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A drainage pattern is the pianimetric arrangement o f streams etched into the land surface
by a drainage system. The drainage pattern rellects the geologic as well as topographic
controls ofthe underlying rocks Besides it also reflects original slope, original structure,
diaslrophism along with geologic and geomorphic histoiy o f the drainage basin
(Thornbury, 1969). Therefore a particular pattern has its genetic relations with the factoi s
o f its origin. The drainage patterns which are predominantly seen in the drainage network
constituting the Dhansiri basin are dendritic, trellis and parallel patterns Besides these,
3.1.1 D e n d r it ic P a t t e r n
to erosion by running water. Thus conditions favourable for the development ol'demliitie
pattern are commonly encountered in flate lying beds, plateaus and massive crvstalline
The development o f this pattern takes place in two stages (Glock. m I ) At the
first stage the streams by erosion ol rocks goes dovvnwaid and its tributaries aie also
increased in number, while in the final stage by capturing o f smaller valleys by largei
valleys. The relief and lithological character arc mainly responsible for the development
In the Dhansiri basin dendritic pattern is found to be most predominant The upper
hilly area of the basin is almost covered by well developed dendritic pattern Besides
these some of the lower order tributaries in the plains also show this type of drainage
pattern. The Dhansiri basin is primarily covered by Tertiary sediments and the extensive
development of dendritic pattern in the north of the basin is due to the fact that the area
is covered by low dipping shales.
Subdendritic pattern, which is a modified basic pattern is also seen in the lower
alluvial plain areas of the Dhansiri basin. This pattern shows abnormal elongation or
bending in the lower order tributaries. This pattern differs from the type dendritic only in
the lack of perfection. Deviations are presumably due to secondary regional control
either structural or topographic. Subdendritic pattern at places shows transition towards
trellis pattern under the influence of underlying structure
3 . 1.2 T r e l l i s P a t t e r n
Trellis pattern exhibit a system of parallel to sub parallel streams where the major streams
frequently make almost right angled bends to cross or pass between aligned ridges. It is
developed as a system of subparallel streams aligned along the strike of the rock formations
(Willis, 1895). The primary tributaries join the main stream at right angle and also the
secondary tributaries. Trellis pattern gives an evidence of structural control of most
stream courses, except the trunk stream, where the tributary valleys ai e usually subsequent
strike valleys (Thombury, 1969) Trellis pattern is found in the region where folded
strata of various resistance are found.
river with well developed trellis pattern show a marked contrast to that o f dendritic
pattern developed on the left bank tributaries. Directional trellis, a pattern suggested for
modified basic trellis pattern (Howard, 1965; 1967), where tributaries to the long
subsequent stream are consistently longer on one side o f the valley than on the other.
This pattern is commonly found in areas o f gently dipping homoclinal beds or gentle
slopes with parallel ridges. This directional trellis pattern is well developed towards the
north western part o f the basin. The subbasin Nihang langso shows this type of drainage
pattern (Fig. 3.2). Some o f the lower order tributaries with long subsequent stream
when fall on the Dhansiri at a very low plain areas where there is a gentle slope also
show directional trellis pattern. Recurved trellis is a modification o f the trellis pattern in
which the pattern as a whole forms sweeping curves around the noses o f plunging folds
(Howard, 1965; 1967). This pattern is distinguished at the northern fringe o f the Tarapung
sub basin (Fig. 3. „ ) . The direction o f flow o f the longer tributaries generally indicates
Parallel patterns are usually found where pronounced slope or structural controls leading
to regular spacing o f parallel or near parallel streams. This pattern is also found in
areas o f parallel elongate landforms. In the plain areas the river has a narrow flood
plain and there is a rolling topography with exposed bed rocks This segment has a
complex pattern o f drainage which has resulted from a combination o f parallel drainage
lines from N aga hills and dendritic pattern with enclosed radial patterns to the north o f
Dhansiri river (Roy, 1975). Parallel type o f drainage pattern is common in low lying
o f Dhansiri towards the north eastern margin of the basin Towards the lower reaches of
Kaliyani river where denudational hill merges into the alluvial plain, subparallel type o f
(2 6 )
drainage patterns are also seen. These are subparallel to parallel streams (lowing along
the structural valleys debounces into the Kaliyani river as it’s right bank tributaries (3.3)
It is the modified basic of the parallel pattern in which the streams are oriented in a
similar direction, but lacks the regularity of the parallel pattern, (Zcrnith, 1932).
3.1.4 R e c t a n g u l a r P a t t e r n
along the intersecting fault lines, fractures and joints and is generally connected with the
of Dayang. This is due to Lransfoi (nation of dendritic stieam network as a result of joint
3.1.5 R a d i a l P a t t e r n
Radial patterns have streams diverging from a central elevated tract or isolated conical
or subconical hills etc. in all directions. Such patterns are usually developed on newly
(Easterbook, 1969).
Radial patterns have developed in several areas of Nagaland where the river Dayang
semicircular bodies o f rock having moderate to high relief in the Kaliyani basin. These
radial patterns are mainly developed in Barpung and Taiapung subbasins (Fig. 3.1).
of lateral shifting as well as meandering It indicates the different types of channel shape
FIG. 3.1
FIG, 3 2
FIG 3 3
(2 7 )
in contrast to the regional drainage pattern. In general three patterns viz , meandering,
braided and straight, are recognised. In a single river all these three patterns may be
encountered. Individual channels are classified depending on the sinuosity and braiding
parameters, (Rust, 1978). Channels are referred to as straight where length is almost ten
times the channel width, braided where streams are bifurcated in two or more streams
and separated by bars and islands Meandering patterns form numerous curves along
their courses.
Individual channel patterns are defined depending upon their nature and behaviour
in the fluvial terrain. Sinuosity indices o f the channels are commonly used for identifying
the different types o f channels. The most commonly used sinuosity index is the ratio o f
the thalweg length to valley length o f the channel. Miall (1982) defined four basic channel
types based on the sinuosity index and braiding parameters (Table 3 l).
outcome o f both topographic and hydraulic factors, which is expressed by the index of
sinuosity. The sinuosity index o f the main channel and some o f the important tributaries
Johnson (1932) referred some collective names for streams which are also used in
the overall drainage patterns, viz; rectangular, angulate, contorted, irregular, regular,
rectilinear etc. Other distinctive patterns are braided and spaiulate A river along its
( 28)
course may show two or more ofits pattern. The term ‘ana branching' is applied where
two or more distributary streams join and unite at a place (Dury, 1969) The shape or
pattern o f channels, branching of channels and cut off channels, offer considerable
When channel segments arc straight or zig-zag in plane it signifies structural control
rather than being a descriptive in channel character Sinuous channel develops naturally
eroding and depositing sediments as pools and riffles along former straight courses
River brings large amount o f sediments and build midstream bars at frequent inteivals
and divides into numerous separate but intersecting minor channels and makes the channel
The climate, hydraulic and tectonic effects cause gradual progressive and mutual
with morphological changes keeping pace with the environmental controls Human
activities also create temporary disequilibrium in the channel, which then passes through
‘transient states’ in approaching the new equilibrium. The channel may also be effected
in short turn by individual extreme events (Richards, 1982) These may cause catastrophic
changes of cross section, plane and gradient over periods of days and even hours
The Dhansiri river along its course shows meandering nature Meandering is one
of the means through which rivers, mostly in alluvial terrains, tend to attain a quasi
The Dhansiri persues a highly sinuous path throughout the plains I he prominent
feature is that the meanders widen in both wavelength and amplitude in the alluvial
(2 9 )
plains (Fig. 3.4), further north of latitude 26° 11 'N towards downstream and their number
becomes less than those o f the upper reach, (Fig 3.5). The meander index for the lower
reach being 0.3 / km, while becoming 0.8 / km for the upper reach, (Patgiri and Phukan,
1997). It has also been noticed that the shot toning o f the rivet through cut olTis restricted
in the lower reach beyond the confluence point o f Dhansiri proper and Dayang (26° 11 'N
and 95°58'E). However, though the cut off process has been active in the lower reach,
the river does not show a shortening effect as the measurement for 20years show a
constant channel length throughout its entire course (Table 3.4). It can thus be inferred
that the river has now achieved a state o f dynamic equilibrium and this equilibrium is
Dayang 2 0 /1 6 1.2
Bhogdoi 2 0 /1 9 10
Rengma 15.5/ 11.5 13
Dima 2 0 /1 9 .5 1.0
Manglu 2 0 /1 6 5 1.2
Diphupani 4 0 /3 5 11
Tarapung 30 5 /2 5 .0 5 12
Janghanri 27 85 / 20 8 13
In the alluvial plain development o fo x -b o w lakesa nd b a yo nsb ycuio fl'a nd abandonment
o fch a n n e l, are frequently seen. L o w gradient and co n h e sive Iresh m aterials arc pitm a n Iv
responsible for the developm ent and m igration o f m eanders w h ich evcnm allv give u se the
T h e different types o fch a n n e l form ation m ainly depend on several factors, such as channel
erosion and sedim ent transportation w hich arc controlled by the velocity o f the stream H o w
T he velocity is again controlled by the factors like discharge, gradient and channel charaetei is! ic
D isc h a rg e and ve lo city are related by the equation (,) W V d . whete (.) is dischnige. VV is
channel adjustment, such as discharge, load depth, width, velocity, slope, bed characteristic
and bank vegetation density (L e o p o ld and W olm an, l l>57; S ch u m m . I Dot), IDOX)
controls viz., the typeofllow , channel bank resistance as determined by bank mater iales| v c i,illy
the percentage o l'silt and cla y in the channel perim eter and vegetal ion, (S c h u m m , I d o hi,
X im m c rm a n n c fa l., l% 7 )a n d s t re a m d is e h a rg e (K lin , ID S I )
effected by cut-olTs and avulsion and 'A llo g e n ic ' involves the clim atic fluctuation or altcied
sedim ent load o r discha rges due to hu m an activity. Lew in ( I ‘>77) d istin gu ish e d th e n -tw o
fro m the study o f the D hansiri m ain channel it is observed that thegeom etiical p a tte rn
o l the course has become highly irregular in the plains w hile m aintaining almost a constant a nd
FIG. 3.4
TIG 3 3
less irregular course in the hilly terrain. T he Dhansiri show s very little change in its original
course and lateral shilling through meandering has con fined its meander belt to a narrow limit
A ccording to Leopold and I^angbein (1966) the m eander usually appears wherex er the
rivers flow through line grained alluvium. In this particular case the river Hows through the
unconsolidated alluvial tciTain predominantly comprising sands and clays Thus the cohesive
bank material together with the very low gradient o f the terrain has made it easier to maintain
a meandering course. O n the other hand, the river in the hilly terrain (lows llirm igh unconsolidated
and well sorted Tertiary rocks and thus, the erodibility o f the bank m aterial being less, the
Name o f the river Sources o f data Year Length measured Smuosth index
(1:250,000)
1:250,000
3.2.3 S t r e a m D e p o s it io n a l F e a t u r e s
3.2.3.1 s e d im e n t b a r s
Sedim ent bars are developed in the low er reaches o f the river by the deposition o f sands and
gravels. T hese are im portant features o f fluvial terrain and are designated by such nam es as
channel bars, point bars, side bars depending upon their position and origin
Point bars are characteristics o f typical m eandering stream , but they also occur in braided
(32 )
environment. Meander bends grow as the stream undercuts the banks on the outside of
the bend, and deposits sediments on the inside o f the bend. These two sides o f the bend
are called the undercut and slipoff slopes respectively. The bars built on the slipoff slope
Several point bars are encountered in the lower plain areas o f Dhansiri river
(Fig. 1.4). The point bars generally dips towards the channel The point bars are
generally built up to the level o f the water surface, but never beyond the level o f active
flood plain. Channel shifting sometimes changes point bars into channel bars by the
This is the characteristic pattern o f braided river But sometimes it also occurs in
meandering river. Steep up-stream slope and gentle down stream slope is characteristic
of these bars. The sediments eroded from the steep side migrates downward and deposition
takes place at the advancing frontal portion o f the bar The deposition^ processes are
however controlled by the lateral and vertical accretion together with channel cutting
and abandonment. In Dhansiri river, channel bars are found in smaller number than the
point bars. It occurs in the lower reaches by the widening o f the river course. The
widening o f the course in such places are accentuated by development o f bars o f various
dimensions and, as a result these bars with interlacing channel-ways locally exhibit the
types o f rivers. It occurs due to overbank floods. The water current is most rapid along
the deep line o f the river channel. Silt bearing water, which spread out and mingles with
shallow flood waters on either side, quickly looses velocity, and much o f the silt and
(33 )
mud settles out. Because the greatest amount o f sediment settles out adjacent to the
river channel there is built up by many such floods, a belt o f slightly higher ground,
forming natural levees in both sides o f the river, (Fig. 1 1). The level surface slopes
gently downward away from the river to lower portions o f the flood plain Then the
highest ground on the flood plain is along the natural levees, immediately adjacent to the
river. This narrow strip o f ground out remains above water in all but the highest floods
and is the safest place aside from the plain. During the present investigation along the
Dhansiri river course development o f natural levees are found in limited number. It is
3 .2 .3 .S FLOOD PLAIN
Flood plain are flat valley floor formed by the alluvial rivers by the deposition o f sediment
during the time o f flood. The flood plain is built o f bars composed largely of sand and
gravel brought as bed load scoured from upstream. Innundation o f flood plain
approximately yearly in frequency allows finer silt and clays to settle out over the surface,
adding to the flood plain height and covering the coarser alluvium beneath. As lateral
cutting by the stream continuous flood plain strip grow under and presently join to form
Vast flood plains are developed along the lower reaches of the Dhansiri river with
numerous swamps and abandoned channels Natural levees are rarely formed Abscence
o f natural levees at places indicates the ‘bank foil’ flood phenomena, a characteristic of
meandering flood plain. As the valley development progresses, the flood plain becomes
wide enough to accomodate the meanders without ramping their form. The stream has
The characteristic development o f the flood plain has been noticed in the eastern
part o f the river and confined only within the alluvial plain part o f the basin as indicated
(34 )
A terrace is a flat strip o f ground bounded on one side by steeply descending slope and
on the other side by a steeply rising slope. If a stream aggrades its valley for a long time
the alluvial deposits may reach a thickness o f many tens o f metres Among several possible
causes o f aggradation is the onset o f a more arid climate which reduces stream discharge
The development o f terraced faces can be attributed to the fact that due to
progressive down-cutting o f the valley floor the river gradually accomodates itself with
the development o f new flood plain which lies at a lower level than its former flood plain
and as a result the former flood plain becomes detached and deactivated and thus
at Numaligarh neai the concrete bridge on NH-37. Distinct two tier terrace levels (Fig.
1.5) are well preserved on the left bank o f the river, while towards the right bank only
Fig.3.8 A part of huge cut of meander loop of Dhansiri river about 2 km north of
Golaghat town locally known as “Ghoramaramarabil ^confluence point of
Kaliyani on Dhansiri. In the foregroud the frontal part is a point bar with a
subsiding chute channel leading to the development ol channel bar