Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

12
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Permeability and Seepage -1

No. Module Contents
Permeability Permeability; Seepage force and effective

stress during seepage; Measurement of
and Seepage permeability in the laboratory and field;
M2 Laplace equations of fluid flow for 1-D, 2-D
and 3D seepage, Flow nets, Anisotropic and
non-homogeneous medium, Confined and
Unconfined seepage.

Fluid flow through soils - Motivation
The ability of engineers to understand and predict the

flow of fluids (usually water) in soils is essential for
many application in civil engineering.

Environmental Engineering Holding lagoon
Toxic liquid
At what rate is toxic liquid escaping the holding lagoon?

How long might it take the liquid to reach the ground water table?
What can be done to slow down the rate of escape of the pollutant?

Construction Engineering
Temporary sheet-pile wall cofferdam structure around

the site and to pump the water out….
Typical example of a
Cofferdam section 

Construction Engineering
Important questions that would need to be answered

are:
What will be the rate of water inflow to the site ?
Is it possible that the soil will liquify and endanger

construction workers?
Our objective is to gain an understanding of the

mechanics of fluid flow in soils so that engineering
problems of this type can eventually be addressed.
Fluid flow through soils
 Soils are assemblages of solid particles with

interconnected voids through which water can flow
from a point of high energy to a point of low energy.
The study of the flow of water through porous soil
media is important in soil mechanics:
1) Involving the rate at which water flows through
soil (i.e., determination of rate of leakage
through an earth dam)
2) Involving rate of settlement of a foundation
3) Involving strength (I.e. the evaluation of factor of
safety of an embankment)

Fluid flow through soils A
The Water does not flow from

point A to point B in a straight
line at constant velocity, but
rather in a winding path from
pore to pore.
Flow path – macroscopic scale 

B
Winding path or
tortuous path
Flow path – microscopic length 
According to Bernoulli’s equation, the total head at
a point in water under motion can be given by the
sum of pressure, velocity and elevation heads.
2
pw v
h= + +z
γw 2g
Pw/γw represents the pressure head of the fluid and has
unit of length

V2/2g represents the kinetic or velocity head of the fluid and
also has units of length. Since water flowing in typically has very
small velocities, the kinetic head or velocity head is typically
negligible compared to that of the pressure and elevation
heads. For this reason the velocity head is neglected in soil
mechanics.
Z represents the elevation w.r.t an arbitrary datum. The value is

the distance of the point at which head is being measured
above the datum. This can be either positive if the point is
above the datum, or negative if the point is below the datum.
pw
Therefore  h= +z
γw
Flow of water through soils
Water flows in soils only when there
is a gradient in head h. Lack of a
gradient in head implies that water is
not flowing
Whenever there is water flow in soils,
there is energy dissipation occurs
In soils, water or (permeant) always
flow down the gradient. That is, water Water flow in soils
flow from high energy regions to low
energy regions.
Gradient
Energy
in head h
dissipation

Example 1: Uniform head distribution in a soil deposit
h1
1
h2
H
z1 2
z2
Reference datum
As the total head H is identical flow wont take place

either from 1 to 2 or 2 to 1.
Example 2: Heads in static water in capillary tube
Elev. Pressure Total

1
Head Head Head
hc
1 hc -hc 0
2 0 0 0
Datum
2
Therefore, there is no flow of water

in this situation.

Fluid at rest in soil (No flow condition)
Pw < atmospheric pressure ⇒
-ve in the capillary zone
Moist or dry soil
Zone of capillary rise

GWT (saturated)
Pw = 0
z
Pw(z)=γwz
Saturated soil

 Fluid flows down the hydraulic
gradient, not necessarily downhill
p1/γw p2/γw
H1
Confined 2
aquifer
1
H2
Reference z2
z1 datum
Observe that H1 > H2. Therefore water flows down the

hydraulic gradient from point 1 toward point 2.
Flow of water through soils Flow
direction
Assumptions:
i) Soil is fully saturated,
ii) Frictionless boundaries
iii) Flow is laminar (i.e., Reynolds Number Re < 1)
Where:
ρ wvd10
Re = v = discharge velocity;
µw d10 = effective particle size;

µw = dynamic viscosity of water

ha > hb
∆h =ha -hb
pA/γw
C/S area A
hA
pB/γw
hB
ZA
ZB
Datum L

The head loss between two points can be given by:

∆h = hA – hB = (pA/γw + zA) – (pB /γw +ZB)
The head loss ∆h can be expressed in a non

dimensional form as:
∆h i = hydraulic gradient
i= L = Length of flow over which
L the loss of head occurred.

ZONE – III: Turbulent zone
Variation of discharge v
velocity with hydraulic
gradient  ZONE – II:
Transient zone
When i ↑ (gradually)
Flow remains in laminar in
Zone I and II and v bears a
linear relationship with i.
ZONE – I:
At higher i, flow becomes
Laminar Flow zone
turbulent.
In most soils, v ∝ i; In gravel and very coarse sands,

i
turbulent flow conditions may exist and v ∝ i is not valid.
Darcy’s law: After Darcy (1856)
A simple equation for the discharge velocity of water

through saturated soils, which may be expressed as:
v = ki k = coefficient of Permeability (m/s)
v = discharge velocity or superficial

Flow is through velocity, which is the quantity of water
pore spaces in soil flowing in unit time through a unit C/S area
and not through of soil at right angles to the direction of flow.
entire C/S area.
Formulated based on the observation of
flow of water through clean sands.
Darcy’s equation is usually combined with the
continuity equation.
∆h
q = vA = kiA = k A
L
q = Total rate of flow through the C/S area A

k = Darcy’s coefficient of permeability
(which is defined as ease with which flow
takes place through soil)

AV Seepage Velocity vs
v
AV WATER
vs
A
AS SOIL
v SOLIDS
A
For unit width of the sample: e = VV/VS = AV/AS
Using the principle of continuity, q = vA = vsAv
A V v
vs = v = v = Since 0 ≤ n ≥ 100 %,
AV VV n vs always > v
Fluid flow through soils Flow
direction
As a particle of water A
proceeds from A towards B it
Direction of
exerts a frictional drag on soil
seepage
particles; pressure
In turn produces a seepage pressure

in the soil structure.
B
⇒ Seepage pressure is due to flow of water through voids.
Because of the frictional drag, the hydraulic

head decreases steadily on every flow line.

Flow of water through porous media
σ s = σ ′ + uw
 Changes in geostatic stresses with
flow of water through soil
When water flows through the soil, it exerts drag forces

called seepage forces on individual grains of the soil. The
presence of seepage forces, which causes changes
in the direction of flow, will cause changes in the pore
water pressure and effective stresses in the soil.

Case –I : When no flow takes place through soil
(Hydrostatic condition)
σ u σ′
H1 γwH1 γwH1
γwH1+ γsatH γw(H1+ H) γ ′H
No flow; Head loss ∆H = 0; No change in effective stress

Case –II : When flow takes place through soil
(Downward flow)
σ u σ′
h H1
γwH1 γwH1
γwH1+ γsatH
γw(H1+ H - h) γ ′H + h γw
Downward flow increases
= γ ′H + i H γw
effective stress in soil… γw(H1+ H)
Case –III : When flow takes place through soil
(Upward flow)
h σ u σ′
H1
γwH1 γwH1
γwH1+ γsatH γ ′H - h γw
Upward flow decreases γw(H1+ H )
= γ ′H - i H γw
effective stress in soil… γw(H1+ H + h)
Effect of seepage on effective stresses
Seepage is the flow of

water through soil. It • Downward seepage
increases the effective
exerts a frictional drag stress.
on the soil particles • σ′ = γ ′H + psH
called seepage force,
Js which results in head
loss. • Upward seepage
decreases the effective
Seepage forces play a stress.
very important role in • σ′ = γ ′H – psH
destabilizing
geotechnical Where seepage pressure [kN/m3]
structures. ps = i γw (i.e. Js per unit volume)
Js = i γwV
Effect of seepage on Effective Stresses.
Seepage forces on the
left side increase the
effective stresses and
lateral thrust on the wall.
On the right side the
seepage forces are Effective
upward and decrease stress A
the effective stresses and
reduce the resistance by increases B
embedment.
Seepage stresses play a
key role in reducing the Effective stress
stability of a decreases
geotechnical structure.

Critical Hydraulic Gradient ic
The hydraulic gradient at which the effective

stress becomes zero is known as Critical
Hydraulic gradient.
In the case of upward flow:
When i  ic σ ′ = γ ′H − γ w H = 0
-Under these circumstances, cohesion-less soils

can not support any weight.
-Moreover, as i  ic soil becomes much looser and k ↑
Quick condition or Boiling condition in cohesion-less soils
At A: σv′ = γsatb - γwh
i = (h-b)/b Head loss
 h = b( i +1) TH at B = b (h – b)
B
σv′ = γsatb - γw b( i +1)
Saturated
For quick condition Cohesion-less soil;
γsat
to take place: b
σv′ = 0; ⇒ i = ic
DATUM
γ′ Gs − 1
iC = = A
γw 1+ e TH at A = h PWP at A = γwh

Conditions favourable for the formation
quick sand
Quick sand is not a type of sand but a flow condition
occurring within a cohesion-less soil when its effective stress
is reduced to zero due to upward flow of water.
Quick sand occurs in nature when water is being forced

upward under pressurized conditions.
In this case, the pressure of the escaping water exceeds

the weight of the soil and the sand grains are forced apart.
The result is that the soil has no capability to support a load.
Why does quick condition or boiling occurs

mostly in fine sands or silts?

Some practical examples of quick conditions
Excavations in granular materials behind
cofferdams alongside rivers
Any place where artesian pressures exist (i.e. where
head of water is greater than the usual static water
pressure).
-- When a pervious underground structure is
continuous and connected to a place where head is
higher.
Behind river embankments to protect floods

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

12