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Z-Transforms: Definition of The Z-Transform
Z-Transforms: Definition of The Z-Transform
z-Transforms
Example: x [ n ] = 2δ [ n ] + 3δ [ n – 1 ] + 5δ [ n – 2 ] + 2δ [ n – 3 ]
• By inspection we find that
–1 –2 –3
X ( z ) = 2 + 3z + 5z + 2z
–2 –3 –4
Example: X ( z ) = 4 – 5z +z – 2z
• By inspection we find that
x [ n ] = 4δ [ n ] – 5δ [ n – 2 ] + δ [ n – 3 ] – 2δ [ n – 4 ]
M M
–k
∑ z
bk δ [ n – k ] ↔ ∑ bk z
k=0 k=0
jω̂
– Note if z = e , we in fact have the frequency response
result of Chapter 6
• The system function is an Mth degree polynomial in complex
variable z
• As with any polynomial, it will have M roots or zeros, that is
there are M values z 0 such that H ( z 0 ) = 0
– These M zeros completely define the polynomial to within
a gain constant (scale factor), i.e.,
–1 –M
H ( z ) = b0 + b1 z + … + bM z
–1 –1 –1
= ( 1 – z1 z ) ( 1 – z2 z ) … ( 1 – zM z )
( z – z1 ) ( z – z2 ) … ( z – zM )
= --------------------------------------------------------------
M
z
where z k, k = 1, …, M denote the zeros
Example: Find the Zeros of
1 1
h [ n ] = δ [ n ] + --- δ [ n – 1 ] – --- δ [ n – 2 ]
6 6
• The z-transform is
1 –1 1 –2
H ( z ) = 1 + --- z – --- z
6 6
1 –1 1 –1
= ⎛ 1 + --- z ⎞ ⎛ 1 – --- z ⎞
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠
1 1
= ⎛ z + ---⎞ ⎛ z – ---⎞ ⁄ z
2
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
Unit-Delay Operator
x[n] Unit
y[n] = x[n – 1]
Delay
x[n] –1
z
Cascading Systems
• We have seen cascading of systems in the time-domain and
the frequency domain, we now consider the z-domain
Factoring z-Polynomials
• Multiplying z-transforms creates a cascade system, so factor-
ing must create subsystems
–1 –2 –3
Example: H ( z ) = 1 + 3z – 2z +z
• Since H ( z ) is a third-order polynomial, we should be able to
factor it into a first degree and second degree polynomial
• We can use the MATLAB function roots() to assist us
>> p = roots([1 3 -2 1])
p = -3.6274
0.3137 + 0.4211i
0.3137 - 0.4211i
–1
H 1 ( z ) = 1 + 3.6274z
–1
H 2 ( z ) = ( 1 – ( 0.3137 + j0.4211 )z )
–1
( 1 – ( 0.3137 – j0.4211 )z )
–1 –2
= 1 – 0.6274z + 0.2757z
• The cascade system is thus:
x[n] –1 w [ n ] –1 –2 y[n]
1 + 3.6274z 1 – 0.6274z + 0.2757z
X(z) W(z) Y(z)
H1 ( z ) H2 ( z )
Deconvolution/Inverse Filtering
• In a two subsystems cascade can the second system undo the
action of the first subsystem?
• For the output to equal the input we need H ( z ) = 1
• We thus desire
1 -
H 1 ( z )H 2 ( z ) = 1 or H 2 ( z ) = -------------
H1 ( z )
–1
Example: H 1 ( z ) = 1 – az , a < 1
• The inverse filter is
1
1 - = ------------------
H 2 ( z ) = ------------- -
H1 ( z ) 1 – az
–1
• An M + 1 term approximation is
M
k –k
H2 ( z ) = ∑ a z
k=0
– Recall the deconvolution filter of Lab 8?
ω̂
Re
ω̂ = ± π ω̂ = 0
z = –1 z = 1
unit circle
z = –j
π
ω̂ = – ---
2
jω̂
• From this interpretation we also can see why H ( e ) is peri-
odic with period 2π
– As ω̂ increases it continues to sweep around the unit circle
over and over again
3
Re
z1
z3
–1 –2 –3
Example: H ( z ) = 1 + 2z + 2z +z
• MATLAB has a function that supports the creation of a pole-
zero plot given the system function coefficients
>> zplane([1 2 2 1],1)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
Imaginary Part
0.2
3
0
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Part
Nulling Filters
• The special case of zeros on the unit circle allows a filter to
null/block/annihilate complex sinusoids that enter the filter at
frequencies corresponding to the angles the zeros make with
respect to the real axis in the z-plane
H(z) = ⎛1 – e 0 z ⎞ ⎛1 – e 0 z ⎞
jω̂ – 1 – jω̂ – 1
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
⎧⎨
⎩
⎧
⎨
⎩
z1 z2
ω̂ 0 = π
1 Input
(blue) ---
0.8 4
0.6
Amplitude of x[n] and y[n]
0.4
0.2
0
Output
−0.2 (red)
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time Index − n
0.8
0.6
π
0.4
ω̂ 0 = ---
4
Imaginary Part
0.2
2
0
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Part
2
2
1
1
0
2 0
1
Re
z-Plane 0 1
Magnitude 1
Surface 2
2
>> zplane([ones(1,9)]/9,1)
9-Tap Moving Average FIlter
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
Imaginary Part
0.2
8
0
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
−1
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Part
>> w = -pi:(pi/500):pi;
>> H = freqz([ones(1,9)/9],1,w);
1
|H(ejω)|
0.5
0
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
2
∠ H(e )
jω
−2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
hat(ω)
Useful Filters
The L-Point Moving Average Filter
• The L-point moving average (running sum) filter has
L–1
1
y [ n ] = ---
L ∑x[n – k] (7.26)
k=0
z-Plane
2π
------
L
L-1
Pole-zero
cancellation
occurs here
L = 8 shown
...
ω̂
0 2π 4π π
------ ------
L L
–1 –2 –3 –4
Example: H ( z ) = b 0 + b 1 z + b2 z + b1 z + b0 z
–2
• By factoring out z we can write
2 –2 1 –1 –2
H ( z ) = [ b 0 ( z + z ) + b 1 ( z + z ) + b 2 ]z
jω̂
• We now move to the frequency response by letting z → e
jω̂ – jω̂4 ⁄ 2
H ( e ) = [ 2b 0 cos ( 2ω̂ ) + 2b 1 cos ( ω̂ ) + b 2 ]e
• Note that here we have M = 4 , so we see that the linear
– jω̂M ⁄ 2
phase term is indeed of the form e and the real func-
jω̂
tion R ( e ) is of the form
jω̂
R ( e ) = b 2 + 2 [ b 0 cos ( 2ω̂ ) + b 1 cos ( ω̂ ) ]
1
-----
z-Plane z *0
z0
z *0
–1 –2 –3 –4
Example: H ( z ) = 1 – 2z + 4z – 2z +z
>> zplane([1 -2 4 -2 1],1)
1.5
0.5
Imaginary Part
4
0
−0.5
−1
−1.5