Physics 110A : Electromagnetism

Notes for the Spring 2018 Physics 110A Course taught by Professor Duffel
prepared by Joshua Lin (email: joshua.z.lin@gmail.com)
March 1, 2018

1 Introduction and Overview

These are personal notes for the Physics 110A class. As such; the assumed background is
exactly the background I have right now.

2 Multivariable brushup

Definition 2.1 (The Jacobian).

Given a diffeomorphism (bijective with continuous partial derivatives in both ways)
Φ : U ⊂ Rd → V ⊂ Rd , the Jacobian of Φ is the matrix-valued function:
 
∂Φi
JΦ(x) = , i, j = 1, . . . , d
∂xj ij

Theorem 2.1 (Using the Jacobian).

Let Φ : U → V be a diffeomorphism, then:
Z Z
f (x)dx = f ◦ Φ(x)|detJΦ(x)|dx
V U

Now, for some things we should remember.

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 Theorem 2.2 (Green’s Identities).
Let Ω ∈ Rd have smooth boundary. For any smoorth functions u, v:

u4v = ∇ · (u∇v) − h∇u, ∇vi

so we have Green’s Identities:

Z Z Z
u4vdx = uh∇v, n̂idS − h∇u, ∇vidx
Ω ∂Ω Ω
Z Z
u4v − v4udx = uh∇v, n̂i − vh∇u, n̂idS
Ω ∂Ω

Theorem 2.3 (Useful Vector Formulas).

In Spherical coordinates, we have:
∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
∇f = r̂ + θ̂ + φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂vφ
∇·v = 2
(r vr ) + (sin θvθ ) +
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
∂ 2f
 
1 ∂ ∂f 1 ∂ ∂f 1
∇2 f = 2 (r2 ) + 2 sin θ + 2 2
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2

3 Laplace’s Equation
In electrostatics, we would like to find the electric field. Often, it is easier to find the
potential:
1
∇2 V = − ρ
0
Poisson’s equation. Often, we face the situation where ρ is 0 on our region of interest, and
this reduces to Laplace’s Equation. Solutions to Laplace’s Equation, otherwise known as
harmonic functions, satisfy two nice properties:
1) The value of V is equal to the average of V in a ball centered at V , integrating either
over the surface of the ball or the volume of the ball.
2) V has no local maxima or minima, they all occur on the boundaries.
3) (First uniqueness theorem) There is a unique harmonic function in an open connected
set if you specify its value on the boundary.
4) (Second uniqueness theorem) Suppose I have some conductors; and specify the charges
on these conductors. The potential is uniquely defined; even if I don’t know the distribution
of the charge on each conductor.

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4 Method of Images
When we have conductors; we require the potential to be constant along the surface of the
conductor. Physically; charge will distribute itself on the surface to ensure that this happens.
How do we calculate the effect of this surface charge? Well; we ignore it, and guess some
’image charges’ that live within the conductor that force the potential on the surface of
the conductor to be constant. Then; outside the conductor, by the uniqueness theorem our
electric field is legit! Our induced surface charge is:
∂V
σ = −0
∂n
Recall that the energy stored in our electric fields is:
Z

W = E 2 dτ
2
Do not naively think that the energy from our system is equal to the energy of the charge/image
charge pairs. The electric field doesn’t exist within the conductor; so you actually need to
carry out the integral above to be sure.

5 Separation of Variables
The idea behind separation of variables is to choose nice coordinates qi , and then write your
potential:
V = Q1 (q1 )Q2 (q2 )...Qn (qn )
Then, when you put this into Laplace’s equation; you get a whole bunch of equations that
look like:
1 d2 Q1 1 d2 Qn
= C 1 ; ... = Cn
Q1 dq12 Qn dqn2
Obviously; this is more intimidating than it is; we usually are dealing with 2 or 3 dimensions.
Anyhow, these lead to exponential or oscillatory solutions. We determine which it is by
looking at the boundary conditions. Often; at the end, we are left with an infinite number of
solutions that we need to ’paste together linearly’ to fit the boundary conditions; by means
of Fourier series. As an example, if we end with something like:
X
V (y) = Cn sin(nπy/a)

then Z a
a
V (y)dy = Cn
0 2
Of course, there is nothing limiting us to separation of variables in cartesian coordinates.
We can use spherical coordinates as well, then laplaces equation reads:

∂ 2V
   
1 ∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1
r + sin θ + =0
r2 ∂r ∂r r2 sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r2 sin2 θ ∂φ2

3
Now, often we find azimuthal symmetry (independence of φ), and when we separate out our
equations we set the r part equal to l(l + 1) and the theta part to negative that. The r part
has solution:
B
R(r) = Arl + l+1
r
The theta part is not so simple, its solution are the legendre polynomials

Θ(θ) = Pl (cos θ)

We have normalized so that Pl (1) = 1. Note that the Legendre polynomials are orthogonal,
with: Z 1
2
Pl Pl dx =
−1 2l + 1

6 Multipole Expansion
Our primary goal is to study fields far from source. Notation is crucial in this section. We
always define r to be the vector pointing to the point of interest (where we want the field),
r0 will be the vector to our charge (that we integrate over all of space), θ0 will be the angle
between r and r0 , and r̃ will be the distance between our charge and our point of interest.
Note that we find: ∞  n
1 1 X r0
= Pn (cos θ0 )
r̃ r n=0 r
Substituting this into our formula for the potential, we find that:
 Z Z Z 
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0
V (r) = ρ(r )dτ + 2 r cos θ ρ(r )dτ + 3 (r ) P2 (cos θ)ρ(r )dτ ...
4π0 r r r

This is our multipole expansion! (monopole, dipole, quadrapole, octopole, and so on). Note
that the dipole moment part can be ’simplified’, in that

r0 cos θ0 = r̂ · r0

so Z
1 1
Vdip (r) = r̂ · r0 ρ(r0 )dτ 0
4π0 r2
The integral is known as the dipole moment. Its good to note that the origin changes our
multipole moments; but lowest moment is alays preserved; independent of choice of origin.
You think why.
Let’s think about the lowest nontrivial thing, a dipole. The potential and electric fields:
p cos θ
V =
4π0 r2
p
E= (2 cos θr̂ + sin θθ̂)
4π0 r3