Introduction to Applied Geophysics

• Non-mathematical - but you will still need your calculators!!!

• Basic Principles
• Applications

Relevant Text
• Milsom: Field Geophysics, 1996. Open University Press.
• Kearey and Brooks: An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration., Blackwell
Science 1991(ISBN 0-632-02923-4).
• Telford, Geldhart, Sheriff & Keys: Applied Geophysics,1990. Cambridge
University Press
• Reynolds: An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics. Wiley
1997. (ISBN 0-471-95555-8)
Relevant Journals
• Geophysics
• Geophysical Prospecting
• Applied Geophysics
• Environmental and Engineering Geophysics
Other Relevant information Sources
• CSM see: http://magma.mines.edu/fs_home/tboyd/GP311/
• crb at St. Andrews Geoscinece web site
 Applications

• Engineering
• Environmental
• Groundwater,
• Mining
 Geophysical Targets - Environmental
Problems for environmental engineers
•where did all those nasty contaminants go to?
•what will happen if there is a leak here?
•how can I design a contamination safety plan

Targets for environmental engineers

•Confining layers
•Barriers to water/contamination
•Fractured Bedrock
•Coarse channel fill
•Weathered bedrock
•Perched/permanent water tables IN SUMMARY
•High porosity/permeability confined •Rock Type
units •Rock Fabric
•Geometry
•Fluid Content
 Geophysical Targets - Mining
Problems mining engineers
•where is the primary resource
•How large is the primary resource
•How difficult is it to extract the primary resource
•How can the primary resource be extracted in an
environmentally sensitive manner

Targets for mining engineers

•Depth to target,size of target
•Physical nature of target
•Overlying material type and structure
•Perched/permanent water tables

IN SUMMARY
•Rock Type/mineral type
•Rock Fabric
•Geometry
•Fluid Content
 Geophysical Targets - Engineering
Problems for Engineers
• How strong is the rock/soil
• How easily can it be
removed/dug into

Targets for engineers

•Depth to bedrock
•Fractured Bedrock
•Coarse channel fill
•Weathered bedrock
•Perched water tables
•High porosity/permeability confined IN SUMMARY
units •Rock Type
•Rock Fabric
•Geometry
•Fluid Content
 Geophysical Targets - Groundwater

Ideal Well Typical Well

• High Flow rate • Variable Flow rate
• Good Quality • Variable Quality
• Sustainable Yield • Seasonal (intermittent) Yield
• Shallow (ish) Depth • Medium to Deep

Targets for hydrogeologists and Targets parameters for geophysics

geologists •Porosity - primary and secondary
•Fractured Bedrock •Density -
•Coarse channel fill •Pore fluid - amount and type
•Weathered bedrock
•Perched water tables
•High porosity/permeability confined IN SUMMARY
units •Rock Type
•Rock Fabric
•Geometry
•Fluid Content
 Typical Well Locations - Geophysical Targets
Common Well Conditions
1. Shallow perched aquifer in alluvium or weathered bedrock, discontinuous flow rate
2. Deep aquifer, seasonal recharge
3. Bedrock aquifer, sustainable yield, low flow rate
4. Bedrock aquifer, sustainable yield, high flow rate

3
Perched WT 2
3/4 1 1 4

WT

Fracture zone

Weathered Clay Alluvium Sand and Gravel Granite

horizons
 Global
Scale

Regional

Local/ Field
Scale
Hand
Scale specimen
Microscopic
Field Scale
clay rich
channeling
weathering secondary
fracturing

fracturing sand rich

Micro Scale
 Factors influencing Porosity - fabric

Packing
100Vv
n=
Vt
 ρb 
n = 1001 − 
Porosity = 47.65%  ρd  Density
(rock type)
Where is important
Vv - void volume
Vt - total volume
b - bulk density
d - particle density

Porosity = 25.95%
 Factors influencing Porosity - fabric

Shape

mixed grain sizes

reduce porosity

Fabric
(rock type)
is important
 Factors influencing Density

Mineral Type

Different minerals
have different
densities

Density of minerals
(rock type)
is important
 Factors influencing Strength and Geophysical Signatures
In homogeneous, isotropic media the velocities of compression and
shear waves can be described in simple terms of elastic modulii and
density.
(4 µ + k) µ
Vp = 3 Vs =
ρ ρ
∆P
Bulk Modulus (k)- incompressibility of the medium k=
∆v / V
Shear Modulus( µ ) - resistance to shearing; shear stress/shear strain. Note
that from the above equations, it is implied that fluids and gases do not
allow the propagation of S waves. τ
µ=
ε
Any changes in the shear or bulk modulii or the density will therefore
cause a change in shear and compression velocity
 Factors influencing Porosity - cements & fracturing
Secondary Porosity -
NB these diagenetic changes also affect the material strength

Cementation
Fracturing e.g. calcite, dolomite, silica

Diagenesis
(rock type)
is important
 Hydrogeological factors of geophysical interest

Specific yield - ratio of the volume of water that drains from a

saturated rock owing to attraction of gravity, to the total
rock volume (Sy)
Specific retention - ration of water retention to total rock
volume (Sr)

specific retention

specific yield

100Vv  ρb 
Porosity, n = Sy + Sr, also remember n= , n = 100 1 − 
Vt  ρd 
 Hydraulic Conductivity and Specific Yield
Specific Yield in % (after Fetter)
Material Maximum Minimum Average
Clay 5 0 2
Sandy Clay 12 3 7
Silt 19 3 18
Fine sand 28 10 21
Medium sand 32 15 26
Coarse sand 35 20 27
Fine gravel 35 21 25
Medium gravel 26 13 23
Coarse gravel 26 12 22
 Other Geophysical Properties

• Thermal conductivity
• Radioactivity
 Newton’s Second Law of Gravitation (motion)

However, when measuring the Earth’s gravity we measure the

acceleration (g) resulting from the gravitational attraction.
Newton’s Second Law
Force is proportional to acceleration

F = m2 g
Thus from 1) and 2)

Gm1
g= 2
r
G=6.67x10-11Nm2kg-2
 Magnetic Fundamental Principles -
Couloumb’s Equation

The expression for magnetic force experienced between two magnetic

monpoles is given by

1 ρ1 ρ2
Fm =
µ r 2

where µ is the magnetic permeability, p1and p2 are the strengths of two

magnetic monopoles
Note similarity with Newton’s Universal
Gravity Law
Gm1m2
Fg = 2
r
 Electrical Resistivity - Conductivity
Ohm’s Law
Empirical relationship between the current (I) flowing through a wire, of
resistance R and the voltage potential (V) required to propagate the
current.
V = IR

Further
L
R ∝
A
where L is the length and A the cross sectional area of wire.
However, as we are not concerned with wires in the Earth, and electrical
current is not constrained, the resistivity, ρ of a material is a more
useful concept where.

ρ = RA or ρ = VA
L IL
 Summary of Geophysical Target Properties

• Density
• Magnetic Susceptibility
• Rock Type
• Velocity (p and s wave)
• Pore (fluid) Content
• Attenuation
• Geometry
• Resistivity
• Relative Dielectric Constant
 Geophysics

The Study of the Earth Using Quantitative Physical Methods

Remote Insight into the Earth

 Objectives of Geophysical Investigation

• Remotely map changes in subsurface geologic and hydrogeologic

conditions
• Optimise locations for drilling wells
• Recognize and map economic resources
• Extend “Ground Truth” knowledge from boreholes into formations

Geophysical applications
• Whole Earth Geophysics - Classical Geophysics
• Exploration Geophysics - measure specific physical properties of the
earth to determine subsurface conditions and typically locate an
economic resource (typically oil, gas and minerals but also includes
water)
• Characterization Geophysics - remotely map changes in subsurface
geologic, engineering and hydrogeologic conditions (map distribution
and properties of aquifers and aquicludes)
 Exploration, Groundwater and Environmental Geophysics

Exploration Characterization

Oil and Gas Groundwater Environmental

• Structural Highs • Structural Lows • Structural Lows
• Reservoir Seals • Reservoir Seals & • Reservoir Leaks
leaks
• High porosity- • High porosity- • Low porosity-
permeability permeability permeability
formations formations formations
• Station spacing • Station spacing 1- • Station spacing <3m
>25m 25m
• Resolution 5-15m • Resolution 0.5-10m • Resolution 0.5-2m
• Seismic Reflection • Multi-technique • Multi-technique
dominant
• Targets 1-6km • Targets 10m-1.5km • Targets 1m-500m

Adapted from Steeples

 Geophysics doesn’t/didn’t Work!!

The geophysical methods are/were not used in an appropriate

manner/setting

Key points
• Geophysics is just another tool to help solve geologic/hydrogeologic
problems
• Geophysics measures physical parameters that must be interpreted in
terms that the end user will understand
• There is rarely a unique geophysical solution
• To ensure success, every geophysical survey must be conducted within
an appropriate geologic framework
 Geophysical Methods

Active
• Artificially generate a signal
• Transmit this through the Earth
and record changes to signal
e.g.
– Seismic reflection and
refraction surveying
– Direct current electric methods
– controlled source
electromagnetics
Passive
• Detect variations in natural
fields associated with Earth
e.g.
– Gravity surveying
– Magnetic surveying
 Geophysical Methods and Physical Properties

Method Property Major Influence Typical Ranges

Electrical & Electrical Lithology (clay 104 (sea water) to 10-4 (dry sand)
Electromagnetic Conductivity content) millimohs/m
(resistivity) Moisture (dissolved
solids)
Gravity Density Lithology (magnetic 0 (air filled void) to 1 (sediments) to 3
mineral) (massive rocks) gm/km

Magnetic Magnetic Lithology (mineral, 10-6 (sediments) to 102 (iron alloys)

Susceptability porosity)
Seismic Seismic Lithology (porosity, 102 (soil) to 104 (massive rocks) m/sec
velocity/attentuation saturation, pressure)
Ground Dielectric constant Lithology, 10 (ice) to 102 (water)
Penetrating watercontent,
Radar density

Note: Geophysics measures properties that are not unique

to a particular soil or rock type!
 The Geophysical Survey - Budget

• Staffing
• Operating Costs
– general logistics - non-specific equipment, transportation, access,
damages, politics, social constraints,
– geophysical equipment - cost of rental, depreciation
• Insurance - liability
• Overhead - administrative, consumables
• Development - skills, software
• Contingencies - something unplanned for will always happen!
 Planning a Survey
Define Objectives

•Resolution Desk Top Survey Recommend No Geophysics

•Cultural factors Cost evaluation
•Cost
•QA/QC
•Safety Select Geophysics Methodology
•Data reduction

Forward Model Site Check Recommend No Geophysics

BAD

Field Operations GOOD

plan Survey Design
•Line/Station/Grid
Processing/interp
•Integration
Data Collection, Processing, Interpretation

Data Integration, Presentation and Recommendation

 Data Reduction - Data Processing - Data Presentation
How is data to be reduced?
• Computer aided?
• Hand analysis and drafting?
How is data to be processed?
• Computer aided?
• Don’t collect more data than you can process - this is a great
temptation with digital acquisition
How is data to be interpreted?
• If computer aided interpretations used are the results
geologically/hydrogeologically realistic?
• Contouring is a particular problem with some sparse data sets
Final data presentation?
• How will the information finally be presented? Can the data be
converted into a useable form for presentation to the client?
 Noise
•Coherent - systematic noise that can be filtered e.g. power line
•Incoherent - random noise that can be stacked e.g. wind
 Noise Sources

Dynamic Static
• Electrical power • Buried pipes
Cultural (manmade) • Radio transmitters • Drains
• Vehicle • Foundations

• Rain • Any geologic-

• Wind hydrogeologic noise
Natural • Wave not related to target
• Electrical Storms
• Magnetic Storms
Noise Sources
 The Geophysical Survey - Typical Survey Types
Sounding - 1D
• measure variation in properties (usually with depth) at one physical
location on surface, e.g. electrical sounding giving “borehole like”
result
Profiling - 2D
• measure variation in properties along the surface of a 2D cross section
• must consider line orientation (usually perpendicular to anticipated
major anomaly or strike of target)
Mapping - 2 ½D
• usually involves extrapolating between a number of parallel profiles
• join all points of equal value with isolines (equivalent to contours on a
map)
Mapping - 3D
• grid of survey points simultaneously recording (live) for every source
initiation
4D - 3D
• 3D data acquired using time lapse
 Resolution

Critical to all types of survey is the issue of required survey resolution. This is a
function of sampling and can be either a time criteria or a distance criteria

• Station spacing/station interval

too small: spatially undersampled
lead to spatial aliasing
too small: waste time and money
• line interval lead to issues of
spatial aliasing too large: miss target completely

Rule of Thumb
Geophysical signature (anomaly) typically at least twice actual size of feature.
 Spatial Aliasing Aliased (undersampled)

• (spatial) loss of high frequency

information

2D - True Profile Data Optimally sampled

Oversampled

3D example - “Bulls Eye” Effect

 Data Interpretation and Presentation
Qualitative
• Pattern recognition
– Can be applied to any data (property) set
– Correlate a certain geologic (hydrogeologic) condition with a geophysical
character or range or values.
– Change in values is usually the important criteria
– Target will not be identified if the variations in properties of the
background material are similar in contrast and scale to those associated
with the target.
Quantitative
• inversion
• numerical modeling
• neural networks
 Line Profiling - 2D data
30

20

10

30

Fracture Zone
20

10

EM 34 Horizontal Coils, 20m spacing

EM 34 Vertical Coils, 20m spacing
0

Linear position
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3D Relief