Female Coaches’ Perspectives 1

Female Coaches’ Perspectives

Joys and Challenges

Janna LaFountaine

College of Saint Benedict and Saint John’s University

Sam Johnson

Saint John’s University

RUNNING HEAD: Female Coaches’ Perspectives

 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 2

Abstract

While there is sizable data on college coaches, there is a clear need for research on

coaches at the high school level. The goal of this study was to highlight perceived challenges and

barriers of being a female high school coach, as well as shed light on some of the many joys of

coaching.

This study used an anonymous survey which produced results that included females

feeling a general lack of respect from parents, administrators, officials, and peer coaches.

Additionally, major coaching challenges were dealing with the ‘old boys’ club’, as well as

honoring family commitments. Coaches provided extensive comments about positive aspects of

coaching such as being a good role model, sharing a passion for the game, teaching life lessons,

and empowering young women. Our research showed that while there are clear and significant

challenges for women coaches, there are also powerful positive aspects that often outweigh the

negative.
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 3

Introduction

“When I went to Australia in 2002 with the Under 19 England side, I had a male

manager. Whichever ground we turned up to, the host would automatically go to my male

manager and ask what he wanted for the coaching session. I felt annoyed. It’s that automatic

preconception that the male is the coach and the woman is the one who does all the running

around.” (Anonymous, 2010, as cited in Norman, 2010, p. 512) This experience is not an

uncommon one for female coaches despite the steady rise in the number of females participating

in sports as athletes.

Since the passing of Title IX, female participation in sport has skyrocketed (Acosta &

Carpenter, 2014). In stark contrast the number of female head coaches has decreased

dramatically, women held more than 90% of collegiate head coaching jobs of women's sports

teams prior to the enactment of Title IX, and since then, that number has dropped to around 43%

(Acosta & Carpenter, 2014). Therefore, as playing opportunities have increased for women

across sport, coaching opportunities have become few and far between. Blackshear (2016)

attributes this decrease in female coaches to an increase in competitiveness and value in

women’s sports. Further, as women’s sports have gained legitimacy and value in the eyes of the

public, more men are interested in coaching female teams (Blackshear, 2016). While it has

become increasingly normal and accepted for women to participate competitively in sport,

positions of power like head coach, are still associated with men (Blackshear, 2016).

While there has been a dramatic decline in the overall number of women coaches across

all ages, many women are beginning to feel more support/acceptance in the coaching profession

(Abrell, 2009). Several women coaches were interviewed by Abrell (2009) and they expressed

that they felt supported. While these coaches felt supported, others do not always feel the same
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 4

amount of acceptance. Many women coaches feel that in order to reach acceptance, they are

constantly expected to ‘prove’ themselves to male counterparts (Norman, 2010). Once the

administrators, peer coaches and athletes, realize that these female coaches are experienced,

knowledgeable and deserving of the said coaching position, they come to support them (Norman,

2010).

Despite the strong contingent of women coaching girls (around 43%), only 2-3% of

men's collegiate teams are coached by women (Acosta & Carpenter, 2014). Acosta and

Carpenter (2014) report that there are a record number of women playing sports, so why is there

not a larger percentage of women coaching across sports and different levels of play? Research

suggests that there are a variety of factors that play a role in the low number of female coaches.

One primary theme is that women are often forced to leave or avoid coaching altogether

due in part to familial expectations/commitments (Dixon & Bruening, 2007; Norman & Rankin-

Wright, 2016, Abele & Spurk, 2016). According to Abele and Spurk (2011), women’s

success/access to upward mobility in any given career is largely dependent on when she has

children. If this is the case for ‘typical’ careers, it makes perfect sense that a woman’s ability to

coach could be severely impacted by parenting duties. According to Dixon and Bruening (2007),

an effective [college] coach must be ready and willing to work, “12 hour days, 6 days a week, for

50 weeks a year” (p. 384). These long hours tend to be quite dissonant with the socio-cultural

expectations often assigned to women which typically include acting as the primary caretaker for

children (Dixon and Bruening, 2007). While some research suggests that men are beginning to

face new familial norms and expectations (Graham & Dixon, 2017), others show that women are

often still the ones “carry[ing] extra responsibility” (Dixon and Bruening, 2007, p. 396).
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 5

Another limiting factor is the lack of a strong community/network of other women

coaches. According to Walker & Bopp (2011), women coaches often do not feel as welcome as

their male counterparts in the athletic community. One female coach refers to and recognizes the

long-lasting social network of men in sport by saying, “Yeah it’s an old boys’ club. They

discriminate [against] women and aren’t thinking of hiring a female to be a coach.” (Walker &

Bopp, 2011, p. 56). This pre-existing social network of male coaches and administrators makes it

difficult for women to get their foot in the door or feel supported.

A lack of confidence or self-efficacy is another potential reason for the lack of female

coaches across sport. Cunningham, Sagas and Ashley (2003) conducted a study that found

current male assistant coaches had significantly higher levels of self-efficacy in terms of

coaching ability, than their female counterparts. More recently, Clopton (2015) found that male

coaches reported much higher levels of coaching confidence than their female counterparts.

Clopton (2015) continues to claim that, “it is low levels of coaching self-efficacy and coaching

expectations that drive away potential [female] coaching candidates” (p. 38). Blackshear (2016)

furthers this argument by stating that the values of coaching align neatly with the values most

often associated with masculinity. Confidence, toughness, and aggression are things expected

from men, while women are expected to maintain ‘feminine’ values like passivity, and beauty,

which can be incongruent with coaching (Blackshear, 2016).

Finally, a lack of administrative support has continued to be a reason for the lack of

female coaches across ages and sports. Massengale & Lough (2010) claimed that administrators

were often guilty of gender discrimination when hiring new coaches. Athletic administrators

often hire coaches based on subjective criteria, rather than utilizing “quantifiable criteria and

credentials” such as wins and losses or number of incoming recruits (Massengale &Lough, 2010,
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 6

p. 7). The use of subjective criteria makes it more difficult for one to prove gender

discrimination, and thus perpetuates the “male dominance” in athletic leadership (Massengale &

Lough, 2010, p. 6). Likewise, Acosta and Carpenter (2014) report that only 36.2% of athletic

administrative positions in the NCAA are held by women. Similarly, it is reported that athletic

programs with a female athletic director boast a female coaching percentage of 46.8%, while

athletic departments with a male athletic director consist of 43% female coaches on average.

(Acosta & Carpenter, 2014). Many women coaches feel both welcomed and supported by their

male administrators (Blom, Abrell, Wilson, Lape, Halbrook & Judge, 2011), however, multiple

pieces of research suggest that athletic administrators seek to hire coaches who look, act and

sound similar to them (Walker & Bopp, 2003).

So, all of these factors might lead one to question what it takes for a woman to get hired

for a coaching position. What skills, traits, and background must a woman possess in order to get

the job? The research suggests that there is often a specific formula necessary in order for a

woman to be hired as a coach. Blom, et al. (2011) argues that most women coaches were elite

athletes themselves. The expectation that female coaches need to have been ‘elite-level’ athletes,

is not present for their male counterparts (Blom, et al., 2011). In addition to elite-level playing

experience, most women coaches are required to attain advanced degrees and/or other high levels

of education, yet are often severely underrepresented in coaching education courses (Schlesinger

& Weigelt-Schlesinger, 2012). This same gendered exclusion can be seen in other disciplines,

too. Lanier, Tanner, and Guidry (2009) report that only 24.3% of accounting, economics,

management, and marketing college faculty are women. Kanter’s theory of positional access,

which addresses the “career option viability or positional access” can be used to address this

situation (as cited in Knoppers, Meyer & Ewing, 1991, p. 2). Because most leadership positions
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 7

in sport and sport education positions are filled by men, women do not see that profession as a

viable or accessible one (Knoppers, et al, 1991).

In addition to ‘elite-level’ playing experience and advanced levels of education, it is

notable that the vast number of female coaches are white. Thomas (2006) writes that while 42%

of NCAA women’s teams are coached by females, only 3% of them are black. When juxtaposed

with the previous criterion which focused on women being hired because of their elite-level

playing experience, this makes for an interesting discussion point. Thomas (2006) continues to

explain that 43.7% of female college basketball players are black, yet only 7.7% of women’s

basketball coaches are black. So, while administrators want to hire females who played sports at

a high level and have a high level of education, they appear to only hire the ones that are white.

While there are clear and significant barriers to women being given the opportunity to

coach, there has been marked improvement over recent years. College-level assistant coaching

opportunities are at their highest level ever with 56.7% of paid assistant coaches of women’s’

teams being female (Acosta & Carpenter, 2014). Additionally, there have been marginal

increases in the number of female head coaches of both men’s and women’s teams since 2012,

rising from 42.9% to 43.4% at the college-level (Acosta & Carpenter, 2014). Recent high school

examples includes basketball coaches, LaKenya Wright hired as the boy’s coach at an Alabama

high school (Bean, 2018) & Melissa Hager in Minnesota (Hess, 2018). While the statistics are far

from balanced and equitable, it is clear that women are making strides toward representation in

coaching.

Additionally, it is important to recognize that not all female coaches have encountered

discrimination or had scarring experiences when coaching. Abrell (2009) interviewed three

female coaches of male high school teams who all stated they felt extraordinary support from
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 8

peer coaches, athletes, administration and fans alike. Abrell (2009) also addressed the hiring

process, where one coach was recruited to the job and none felt slighted by administration.

Likewise, LaFountaine and Kamphoff (2016) found that most female coaches of male teams’

spoke highly of their experiences, said they enjoyed coaching their teams, and felt full support

from administration.

While there is a wealth of research which focuses on the experiences, challenges, and

perceived barriers of female coaches, there is a clear lack of research that focuses specifically on

high school coaches. Of the eighteen sources incorporated into this introduction, four focused

specifically on the experiences high school or youth sport coaches, ten focused specifically on

the experiences of college coaches, while four focused on a mixture of high school and college

experiences and/or pertained to other topics altogether (i.e. gender theory, business

management). Thus, there is a clear need for additional research which looks specifically at the

experiences of high school coaches.

Our research aims to expose some of the perceived barriers and frustrations of women

high school coaches, offer potential reasons why low numbers persist, as well as document

positive aspects of coaching high school sports. Quantitative data will highlight the level of

education, race and varied ages of female coaches in Minnesota, as well as the number of female

head coaches of male sports.

Method

An on-line survey comprised of open-ended and Likert scale questions was sent to the

participants to solicit the experiences and perceived barriers faced by women high school

coaches.

Participants:
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 9

Informed consent was provided by each participant via an electronic form prior to

gaining access to the on-line survey, which consisted of four general demographic questions,

twenty Likert scale statements (Matthews & Kostelis, 2011), and nine open-ended questions. 324

females who serve(d) as the head coach of a Minnesota high school team responded to the

survey. The mean age of the female coaches was 33 years old with a range of 22-67. Of the 324

coaches who responded, 95.7% (310) identified as Caucasian/white (see Figure A for complete

results).

Of the respondents, 97.6% (316) indicated they held a college degree (AA, B.A., B.S.)

(see Figure B for complete results).

 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 10

Participants reported coaching a variety of both male and female teams (see Figure C and

Figure D below for complete results).

 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 11

Survey Measures:

This survey and its format was adopted from LaFountaine and Kamphoff’s (2016) survey

which sought to address the experiences of female coaches of male high school teams. The

survey began with a series of demographic questions which included age, racial identity, gender

identity, level of education, sport(s) coached, years of coaching experience, and competition

history. The participants were asked to respond to a series of statements that aimed at identifying

the reasons for the lack of female coaches, as well as pinpointing potential discrepancies between

society’s view of male and female coaches. Participants responded to the statements on a Likert

scale of 1-5 with “1” indicating “strongly disagree” and “5” indicating “strongly agree”. Open-

ended questions were then posed focusing on experiences as a female coach, perceived barriers

faced, positive aspects of coaching, and student-athlete gender preference. Then, respondents
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 12

answered 16 statements aimed at identifying perceived barriers faced by women coaches.

Participants were asked to “indicate any additional comments” they had at the end of the survey.

Procedures:

A list of female high school head coaches was collected from the Minnesota State High

School League public website based on their name. Individuals with first names determined as

being “gender-neutral” (i.e. Sam, Pat) were included in the list, and emailed the survey. This

search led to a list of 1900 female head coaches. At this point, an email was sent to each coach

with an informed consent form, which upon agreement/completion, led to the survey itself.

Individuals who completed the survey and self-identified as “male” were then removed from the

data after the surveys were completed. A total of two emails were sent to the coaches

approximately two weeks apart to remind them to complete the survey. Participants did not

provide their name or any other identifying information when completing the survey, thus the

researchers were unable to link survey responses back to any individual. Survey responses were

recorded anonymously to Forms Manager, and then uploaded to SPSS and Microsoft Excel.

Only the two primary researchers had access to survey results. The methods used when

conducting this research were approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the College

of Saint Benedict and Saint John’s University.

Data Analysis:

Quantitative data was uploaded to SPSS in order obtain descriptive survey results.

Qualitative survey responses were read thoroughly by each of the two researchers and sorted

based on clearly distinguishable categorical themes. Credibility was established through the use

of triangulation, using both qualitative (open-ended questions) and quantitative questions, as well

as prolonged engagement which focuses on exposing oneself to the research data for long
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 13

enough that themes become clear (Matthews & Kostelis, 2011). Qualitative data was sorted by

using the "general inductive approach" (Thomas, 2006, p. 238), which focuses on drawing

general themes from commonalities seen throughout thedata. Additionally, ‘mind maps’ helped

sort through and draw connections between categorical themes (Whiting & Sines, 2012).

Quantitative Results

Of the respondents, .9% (3) had less than one year of coaching experience; 16.4% (53)

had 1-5 years of coaching experience; 25% (81) had 6-10 years of coaching experience, and

56.5% (183) had over eleven years of coaching experience.

In terms of playing experience, 97.5% (316) reported they competed as an athlete at the

high school level, 71.0% (230) competed as an athlete at the college level, 45.1% (146)

competed as an athlete on a club sport team, and 72.2% (234) competed on an intramural sports

team.

While most of the responses indicated they had participated as an athlete in sport, they

also indicated they tended to have more male coaches than females. As an athlete 2.2% (7) had

more than ten female coaches, 12.7% (41) reported they had 5-10 female coaches, 75.9% (246)

had 1-4 female coaches, and 7.1% (23) had never played under a female coach. In contrast, as an

athlete, 13.3% (43) had played for more than ten male coaches, 33.3% (108) had competed under

5-10 male coaches, 45.7% (148) had competed under 1-4 male coaches, and 5.9% (19) had never

had a male coach.

While the data suggests that females have played for more male coaches than females,

the numbers also suggest that athletes don’t have a preference when it comes to the gender

identity of their coach. Results showed, 74.7% (242) had no preference when it came to their
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 14

coach’s gender, 6.2% (20) preferred male coaches over females, and 17.9% (58) preferred a

female coach over a male.

When asked if they preferred to coach males or females, 8.0% (26) preferred to coach

male teams, 44.8% (145) preferred to coach girls, 12.0% (39) preferred mixed gender teams, and

41.4% (134) had no preference.

The majority of surveyed female coaches held more than one coaching position (head or

assistant) at their school. Of the responses, 68.2% (219) coached more than one sport, and 31.7%

(102) coached only one. Of all the responses, the average number of sports coached was 3.38,

with 174 indicating they coach ONLY girl’s teams (as a head or assistant coach), 142 coach both

a boys’, girls’, or co-ed team (as a head or assistant coach), and two coach ONLY boy’s teams

(as a head or assistant coach). Of the coaches who indicated they coach multiple sports (as head

or assistant), 100% (219) coached either a mixture of boy’s and girl’s teams, or girl’s teams

exclusively.

Finally, those that served as the head coach of a boys’ team, 80.4% (74) were the head

coach of the same sport’s girls’ team, 8.7% (8) coaches were an assistant to the same sport’s

girls’ team.

Likert Scale Questions

Participants were presented with a series of statements using a Likert scale. The first

series of statements focused on society’s view of coaches. Responses to these statements are seen

in in the table below:

Statement: Society’s View Favorably Unfavorably Neutral

How does society view males coaching male athletes? 97.5% 1.9% .6%
How does society view females coaching male athletes? 6.4% 68.6% 23.8%
How does society view males coaching female athletes? 87% 2.7% 11.3%
How does society view females coaching female athletes? 83.7% 3.7% 12.6%
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 15

Statement: Why so few women coaches? Agree Disagree Neutral

Athletic Directors are not recruiting/hiring women to coach 43.9% 28.4% 26.2%
Females are not applying for jobs coaching male sports 89.5% 4% 6.5%
Female coaches do not apply for jobs coaching men’s 71.3% 12.7% 15.4%
sports teams because they do not feel such job
opportunities are open to women
Women are not interested in coaching 15.7% 70.7% 12.1%
Women lack the qualifications to coach 4% 90.5% 5.5%
Female coaches receive lower salaries than men 36.5% 34.9% 28.1%
Homophobia plays a factor 29.1% 49.1% 33.3%
Sexual harassment is a factor 33.3% 37.1% 29.9%
Male athletes relate better to male coaches 44.4% 29.6% 25.3%
Parents believe male coaches are generally more qualified 66.4% 14.2% 17.9%
Women prefer to serve as assistant coaches instead of head 18.2% 60.8% 19.8%
coaches
Female coaches are not generally accepted as 60.8% 26.2% 12.0%
knowledgeable or skilled as male coaches
Women’s family obligations preclude them from accepting 67.3% 19.9% 11.4%
coaching positions
It is desirable to increase the number of female coaches in 89.2% 8.3% 2.5%
the Minnesota State High School League (MSHSL)

Notable discrepancies were found to be prevalent when it came to survey respondents’

perception on society’s view of coaches. For example, while 97.5% of the surveyed female

coaches felt that society viewed males coaching male teams as favorable, only 6.4% said that

society views female coaches of male teams favorably. When looking at girl’s teams, 83.7% of

respondents indicated that society views female coaches in a positive light, while 87% said that

society views males coaching these same teams positively.

Other notable results include the overwhelming perception that females are not applying

for coaching jobs of male sport teams. Here, 89.5% of respondents agreed with the statement.

Further, the majority of surveyed coaches felt that “female coaches do not apply for jobs

coaching men’s sports teams because they do not feel such job opportunities are open to

women”, to which 71.3% agreed, while only 12.7% disagreed.

 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 16

Additionally, when presented with the statement: “parents believe male coaches are

generally more qualified”, 66.4% agreed, 14.2% disagreed, and 17.9% remained neutral.

Similarly, surveyed coaches felt that, “female coaches are not generally accepted as

knowledgeable or skilled as male coaches”, 60.8% agreed, and only 26.2% disagreed.

Finally, when respondents were asked if they thought “it is desirable to increase the

number of female coaches in the Minnesota State High School League (MSHSL)”, 89.2% agreed

that it is desirable, while 8.3% disagreed.

Qualitative Results

Participants were asked a series of open-ended questions, and results were sorted by

categorical themes. Female coaches were asked which gender they prefer to coach and why.

Those who preferred coaching female athletes enjoyed the social and interpersonal aspects,

whereas those who preferred to coach boys spoke frequently of an increase in athletic intensity

level, and noticeably less “drama”. A girls’ volleyball head coach stated, “I feel there is more

focus on performance by males and more focus on feeling a part of something by females”.

Many respondents found it easier to relate to female athletes, which produced an increased

comfort level. Of those who responded neutrally, connecting with the athlete (regardless of

gender) was the most important thing to do as a coach.

Next, participants were asked to reflect on the hiring process by describing the

chronology of events that led to them being offered the coaching job. The majority of

respondents indicated they simply submitted an application, were then contacted for an

interview, and were offered the job. However, this process wasn’t a black and white one for all

of the respondents. One explained, “…I was hired by the head coach to take the boys JV soccer

team. This did not go well with the AD and I was called into a meeting…I was called back in
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 17

and shown the letter of response from the Superintendent that he wanted ‘Girls coaching girls’”.

Others stated that they previously served as an assistant coach, and were promoted when the

head coach departed. Another theme was being recruited or referred to the job by someone they

knew prior to the coaching vacancy. Finally, some of the female coaches indicated they were

simply assigned the coaching position as a supplement to their teaching duties.

Later in the survey, female coaches were asked to hypothesize how their job might be

different if their gender identity was male, not female. Here, many talked about newfound levels

of support and respect that would be gained from parents, administrators, and officials. One

boys’ swimming coach stated, “The discrimination and marginalization I have experienced as a

female head coach of boy[s] in a world of all other men coaches has been the biggest eye opener

challenge and disappointment of my experience…the old boys club rules”. Further, a girls’

volleyball coach stated bluntly, “I think males automatically get more respect or have a larger

natural intimidation factor”. A head coach of both boys’ and girls’ sports exposed a different

issue, saying, “I think I would gain more respect, but also being that I’m biracial and look

black…I would still face obstacles because of my race”. A secondary theme seen throughout the

responses was that the coaches did not believe their job would be different, or they were

completely unsure.

After that, survey participants were asked which gender they preferred to be coached by

(or no preference) and why. Those who indicated a preference for a female coach felt they had an

easier time connecting with their female coaches. One girls’ volleyball coach explained, “Female

coaches understand the emotions of female athletes. In my experience my female coaches were

positive motivators”. A secondary theme seen throughout the responses was female coaches

served as positive role models. Those who indicated they preferred a man coach felt male
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 18

coaches expected more, were harsher and held higher expectations than their female coaches.

One boys’ swimming head coach wrote, “I typically respond less emotionally and more

physically to tasks…The male coaches couldn’t deal with emotions and would push me harder,

which is what I personally needed”. Of those who had no preference when it came to their

coach’s gender, the primary theme was they wanted a competent and knowledgeable coach

above all else. The head coach of a dance team stated, “There are great aspects to both male and

female coaches. They just need to be trained in the sport they’re coaching, be patient,

considerate, positive [and] demanding…I don’t think gender has anything to do with being a

‘good’ coach or one that I would prefer”. Other secondary themes included having positive

experiences and relationships with coaches of both genders. Several responses admitted that they

did not feel qualified to answer the question, because they had so few, or no, female coaches

during their experience as an athlete.

Survey participants were asked to elaborate on whether or not they desired an “increase

in female coaches”, and 89.2% answered affirmatively. The primary theme was that it would

lead to a needed change in culture throughout the coaching profession and sport industry as a

whole. A boys’ swimming coach stated, “Strong women make the world a better place…Positive

influences from the other sex can make our relationships and collaboration much stronger”.

While a softball coach writes, “I think it can bring a lot of positives to the table in coaching

especially at the high school level where relationships with positive role models are crucial to

young people and development”. A secondary theme indicated no desire for an increase in

female coaches, and that gender should play no role in the hiring process of coaches. In defense

of this argument, a girls’ volleyball coach stated, “I don’t think it matters male or female. I think

skill and ability to relate to young men and women is important”.

 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 19

A key question exposed some of the perceived challenges and barriers experienced by

female high school coaches. The first primary theme was that respondents felt a general lack of

respect from officials, parents, and administrators in their coaching position. One girls’

basketball coach cited, “parent support, 50-year-old white male ADs and superintendents”, as

some of her main challenges as a female coach, while another furthered that by saying, “officials

give male coaches more ‘leeway’ than female coaches (unless both are females)”. The second

primary theme that emerged in the responses was that female coaches often felt difficulty

overcoming the “Old Boy’s Club” that dominates so much of the sporting industry and coaching

world today. Specifically, a head coach of both boys’ and girls’ swim teams said, “just simply

having a voice in male-dominated sports. I have to force myself to speak up every time I am at a

coaches meeting where I am the only female. Most of the time it’s just to prove that I am there

and have an opinion”. A third theme indicated family commitments as a perceived challenge to

maintaining a successful coaching career as a woman. One coach stated, “Balancing coaching

with family, many of the races are after school. As a mom of three kids, that means I need to do a

lot of creative scheduling to try and make sure my kids are supervised while I coach my team”.

To further this point, another explained, “I believe that many get out of coaching because they

choose family…I think females (especially moms) feel guilty and feel selfish if they choose to

keep coaching while raising a family”.

Finally, respondents were asked to offer insight on what they viewed to be the most

positive aspects of coaching. To this, a series of themes emerged from the responses which were:

serving as a positive role model, building a positive culture, empowering other young females,

teaching important life lessons, and sharing their love of the game with young athletes. One

girls’ gymnastics coach wrote, “making a culture where females are accepted. Helping athletes
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 20

thrive to be better as an athlete and person. Having a team and seeing them cheer for each other

no matter what”. Another respondent said, “Making a difference [in] the lives of young people.

Seeing the athletes light up when they master a skill or overcome adversity”.

Discussion

The intent of this research was to identify perceived challenges, obstacles, and barriers of

female coaches, as well as identify factors that impact the low number of female coaches across

sport, and provide suggestions for improving the number of female coaches. Finally, the research

sought to unearth the many positive and rewarding aspects of coaching.

Survey results produced a series of intriguing responses and answers to these research

questions. Both qualitative and quantitative responses offered some results that were consistent

with the existing research in this field. Of the similar results, perhaps none were as prevalent as

family commitment as a limiting factor for female coaches. Dixon and Bruening (2007)

conducted a study that focused on work-family conflict, and the impact motherhood can have on

female coaches. Here, they found that the majority of their respondents indicated they were ultra-

competitive and were initially driven to be successful coaches and mothers; yet over time, were

forced to prioritize family commitments over their coaching obligations (Dixon & Bruening,

2007). A similar theme emerged that indicated female coaches enjoyed their jobs, yet were often

limited in their ability to continue, thanks in part to their role as a parent. While no one would

argue against the importance of being a good parent, one might question why it is that women

are the ones who are being forced to sacrifice their jobs in favor of motherhood. Society seems to

have shifted at least partly away from some of the archaic social expectations that once dictated

society (Graham & Dixon, 2017), and some employers like the WNBA’s Phoenix Mercury are

making efforts to support the mothers on their payroll through initiatives like a “family room”
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 21

for kids to play in when their parents are working (Weinfuss, 2018). Still, it is without question

that there is serious work to be done in terms of a woman’s ability to work after they become a

parent.

Level of athletic playing experience also proved to be an area of correlation between the

existing literature and our results. Almost all of the respondents indicated they played in high

school, and the majority played their sport at the varsity level in college. Blom et. al (2011) also

found that many female coaches had elite-level playing experience listed on their resume. It

appears as though women need to possess extensive playing experience in their sport in order to

be hired.

Another area consistent with existing literature was a perceived level of disrespect cast

unto female coaches from officials, peer coaches, parents, and administrators. Existing research

focused extensively on the ‘Old Boys’ Club’ that controls much of the sports world today.

Norman (2010) found that women coaches felt the need to ‘prove’ themselves to male

counterparts in their athletic field. Further, Walker and Bopp (2003) found that athletic

administrators often hired individuals who looked, sounded, and acted as they did, which thanks

to the vast number of male athletic directors, excludes females from coaching positions. Our

results found that while women did not feel discrimination during the hiring process, they felt a

general lack of respect from administrators, as well as parents, officials, and peer coaches. When

speaking of administrative disrespect, responses talked about receiving fewer resources than

boys’ teams. In response to the disrespect felt from officials, respondents wrote about being

talked down to during games, and being assumed as being the assistant coach. Our respondents

spoke frequently of the ‘mansplaining’ which took place at the hands of many of the team

fathers, as well as a more broad-reaching perceived lack of support and confidence from all
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 22

parents. Additionally, when asked how their job would be different if they identified as a male,

respondents echoed one primary theme: respect. Noticeably missing from the list of those who

disrespected female coaches, were the athletes themselves. As a matter of fact, there were

numerous times in which respondents spoke glowingly of the respect given to them by their

athletes (for both male and female sports). Perhaps it is important for the adults to look to the

children for advice on how to handle themselves when interacting with a female coach.

Despite some consistencies, there were several inconsistencies or a lack of research

altogether on a series of themes throughout the survey results. To begin, while some pre-existing

research found there to be serious discrimination prevalent in the hiring processes of female

coaches (Massengale & Lough, 2010), very few of our respondents felt as though they were

discriminated against when hiring. Results showed the vast majority felt as though they were

given a fair opportunity to get the job, and would have received the same treatment if they were a

male. Now, it is unclear whether or not there have been real strides in this area, or if the results

are skewed because the only people who completed the survey were coaches who had already

been hired. The hope can be that every qualified female applicant is being interviewed fairly and

honestly, as seen to be a theme throughout our survey results.

Another area that was inconsistent with the existing literature was that many female

coaches lacked self-efficacy needed to be a successful coach. Cunningham, Sagas, and Ashley

(2003) found that male assistant coaches had higher levels of self-efficacy than their female

counterparts. Further, Blackshear (2016) draws a correlation between confidence/self-efficacy

and masculinity. Fortunately, self-confidence did not seem to be an issue for our survey

respondents, as the majority of respondents felt women were just as (or more) qualified for

coaching positions than their male counterparts.

 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 23

One area that was left largely uncovered in pre-existing research was whether or not

women coaches felt there should be more female coaches in the industry. When asked if it would

be desirable for there to be an increase in the number of female coaches across sport, the

overwhelming majority agreed it was. To this, two key positive benefits emerged: a positive

change in culture, and an influx of positive female role models. Our research displayed this

question as a rather black and white issue, which may be why there is a noticeable lack of

existing research surrounding it. However, if the hope is to increase the number of female

coaches throughout sport, it is essential that one asks this question in order to highlight the many

reasons why having a female voice in coaching is valuable.

Another area that was left out of prior research was that female coaches are often

expected to coach multiple sports. Our results showed that the majority of respondents were

involved in coaching more than one sport at their school. Respondents talked frequently of being

assigned to coaching multiple teams along with their teaching duties. The expectation that these

individuals are able to balance multiple varsity sports is unfair, and shows administrations lack

of support for girls’ athletics.

One survey question, which asked how many male and female coaches the respondents

had played under during her athletic competition days, exposed another issue not prevalent in

existing sport research. Of all responses, the vast majority had played under far more male than

female coaches, which is problematic when paired with Kanter’s theory of positional access,

which focuses on, “career option viability or positional access” (cited in Knoppers, et al, 1991, p.

2). Here, because females did not see women in coaching positions growing up, they do not see it

as a viable option or career choice. This theory partially explains the cycle which leads to men
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 24

perpetually being the ones applying for coaching positions, even when women are equally (or

more) qualified.

Next, an area that was left largely uncovered by the existing literature, were the many

positive aspects of coaching. When addressing some of the most rewarding aspects of being a

coach, our respondents spoke frequently of several key themes including: serving as a positive

role model, building a positive culture, teaching life lessons, empowering young women, and

sharing their love for the game. While many respondents offered lengthy comments to a number

of survey questions, responses were longest to the question focused on the positive and

rewarding aspects. The survey respondents wrote glowingly about things they felt were positive

aspects of coaching, pre-existing research largely failed to include these factors and experiences

altogether. If the goal of this research is at least in part to lead to a greater influx of female

coaches, it is imperative that the many positive aspects of coaching are exposed and presented.

This should be, and can be done without minimizing the persistent barriers and obstacles faced

by females throughout and beyond the sporting industry.

While our research led to important and credible findings, it was not without flaws. To

begin, when female coaches were asked to hypothesize how their job might be different if their

gender identity was male, not female. Although it was not the intention, some participants

interpreted this question as asking how their job would be different if they were a member of the

LGBTQI community, which slightly skewed the results. For example, in response to this

question one coach stated, “It is change, and there are some people that would not understand. I

am sure in a small town school you would lose players due to that”. While this is a fair and

honest answer, it appears as though it is not a response to the question we had intended.

Additionally, of all survey respondents, the large majority identified as white. It is unclear if this
 Female Coaches’ Perspectives 25

shows the large gap between the number of white and minority female coaches, or if we simply

did not have a large survey response return from non-white coaches. Either way, it can be

hypothesized that if there was a greater number of minority respondents, there may have been far

different results due to the addition of valuable new perspectives.

Finally, our research led to a series of potential areas for further research. First, while our

research focused solely on the responses of female coaches, it would be interesting to conduct a

similar study on male high school coaches, as there is a clear lack of existing research on this

topic. Additionally, a similar survey could focus on occupation, to determine how many coaches

are also teachers versus employed outside the district, as well as sort data based on urban and

rural locations.

It is our hope that these findings will educate and increase awareness about the everyday

challenges female coaches are forced to overcome. A primary goal of this research is to lead to

better retention and recruitment of female coaches across sport, as well as highlight the many

rewarding aspects of coaching. This research can be used most effectively by administrators,

officials, parents, and coaches to help foster a more inclusive environment for all who share a

passion for sport.

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