makes the same angle y with the tangent to its path that the tangent makes with Ox. Show that the speed v is given by v = v,sin y, where v =, when y =7/2. Deduce further that, if the tangent to the path rotates at a constant angular velocity @, the intrinsic equation of the path is s = : (1 — cos y). Hence show that the path is a cycloid. 14. By further resolving the Cartesian components of the velocity of a particle, show that the polar components are v, = 400s 6 + #sin@ v9 = —i sin 8 + § cos 8. Substituting x = cos 0, y = 7 sin 0, obtain equation (1.13). Show similarly, that the polar components of acceleration are given by Sf, = ¥ cos 8 + Hsin ® fo = —#sin 8 + 9 cos and hence obtain equation (1.18). 15. A straight rod AB of length c has angular velocity w radians per second clockwise about the end B, which is pinned to a horizontal table. At a certain instant the direction from B to A is northward. One second later the table is continuously translated eastward with constant acceleration f. Given that the eastward component of ’s velocity is never zero, show that « cannot lie between n/2 and 3n/2. Assuming that @ is less than n/2 and that the eastward component of A’s velocity is never zero, show that this component has alternate maxima and minima, provided f < cw*. Show also that the time interval between any maximum and the succeeding minimum is 2 f 5or(4) co and is Jess than r/o. LU.) 16, A ship leaves port and steers a straight course at 12 knots for a destina- tion that is unknown, Six hours later a ship that can do 20 knots is sent from port in pursuit. It sails at top speed due northwards for 9 hours, and, on failing to find the first ship on this course, it proceeds to steer on such a curve that it would find it whatever the course taken by the first ship. Show that it describes the equiangular spiral v = 180¢8, (BU, 17. A particle moves in a plane so that the velocity components along and perpendicular to the radius vector from a fixed origin are c tan 38 and c respectively, where c is a constant. Show that the particle describes a parabola, and show that its acceleration is constant in magnitude and direction. (D.U,)y KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE 19 18. A particle starts from the origin with velocity w in the direction of the initial line and moves with constant angular velocity w about the origin and with constant radial component of acceleration wa inwards. Find its coordinates at time ¢ from the start, and show that the equation of its path is or = u(1 — &). (Li. U)