NIOSH

National for Occupational Safety and Health

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, back injuries are responsible for more lost work time than any
other musculoskeletal injury. Moreover, of injuries occurring to the lower back, 3 out of 4 occurred while
the employee was lifting. The frequency and economic impact of back injuries and disorders on the
workforce are expected to increase over the next several decades as the average age of the workforce
increases and medical costs go up.

NIOSH has developed a mathematical model that helps predict the risk of lifting-related injuries. The
lifting equation defines a recommended weight limit (RWL) for specific lifting tasks that most workers
could perform over an eight-hour day without increasing the risk of developing lower back pain.
The NIOSH lifting equation always uses a load constant (LC) of 51 pounds, which represents the
maximum recommended load weight to be lifted under ideal conditions. From that starting point, the
equation uses several task variables expressed as coefficients or multipliers (In the equation, M =
multiplier) that serve to decrease the load constant and calculate the RWL for that particular lifting task

RWL = LC x HM x VM x DM x AM x FM x CM

The equation is based on a model that provides a unit value for six task variables:
 RULA

(Rapid Upper Limb Assessment)

A single page worksheet is used to evaluate required body posture, force, and repetition. Based on the
evaluations, scores are entered for each body region in section A for the arm and wrist, and section B for
the neck and trunk. After the data for each region is collected and scored, tables on the form are then
used to compile the risk factor variables, generating a single score that represents the level of MSD risk.
The RULA was designed for easy use without need for an advanced degree in ergonomics or expensive
equipment. Using the RULA worksheet, the evaluator will assign a score for each of the following body
regions: upper arm, lower arm, wrist, neck, trunk, and legs. After the data for each region is collected and
scored, tables on the form are then used to compile the risk factor variables, generating a single score
that represents the level of MSD risk as outlined below:

The evaluator should prepare for the assessment by interviewing the worker being evaluated to gain an
understanding of the job tasks and demands, and observing the worker’s movements and postures during
several work cycles. Selection of the postures to be evaluated should be based on:

1. The most difficult postures and work tasks (based on worker interview and initial observation),
2. The posture sustained for the longest period of time, or
3. The posture where the highest force loads occur.
 OWAS
Ovako Working posture Analysis System

OWAS, short for Ovako Working Posture Analysing System, is somewhat similar to REBA and RULA in
that it provides a figure indicating how harmful a posture is. OWAS was created in the mid-1970s by
Ovako Oy, a private steel company in Finland. Since it originated in the steel industry, the method was
initially designed with heavy lifting in mind. OWAS uses a four-digit code to describe various postures and
force combinations (Table 1). The codes include four trunk postures, three arm postures, seven leg
postures (three additional leg postures are included in the extended OWAS, but are not used here), and
three variants of force. Taking these four (trunk, arms, legs, and force) code levels into account, OWAS
has 252 (4 × 3 × 7 × 3) basic combinations of code levels. Furthermore, OWAS classifies the risk of injury
based on working posture into the following four action categories (AC):

AC 1: postures are normal and natural with no particular harmful effect on the musculoskeletal system, no
action is required
AC 2: postures have some harmful effect on the musculoskeletal system, corrective actions are required
in the near future
AC 3: postures have a distinctly harmful effect on the musculoskeletal system, corrective actions should
be done as soon as possible
AC 4: postures have an extremely harmful effect on the musculoskeletal system, immediate corrective
actions for improvement are required.