M53 Lec1.2 One-Sided2 and Infinite Limits PDF

One-sided limits and
Infinite Limits
Mathematics 53
Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman)
Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman) One-sided limits and Infinite Limits Mathematics 53 1 / 49
For today
1 One-Sided Limits (continuation)
2 Infinite Limits
For today
2 Infinite Limits
Recall..
Intuitive Definition
The
limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a from the left is L
[limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a from the right is L]
if the values of f ( x ) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and
closer to a, but are less [greater] than a.
Notation:
lim f ( x ) = L lim f ( x ) = L
x → a− x → a+
Recall
Recall
Let n be an even positive integer.
Recall
1 lim f ( x ) = L > 0
x→a
Recall
p
n
√
n
1 lim f ( x ) = L > 0 ⇒ lim f (x) = L
x→a x→a
Recall
p
n
√
n
1 lim f ( x ) = L > 0 ⇒ lim f (x) = L
x→a x→a
2 lim f ( x ) = L < 0
x→a
Recall
p
n
√
n
1 lim f ( x ) = L > 0 ⇒ lim f (x) = L
x→a x→a
p
n
2 lim f ( x ) = L < 0 ⇒ lim f ( x ) dne
x→a x→a
Recall
p
n
√
n
1 lim f ( x ) = L > 0 ⇒ lim f (x) = L
x→a x→a
p
n
2 lim f ( x ) = L < 0 ⇒ lim f ( x ) dne
x→a x→a
Question: lim f ( x ) = 0
x→a
Recall
p
n
√
n
1 lim f ( x ) = L > 0 ⇒ lim f (x) = L
x→a x→a
p
n
2 lim f ( x ) = L < 0 ⇒ lim f ( x ) dne
x→a x→a
p
n
Question: lim f ( x ) = 0 ⇒ lim f ( x ) =?
x→a x→a
Consider: f ( x ) = 9 − x2
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x )
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) −
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − +
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0,
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → −3+ , f ( x ) → 0,
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → −3+ , f ( x ) → 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → 3− , f ( x ) → 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → 3− , f ( x ) → 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.
As x → 3+ , f ( x ) → 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.
Approaching 0 through positive/negative values
Notation
Suppose lim f ( x ) = 0.
x→a
Notation
x→a
If f ( x ) approaches 0 through positive [negative] values,
we write
Notation
x→a
If f ( x ) approaches 0 through positive [negative] values,
we write
f ( x ) −→ 0+ [ f ( x ) −→ 0− ]
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → −3− ,
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → −3− , f (x) → 0
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0−
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0−
As x → −3+ ,
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0−
As x → −3+ , f (x) → 0
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0−
As x → −3+ , f ( x ) → 0+
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0−
As x → −3+ , f ( x ) → 0+
As x → 3− , f ( x ) → 0+
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

x →−3 x →3
(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

(3 + x )(3 − x ) − + −
As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0−
As x → −3+ , f ( x ) → 0+
As x → 3− , f ( x ) → 0+
As x → 3+ , f ( x ) → 0−
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2 − x.
Example
As x → 2− ,
Example
As x → 2− , f (x) → 0
Example
As x → 2− , f ( x ) → 0+
Example
As x → 2− , f ( x ) → 0+
As x → 2+ ,
Example
As x → 2− , f ( x ) → 0+
As x → 2+ , f (x) → 0
Example
As x → 2− , f ( x ) → 0+
As x → 2+ , f ( x ) → 0−
Example
As x → 2− , f ( x ) → 0+
As x → 2+ , f ( x ) → 0−
Consider: g( x ) = (2 − x )2 .
Example
As x → 2− , f ( x ) → 0+
As x → 2+ , f ( x ) → 0−
Consider: g( x ) = (2 − x )2 .
As x → 2,
Example
As x → 2− , f ( x ) → 0+
As x → 2+ , f ( x ) → 0−
Consider: g( x ) = (2 − x )2 .
As x → 2, g( x ) → 0
Example
As x → 2− , f ( x ) → 0+
As x → 2+ , f ( x ) → 0−
Consider: g( x ) = (2 − x )2 .
As x → 2, g ( x ) → 0+
Note
f ( x ) → 0+
p
n
1 If as x → a, ⇒ lim f (x)
x→a
Note
f ( x ) → 0+
p
n
1 If as x → a, ⇒ lim f (x) = 0
x→a
Note
f ( x ) → 0+
p
n
1 If as x → a, ⇒ lim f (x) = 0
x→a
f ( x ) → 0−
p
n
2 If as x → a, ⇒ lim f (x)
x→a
Note
f ( x ) → 0+
p
n
1 If as x → a, ⇒ lim f (x) = 0
x→a
f ( x ) → 0−
p
n
2 If as x → a, ⇒ lim f ( x ) dne
x→a
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
x →−1−
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
x →−1−
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) (−3)
x →−1−
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) (−3)(0 )
x →−1−
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) (−3)(0− )
x →−1−
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p √
(−3)(0− )

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0+
x →−1−
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p √
(−3)(0− )

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0+
x →−1−
=0
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p √
(−3)(0− )

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0+
x →−1−
=0
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1+
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p √
(−3)(0− )

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0+
x →−1−
=0
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1+
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
x →−1+
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p √
(−3)(0− )

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0+
x →−1−
=0
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1+
p p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) (−3)
x →−1+
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p √
(−3)(0− )

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0+
x →−1−
=0
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1+
p p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) (−3)(0+ )
x →−1+
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p √
(−3)(0− )

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0+
x →−1−
=0
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1+
p p √
0−

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) (−3)(0+ )
x →−1+
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p √
(−3)(0− )

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0+
x →−1−
=0
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1+
p p √
0−

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) (−3)(0+ )
x →−1+
dne
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p √
(−3)(0− )

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0+
x →−1−
=0
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1+
p p √
0−

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) (−3)(0+ )
x →−1+
dne
p
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1−
p p √
(−3)(0− )

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0+
x →−1−
=0
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
x →−1+
p p √
0−

= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) (−3)(0+ )
x →−1+
dne
p
lim 2x2 + x − 1 dne
x →−1
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
−
x → 12
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
q
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
−
x → 12
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
q
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) (0− )
−
x → 12
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
q
(0− )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
−
x → 12
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
q
(0− )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
−
x → 12
dne
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
q
(0− )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
−
x → 12
dne
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
+
x → 21
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
q
(0− )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
−
x → 12
dne
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
+
x → 21
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
+
x → 12
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
q
(0− )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
−
x → 12
dne
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
+
x → 21
q
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
+
x → 12
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
q
(0− )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
−
x → 12
dne
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
+
x → 21
q
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1) (0+ )
+
x → 12
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
q
(0− )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
−
x → 12
dne
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
+
x → 21
q
(0+ )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
+
x → 12
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
q
(0− )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
−
x → 12
dne
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
+
x → 21
q
(0+ )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
+
x → 12
=0
Example
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
−
x → 21
q
(0− )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
−
x → 12
dne
√
lim 2x2 + x − 1
+
x → 21
q
(0+ )( 32 )
p
= lim (2x − 1)( x + 1)
+
x → 12
=0
p
lim 2x2 + x − 1 dne
x → 21
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →0



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →0



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x )
x →0−
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →0



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 − x − 2
lim f ( x ) = lim
x →0− x →0− x+1
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →0



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 − x − 2
lim f ( x ) = lim = −2
x →0− x →0− x+1
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →0



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 − x − 2
lim f ( x ) = lim = −2
x →0− x →0− x+1
lim f ( x )
x →0+
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →0



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 − x − 2
lim f ( x ) = lim = −2
x →0− x →0− x+1
√
lim f ( x ) = lim 4−x
x →0+ x →0+
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →0



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 − x − 2
lim f ( x ) = lim = −2
x →0− x →0− x+1
√
lim f ( x ) = lim 4−x = 2
x →0+ x →0+
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) dne

 x →0



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 − x − 2
lim f ( x ) = lim = −2
x →0− x →0− x+1
√
lim f ( x ) = lim 4−x = 2
x →0+ x →0+
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →4



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →4



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x )
x →4−
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →4



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

√
lim f ( x ) = lim 4−x
x →4− x →4−
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →4



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

√ √
lim f ( x ) = lim 4−x 0+
x →4− x →4−
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →4



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

√ √
lim f ( x ) = lim 4−x = 0 0+
x →4− x →4−
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →4



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

√ √
lim f ( x ) = lim 4−x = 0 0+
x →4− x →4−
lim f ( x )
x →4+
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →4



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

√ √
lim f ( x ) = lim 4−x = 0 0+
x →4− x →4−
lim f ( x ) = lim ( x2 − 5x + 4)
x →4+ x →4+
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →4



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

√ √
lim f ( x ) = lim 4−x = 0 0+
x →4− x →4−
lim f ( x ) = lim ( x2 − 5x + 4) = 0
x →4+ x →4+
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = 0

 x →4



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

√ √
lim f ( x ) = lim 4−x = 0 0+
x →4− x →4−
lim f ( x ) = lim ( x2 − 5x + 4) = 0
x →4+ x →4+
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →−1



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →−1



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

lim f ( x )
x →−1
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →−1



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 − x − 2
lim f ( x ) = lim
x →−1 x →−1 x+1
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →−1



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 − x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 1)
lim f ( x ) = lim = lim
x →−1 x →−1 x+1 x →−1 x+1
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →−1



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 − x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 1)
lim f ( x ) = lim = lim = lim ( x − 2)
x →−1 x →−1 x+1 x →−1 x+1 x →−1
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = ?

 x →−1



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 − x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 1)
lim f ( x ) = lim = lim = lim ( x − 2) = −3
x →−1 x →−1 x+1 x →−1 x+1 x →−1
Example

x2 − x − 2
, x<0



 x+1



√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4 lim f ( x ) = − 3

 x →−1



 x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

x2 − x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 1)
lim f ( x ) = lim = lim = lim ( x − 2) = −3
x →−1 x →−1 x+1 x →−1 x+1 x →−1
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t→−4 | t + 4|
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t→−4 | t + 4|
Solution:
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t→−4 | t + 4|
Solution: 
t + 4,
 t+4 ≥ 0
| t + 4| =
−(t + 4), t + 4 < 0

Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t→−4 | t + 4|
Solution: 
t + 4,
 t ≥ −4
| t + 4| =
−(t + 4), t < −4

Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t→−4 | t + 4|
Solution: 
t + 4,
 t ≥ −4
| t + 4| =
−(t + 4), t < −4

t+4
lim
t→−4− | t + 4|
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t→−4 | t + 4|
Solution: 
t + 4,
 t ≥ −4
| t + 4| =
−(t + 4), t < −4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim
t→−4− |t + 4| t→−4− −(t + 4)
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t→−4 | t + 4|
Solution: 
t + 4,
 t ≥ −4
| t + 4| =
−(t + 4), t < −4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (−1)
t→−4− |t + 4| t→−4− −(t + 4) t→−4−
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t→−4 | t + 4|
Solution: 
t + 4,
 t ≥ −4
| t + 4| =
−(t + 4), t < −4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1
t→−4− |t + 4| t→−4− −(t + 4) t→−4−
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t→−4 | t + 4|
Solution: 
t + 4,
 t ≥ −4
| t + 4| =
−(t + 4), t < −4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1
t→−4− |t + 4| t→−4− −(t + 4) t→−4−
t+4
lim
t→−4+ | t + 4|
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t→−4 | t + 4|
Solution: 
t + 4,
 t ≥ −4
| t + 4| =
−(t + 4), t < −4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1
t→−4− |t + 4| t→−4− −(t + 4) t→−4−
t+4 t+4
lim = lim
t→−4+ |t + 4| t→−4+ (t + 4)
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t→−4 | t + 4|
Solution: 
t + 4,
 t ≥ −4
| t + 4| =
−(t + 4), t < −4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1
t→−4− |t + 4| t→−4− −(t + 4) t→−4−
t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (1) = 1
t→−4+ |t + 4| t→−4+ (t + 4) t→−4+
Example
t+4
Evaluate lim .
t→−4 | t + 4|
Solution: 
t + 4,
 t ≥ −4
| t + 4| =
−(t + 4), t < −4

t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1
t→−4− |t + 4| t→−4− −(t + 4) t→−4−
t+4 t+4
lim = lim = lim (1) = 1
t→−4+ |t + 4| t→−4+ (t + 4) t→−4+
t+4
∴ lim dne
t→−4 | t + 4|
The Greatest Integer Function
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n ≤ x < n + 1, n ∈ Z
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n ≤ x < n + 1, n ∈ Z
 ..


 .

−3, −3 ≤ x < −2







−2, −2 ≤ x < −1






[[ x ]] = −1, −1 ≤ x < 0



0, 0≤x<1







1, 1≤x<2




..



.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n ≤ x < n + 1, n ∈ Z
 ..

 . 1 lim [[ x ]]
x →−2−


−3, −3 ≤ x < −2







−2, −2 ≤ x < −1






[[ x ]] = −1, −1 ≤ x < 0



0, 0≤x<1







1, 1≤x<2




..



.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n ≤ x < n + 1, n ∈ Z
 ..

 . 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim −3
x →−2− x →−2−


−3, −3 ≤ x < −2







−2, −2 ≤ x < −1






[[ x ]] = −1, −1 ≤ x < 0



0, 0≤x<1







1, 1≤x<2




..



.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n ≤ x < n + 1, n ∈ Z
 ..

 . 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim −3 = −3
x →−2− x →−2−


−3, −3 ≤ x < −2







−2, −2 ≤ x < −1






[[ x ]] = −1, −1 ≤ x < 0



0, 0≤x<1







1, 1≤x<2




..



.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n ≤ x < n + 1, n ∈ Z
 ..

 . 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim −3 = −3
x →−2− x →−2−


−3, −3 ≤ x < −2




lim [[ x ]]

 2

−2, −2 ≤ x < −1 x →−2+






[[ x ]] = −1, −1 ≤ x < 0



0, 0≤x<1







1, 1≤x<2




..



.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n ≤ x < n + 1, n ∈ Z
 ..

 . 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim −3 = −3
x →−2− x →−2−


−3, −3 ≤ x < −2




lim [[ x ]] = lim −2

 2

−2, −2 ≤ x < −1 x →−2+ x →−2+






[[ x ]] = −1, −1 ≤ x < 0



0, 0≤x<1







1, 1≤x<2




..



.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n ≤ x < n + 1, n ∈ Z
 ..

 . 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim −3 = −3
x →−2− x →−2−


−3, −3 ≤ x < −2




lim [[ x ]] = lim −2 = −2

 2

−2, −2 ≤ x < −1 x →−2+ x →−2+






[[ x ]] = −1, −1 ≤ x < 0



0, 0≤x<1







1, 1≤x<2




..



.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n ≤ x < n + 1, n ∈ Z
 ..

 . 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim −3 = −3
x →−2− x →−2−


−3, −3 ≤ x < −2




lim [[ x ]] = lim −2 = −2

 2

−2, −2 ≤ x < −1 x →−2+ x →−2+






[[ x ]] = −1, −1 ≤ x < 0 3 lim [[ x ]]

 x → 12

0, 0≤x<1







1, 1≤x<2




..



.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n ≤ x < n + 1, n ∈ Z
 ..

 . 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim −3 = −3
x →−2− x →−2−


−3, −3 ≤ x < −2




lim [[ x ]] = lim −2 = −2

 2

−2, −2 ≤ x < −1 x →−2+ x →−2+






[[ x ]] = −1, −1 ≤ x < 0 3 lim [[ x ]] = lim 0

 x → 12 x → 12

0, 0≤x<1







1, 1≤x<2




..



.
Recall
[[ x ]] = n for n ≤ x < n + 1, n ∈ Z
 ..

 . 1 lim [[ x ]] = lim −3 = −3
x →−2− x →−2−


−3, −3 ≤ x < −2




lim [[ x ]] = lim −2 = −2

 2

−2, −2 ≤ x < −1 x →−2+ x →−2+






[[ x ]] = −1, −1 ≤ x < 0 3 lim [[ x ]] = lim 0 = 0

 x → 12 x → 12

0, 0≤x<1







1, 1≤x<2




..



.
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n ≤ 2x − 1 < n + 1, n ∈ Z
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n + 1 ≤ 2x < n + 2, n ∈ Z
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n +1
2 ≤ x < n+ 2
2 , n∈ Z
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n +1
2 ≤ x < n+ 2
2 , n∈ Z

 ..


 .

1
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
[[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1

3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n +1
2 ≤ x < n+ 2
2 , n∈ Z
1 lim [[2x − 1]]
−
 x → 21
 ..


 .

1
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
[[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1

3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n +1
2 ≤ x < n+ 2
2 , n∈ Z
1 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim −1
− −
 x → 21 x → 12
 ..


 .

1
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
[[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1

3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n +1
2 ≤ x < n+ 2
2 , n∈ Z
1 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim −1 = −1
− −
 x → 21 x → 12
 ..


 .

1
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
[[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1

3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n +1
2 ≤ x < n+ 2
2 , n∈ Z
1 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim −1 = −1
− −
 x → 21 x → 12
 ..


 . 2 lim [[2x − 1]]
 +
1 x → 21
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
[[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1

3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n +1
2 ≤ x < n+ 2
2 , n∈ Z
1 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim −1 = −1
− −
 x → 21 x → 12
 ..


 . 2 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim 0
 + +
1 x → 21 x → 12
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
[[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1

3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n +1
2 ≤ x < n+ 2
2 , n∈ Z
1 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim −1 = −1
− −
 x → 21 x → 12
 ..


 . 2 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim 0 = 0
 + +
1 x → 21 x → 12
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
[[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1

3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n +1
2 ≤ x < n+ 2
2 , n∈ Z
1 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim −1 = −1
− −
 x → 21 x → 12
 ..


 . 2 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim 0 = 0
 + +
1 x → 21 x → 12
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
[[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1 3 lim [[2x − 1]]
 x → 14
3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n +1
2 ≤ x < n+ 2
2 , n∈ Z
1 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim −1 = −1
− −
 x → 21 x → 12
 ..


 . 2 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim 0 = 0
 + +
1 x → 21 x → 12
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
[[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1 3 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim −1
 x → 14 x → 41
3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

n +1
2 ≤ x < n+ 2
2 , n∈ Z
1 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim −1 = −1
− −
 x → 21 x → 12
 ..


 . 2 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim 0 = 0
 + +
1 x → 21 x → 12
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
[[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1 3 lim [[2x − 1]] = lim −1 = −1
 x → 14 x → 41
3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .

 ..


 .

1
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
Consider f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1

3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
Observe:
1 Since f ( x ) "splits" at x = 12 ,

 ..


 .

1
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
Consider f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1

3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
Observe:
1 Since f ( x ) "splits" at x = 12 , we consider one-sided limits when computing
lim f ( x ).
x → 12

 ..


 .

1
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
Consider f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1

3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
Observe:
lim f ( x ).
x → 12
2 Note that f ( x ) does not "split" at x = 14 , and is constantly equal to −1 for
values of x very near 41 .

 ..


 .

1
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
Consider f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1

3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
Observe:
lim f ( x ).
x → 12
values of x very near 41 . Thus, we replace f ( x ) in lim f ( x ) by −1.
x → 14

 ..


 .

1
−1, 0 ≤ x <


2





1
Consider f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = 0, 2 ≤x<1

3

1, 1≤x<




 2

..



 .
Observe:
lim f ( x ).
x → 12
values of x very near 41 . Thus, we replace f ( x ) in lim f ( x ) by −1. Notice also
x → 14
hh ii
that the constant value of f for x very near 41 is equal to 2 14 − 1 .

f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
n ≤ − 5x < n + 1, n ∈ Z
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
−5n ≥ x > −5n − 5, n ∈ Z
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
−5n − 5 < x ≤ −5n, n ∈ Z
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
−5n − 5 < x ≤ −5n, n ∈ Z

 ..


 .

−1, 0 ≤ x < 5







− 5x = 0, −5 ≤ x < 0



1, −10 ≤ x < −5






..



 .
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
−5n − 5 < x ≤ −5n, n ∈ Z
− 5x

1 lim
 x →−5−
 ..


 .

−1, 0 ≤ x < 5







− 5x = 0, −5 ≤ x < 0



1, −10 ≤ x < −5






..



 .
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
−5n − 5 < x ≤ −5n, n ∈ Z
− 5x

1 lim = lim 1
 x →−5− x →−5−
 ..


 .

−1, 0 ≤ x < 5







− 5x = 0, −5 ≤ x < 0



1, −10 ≤ x < −5






..



 .
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
−5n − 5 < x ≤ −5n, n ∈ Z
− 5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
 x →−5− x →−5−
 ..


 .

−1, 0 ≤ x < 5







− 5x = 0, −5 ≤ x < 0



1, −10 ≤ x < −5






..



 .
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
−5n − 5 < x ≤ −5n, n ∈ Z
− 5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
 x →−5− x →−5−
 ..
 .
− 5x


 2 lim
−1, 0 ≤ x < 5



 x →−5+



− 5x = 0, −5 ≤ x < 0



1, −10 ≤ x < −5






..



 .
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
−5n − 5 < x ≤ −5n, n ∈ Z
− 5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
 x →−5− x →−5−
 ..
 .
− 5x


 2 lim = lim 0
−1, 0 ≤ x < 5



 x →−5+ x →−5+



− 5x = 0, −5 ≤ x < 0



1, −10 ≤ x < −5






..



 .
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
−5n − 5 < x ≤ −5n, n ∈ Z
− 5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
 x →−5− x →−5−
 ..
 .
− 5x


 2 lim = lim 0 = 0
−1, 0 ≤ x < 5



 x →−5+ x →−5+



− 5x = 0, −5 ≤ x < 0



1, −10 ≤ x < −5






..



 .
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
−5n − 5 < x ≤ −5n, n ∈ Z
− 5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
 x →−5− x →−5−
 ..
 .
− 5x


 2 lim = lim 0 = 0
−1, 0 ≤ x < 5



 x →−5+ x →−5+


lim − 5x

− 5x = 0, −5 ≤ x < 0 3

 x →1

1, −10 ≤ x < −5






..



 .
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
−5n − 5 < x ≤ −5n, n ∈ Z
− 5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
 x →−5− x →−5−
 ..
 .
− 5x


 2 lim = lim 0 = 0
−1, 0 ≤ x < 5



 x →−5+ x →−5+


lim − 5x = lim −1

− 5x = 0, −5 ≤ x < 0 3

 x →1 x →1

1, −10 ≤ x < −5






..



 .
f ( x ) = − 5x = n

for
−5n − 5 < x ≤ −5n, n ∈ Z
− 5x

1 lim = lim 1 = 1
 x →−5− x →−5−
 ..
 .
− 5x


 2 lim = lim 0 = 0
−1, 0 ≤ x < 5



 x →−5+ x →−5+


lim − 5x = lim −1 = −1

− 5x = 0, −5 ≤ x < 0 3

 x →1 x →1

1, −10 ≤ x < −5






..



 .
In general...
Let p( x ) = mx + b.
1 [[ p( x )]] “splits” only at the values of a where p( a) is an integer. Thus, in finding
lim [[ p( x )]], we have to consider each of the limits from the left and right of a.
x→a
In general...
Let p( x ) = mx + b.
1 [[ p( x )]] “splits” only at the values of a where p( a) is an integer. Thus, in finding
lim [[ p( x )]], we have to consider each of the limits from the left and right of a.
x→a
2 If p( a) is not an integer, then [[ p( x )]] is constant for values of x near a, and this
constant is precisely [[ p( a)]].
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]] =?

x →3−
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]] =?

x →3−
Is 2(3) − 1 an integer?
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]] =?

x →3−
Is 2(3) − 1 an integer? Yes.
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]] =?

x →3−
Since we are letting x → 3− ,
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]] =?

x →3−
Since we are letting x → 3− , we want the right endpoint of the interval to be 3.
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]] =?

x →3−
n +2
2 =3
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]] =?

x →3−
n +2
2 =3⇒n=4
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]] =?

x →3−
n +2
2 =3⇒n=4
This means [[2x − 1]] = 4 when 52 ≤ x < 3.
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]] =?

x →3−
n +2
2 =3⇒n=4
lim [[2x − 1]]

x →3−
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]] =?

x →3−
n +2
2 =3⇒n=4
lim [[2x − 1]] = lim 4

x →3− x →3−
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]] =?

x →3−
n +2
2 =3⇒n=4
lim [[2x − 1]] = lim 4 = 4

x →3− x →3−
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]]

x →3+
Since we are letting x → 3+ ,
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]]

x →3+
Since we are letting x → 3+ , we want n+ 1

2 =3
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]]

x →3+

2 =3⇒n=5
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]]

x →3+

2 =3⇒n=5
This means [[2x − 1]] = 5 when 3 ≤ x < 72 .
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]]

x →3+

2 =3⇒n=5
This means [[2x − 1]] = 5 when 3 ≤ x < 72 .
lim [[2x − 1]] = lim 5 = 5

x →3+ x →3+
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]]

+
x → 13
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]]

+
x → 13
Is 2 31 − 1 an integer?

[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]]

+
x → 13
Is 2 31 − 1 an integer? No.

[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]]

+
x → 13

Near 13 ,
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]]

+
x → 13

hh ii
Near 13 , [[2x − 1]] is constantly equal to 2 13 − 1

= − 1.
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]]

+
x → 13

hh ii

= − 1.
lim [[2x − 1]]

+
x → 13
[[2x − 1]] = n, n+ 1
2 ≤ x <
n +2
2
lim [[2x − 1]]

+
x → 13

hh ii

= − 1.
lim [[2x − 1]] = lim −1 = −1.

+ +
x → 13 x → 13
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
for n − 1 ≤ −x < n
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
for n − 1 ≤ −x < n
for −n < x ≤ 1 − n
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
for n − 1 ≤ −x < n
for −n < x ≤ 1 − n
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
for n − 1 ≤ −x < n
for −n < x ≤ 1 − n
lim [[1 − x ]]
x →2+
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
for n − 1 ≤ −x < n
for −n < x ≤ 1 − n
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −2

x →2+ x →2+
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
for n − 1 ≤ −x < n
for −n < x ≤ 1 − n
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −2 = −2

x →2+ x →2+
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
for n − 1 ≤ −x < n
for −n < x ≤ 1 − n
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −2 = −2

x →2+ x →2+
lim [[1 − x ]]
x →2−
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
for n − 1 ≤ −x < n
for −n < x ≤ 1 − n
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −2 = −2

x →2+ x →2+
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −1
x →2− x →2−
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
for n − 1 ≤ −x < n
for −n < x ≤ 1 − n
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −2 = −2

x →2+ x →2+
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −1 = −1
x →2− x →2−
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
for n − 1 ≤ −x < n
for −n < x ≤ 1 − n
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −2 = −2

x →2+ x →2+
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −1 = −1
x →2− x →2−
lim [[1 − x ]]
+
x →− 52
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
for n − 1 ≤ −x < n
for −n < x ≤ 1 − n
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −2 = −2

x →2+ x →2+
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −1 = −1
x →2− x →2−
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim 1 − − 52

+ +
x →− 52 x →− 25
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = [[1 − x ]]
Solution:
[[1 − x ]] = n for n ≤ 1−x < n+1
for n − 1 ≤ −x < n
for −n < x ≤ 1 − n
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −2 = −2

x →2+ x →2+
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim −1 = −1
x →2− x →2−
lim [[1 − x ]] = lim 1 − − 52

=3
+ +
x →− 52 x →− 25
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n ≤ 3x + 1 < n + 1
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n ≤ 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n − 1 ≤ 3x < n
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n ≤ 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n − 1 ≤ 3x < n
n −1 n
for 3 ≤x< 3
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n ≤ 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n − 1 ≤ 3x < n
n −1 n
for 3 ≤x< 3

lim 2x + [[3x + 1]] =
−
x → 13
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n ≤ 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n − 1 ≤ 3x < n
n −1 n
for 3 ≤x< 3

lim 2x + [[3x + 1]] = lim (2x
− −
x → 13 x → 13
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n ≤ 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n − 1 ≤ 3x < n
n −1 n
for 3 ≤x< 3

lim 2x + [[3x + 1]] = lim (2x + 1)
− −
x → 13 x → 13
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n ≤ 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n − 1 ≤ 3x < n
n −1 n
for 3 ≤x< 3
5

lim 2x + [[3x + 1]] = lim (2x + 1) = 3
− −
x → 13 x → 13
Example
Consider: f ( x ) = 2x + [[3x + 1]]
Solution:
[[3x + 1]] = n for n ≤ 3x + 1 < n + 1
for n − 1 ≤ 3x < n
n −1 n
for 3 ≤x< 3
5

lim 2x + [[3x + 1]] = lim (2x + 1) = 3
− −
x → 13 x → 13

Question: lim 2x + [[3x + 1]] =?
−
x → 23
For today
2 Infinite Limits
Illustration
1
Consider: Let f ( x ) = .
x2
Illustration
1
Consider: Let f ( x ) = . What happens as x → 0?
x2
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
0.1
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
0.1 100
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.001
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.001 1000000
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x)
1 1
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000
As x → 0+ , f ( x ) increases, and there is no bound to its growth.
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 −1 1
0.5 4 −0.5 4
0.1 100 −0.1 100
0.001 1000000 −0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000 −0.00001 10000000000
Illustration
1
x2
x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 −1 1
0.5 4 −0.5 4
0.1 100 −0.1 100
0.001 1000000 −0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000 −0.00001 10000000000
Similarly, as x → 0− , f ( x ) increases indefinitely.
6
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
We say that the
limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a is positive infinity
We say that the
if the value of f ( x ) increases without bound whenever the values of x get closer
and closer to a.
We say that the
if the value of f ( x ) increases without bound whenever the values of x get closer
and closer to a.
Notation:
lim f ( x ) = +∞
x→a
We say that the
limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a is negative infinity
We say that the
if the value of f ( x ) decreases without bound whenever the values of x get closer
and closer to a.
We say that the
if the value of f ( x ) decreases without bound whenever the values of x get closer
and closer to a.
Notation:
lim f ( x ) = −∞
x→a
We say that the
[limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a is negative infinity]
if the value of f ( x ) increases [decreases] without bound whenever the values of x

get closer and closer to a.
Notation:
lim f ( x ) = +∞ [ lim f ( x ) = −∞]
x→a x→a
We say that the
[limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a is negative infinity]
if the value of f ( x ) increases [decreases] without bound whenever the values of x

get closer and closer to a.
Notation:
lim f ( x ) = +∞ [ lim f ( x ) = −∞]
x→a x→a
Remark: In the definition above, “ x → a” may be replaced by “ x → a− ” or

“ x → a+ ”.
Example
1
Let f ( x ) = .
x2
x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 −1 1
0.5 4 −0.5 4
0.1 100 −0.1 100
0.001 1000000 −0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000 −0.00001 10000000000
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
0+ +∞ 0− +∞
Example
1
Let f ( x ) = .
x2
x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 −1 1
0.5 4 −0.5 4
0.1 100 −0.1 100
0.001 1000000 −0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000 −0.00001 10000000000
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
0+ +∞ 0− +∞
We now write:
1
lim
x →0 x2
Example
1
Let f ( x ) = .
x2
x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 −1 1
0.5 4 −0.5 4
0.1 100 −0.1 100
0.001 1000000 −0.001 1000000
0.00001 10000000000 −0.00001 10000000000
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
0+ +∞ 0− +∞
We now write:
1
lim = +∞
x →0 x2
Remark
Note that ∞ is NOT a number! So, lim f ( x ) = +∞ or −∞ does not mean that
x→a
the limit exists.
Remark
x→a
the limit exists.
BUT...
Remark
x→a
the limit exists.
BUT... the symbol is IMPORTANT.
Vertical Asymptotes
The line with equation x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f if at least

one of the following is true:
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = +∞
x → a−
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = +∞
x → a−
x=a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = +∞ lim f ( x ) = −∞
x → a− x → a−
x=a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = +∞ lim f ( x ) = −∞
x → a− x → a−
x=a x=a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = +∞ lim f ( x ) = −∞ lim f ( x ) = +∞

x → a− x → a− x → a+
x=a x=a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = +∞ lim f ( x ) = −∞ lim f ( x ) = +∞

x → a− x → a− x → a+
x=a x=a x=a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = +∞ lim f ( x ) = −∞ lim f ( x ) = +∞ lim f ( x ) = −∞

x → a− x → a− x → a+ x → a+
x=a x=a x=a
Vertical Asymptotes

lim f ( x ) = +∞ lim f ( x ) = −∞ lim f ( x ) = +∞ lim f ( x ) = −∞

x → a− x → a− x → a+ x → a+
x=a x=a x=a x=a
3x
f (x) =
x−1
3x
f (x) =
x−1
3x
lim =
x →1− x−1
3x
f (x) =
x−1

3x 3
lim =
x →1− x−1 0
3x
f (x) =
x−1

3x 3
lim =
x →1− x−1 0−
3x
f (x) =
x−1

3x 3
lim = −∞
x →1− x−1 0−
3x
f (x) =
x−1

3x 3
lim = −∞
x →1− x−1 0−
3x
lim =
x →1+ x−1
3x
f (x) =
x−1

3x 3
lim = −∞
x →1− x−1 0−

3x 3
lim =
x →1 x − 1
+ 0
3x
f (x) =
x−1

3x 3
lim = −∞
x →1− x−1 0−

3x 3
lim =
x →1 x − 1
+ 0+
3x
f (x) =
x−1

3x 3
lim = −∞
x →1− x−1 0−

3x 3
lim = +∞
x →1 x − 1
+ 0+
10
3x
f (x) = 8
x−1
6

3x 3
lim = −∞ 4
x →1− x − 1 0−
2

3x 3
lim = +∞ −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
x →1+ x−1 0+ −2
In general,
Theorem
In general,
Theorem
Suppose lim f ( x ) = c and lim g( x ) = 0.
x→a x→a
In general,
Theorem
x→a x→a
1 If c > 0
In general,
Theorem
x→a x→a
1 If c > 0
1 and g( x ) → 0+ as x → a,
In general,
Theorem
x→a x→a
1 If c > 0
f (x)
1 and g( x ) → 0+ as x → a, then lim = +∞
x→a g( x )
In general,
Theorem
x→a x→a
1 If c > 0
f (x)
x→a g( x )
2 and g( x ) → 0− as x → a,
In general,
Theorem
x→a x→a
1 If c > 0
f (x)
g( x ) x→a
f (x)
2 and g( x ) → 0− as x → a, then lim = −∞
x→a g( x )
In general,
Theorem
x→a x→a
1 If c > 0
f (x)
g( x ) x→a
f (x)
x→a g( x )
2 If c < 0
In general,
Theorem
x→a x→a
1 If c > 0
f (x)
g( x ) x→a
f (x)
x→a g( x )
2 If c < 0
1 and g( x ) → 0+ as x → a,
In general,
Theorem
x→a x→a
1 If c > 0
f (x)
g( x ) x→a
f (x)
x→a g( x )
2 If c < 0
f (x)
1 and g( x ) → 0+ as x → a, then lim = −∞
x→a g( x )
In general,
Theorem
x→a x→a
1 If c > 0
f (x)
g( x ) x→a
f (x)
x→a g( x )
2 If c < 0
f (x)
x→a g( x )
2 and g( x ) → 0− as x → a,
In general,
Theorem
x→a x→a
1 If c > 0
f (x)
g( x ) x→a
f (x)
x→a g( x )
2 If c < 0
f (x)
g( x )
x→a
f (x)
2 and g( x ) → 0− as x → a, then lim = +∞
x→a g( x )
Example
5x
lim
x →−2− 4 − x2
Example
5x
lim
x →−2− 4 − x2
5x
= lim
x →−2− (2 + x )(2 − x )
Example
5x
lim
x →−2− 4 − x2
5x
= lim
x →−2− (2 + x )(2 − x )
−10

=
(0− )(4)
Example
5x
lim
x →−2− 4 − x2
5x
= lim
x →−2− (2 + x )(2 − x )
−10

= +∞
(0− )(4)
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x →−2− 4 − x2 x →−2+ 4 − x2
5x
= lim
x →−2− (2 + x )(2 − x )
−10

= +∞
(0− )(4)
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x →−2− 4 − x2 x →−2+ 4 − x2
5x 5x
= lim = lim
x →−2− (2 + x )(2 − x ) x →−2+ (2 + x )(2 − x )
−10

= +∞
(0− )(4)
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x →−2− 4 − x2 x →−2+ 4 − x2
5x 5x
= lim = lim
x →−2− (2 + x )(2 − x ) x →−2+ (2 + x )(2 − x )
−10 −10

= +∞ =
(0− )(4) (0+ )(4)
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x →−2− 4 − x2 x →−2+ 4 − x2
5x 5x
= lim = lim
x →−2− (2 + x )(2 − x ) x →−2+ (2 + x )(2 − x )
−10 −10

= +∞ = −∞
(0− )(4) (0+ )(4)
Example
5x
lim
x →2− 4 − x2
Example
5x
lim
x →2− 4 − x2
5x
= lim
x →2− (2 + x )(2 − x )
Example
5x
lim
x →2− 4 − x2
5x
= lim
x →2− (2 + x )(2 − x )

10
=
(4)(0+ )
Example
5x
lim
x →2− 4 − x2
5x
= lim
x →2− (2 + x )(2 − x )

10
= +∞
(4)(0+ )
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x →2− 4 − x2 x →2+ 4 − x2
5x
= lim
x →2− (2 + x )(2 − x )

10
= +∞
(4)(0+ )
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x →2− 4 − x2 x →2+ 4 − x2
5x 5x
= lim = lim
x →2− (2 + x )(2 − x ) x →2+ (2 + x )(2 − x )

10
= +∞
(4)(0+ )
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x →2− 4 − x2 x →2+ 4 − x2
5x 5x
= lim = lim
x →2− (2 + x )(2 − x ) x →2+ (2 + x )(2 − x )

10 10
= +∞ =
(4)(0+ ) (4)(0− )
Example
5x 5x
lim lim
x →2− 4 − x2 x →2+ 4 − x2
5x 5x
= lim = lim
x →2− (2 + x )(2 − x ) x →2+ (2 + x )(2 − x )

10 10
= +∞ = −∞
(4)(0+ ) (4)(0− )
Theorem
Theorem
1 If lim f ( x ) exists and lim g( x ) = ±∞,
x→a x→a
Theorem
1 If lim f ( x ) exists and lim g( x ) = ±∞, then lim ( f ( x ) + g( x ))
x→a x→a x→a
Theorem
1 If lim f ( x ) exists and lim g( x ) = ±∞, then lim ( f ( x ) + g( x )) = ±∞.
x→a x→a x→a
Theorem
x→a x→a x→a
2 If lim f ( x ) exists and lim g( x ) = ±∞,
x→a x→a
Theorem
x→a x→a x→a
2 If lim f ( x ) exists and lim g( x ) = ±∞, then lim ( f ( x ) − g( x ))
x→a x→a x→a
Theorem
x→a x→a x→a
2 If lim f ( x ) exists and lim g( x ) = ±∞, then lim ( f ( x ) − g( x )) = ∓∞.
x→a x→a x→a
Theorem
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
3 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = +∞,
x→a x→a
Theorem
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
3 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = +∞, then lim ( f ( x ) + g( x ))
x→a x→a x→a
Theorem
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
3 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = +∞, then lim ( f ( x ) + g( x )) = +∞.
x→a x→a x→a
Theorem
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
4 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = −∞,
x→a x→a
Theorem
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
4 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = −∞, then lim ( f ( x ) − g( x ))
x→a x→a x→a
Theorem
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
4 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = −∞, then lim ( f ( x ) − g( x )) = +∞,
x→a x→a x→a
Theorem
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
4 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = −∞, then lim ( f ( x ) − g( x )) = +∞, and
x→a x→a x→a
lim ( g( x ) − f ( x ))
x→a
Theorem
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
x→a x→a x→a
4 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = −∞, then lim ( f ( x ) − g( x )) = +∞, and
x→a x→a x→a
lim ( g( x ) − f ( x )) = −∞.
x→a
Theorem
Theorem
1 Let c ∈ R \ {0}. Suppose xlim
→a
f ( x ) = c and lim g( x ) = ±∞. Then,
x→a
Theorem
→a
x→a
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ±∞, if c > 0.
x→a
Theorem
→a
x→a
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ±∞, if c > 0.
x→a
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ∓∞, if c < 0.
x→a
Theorem
→a
x→a
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ±∞, if c > 0.
x→a
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ∓∞, if c < 0.
x→a
2 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = +∞,

x→a x→a
Theorem
→a
x→a
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ±∞, if c > 0.
x→a
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ∓∞, if c < 0.
x→a
2 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = +∞, then lim f ( x ) g( x )

x→a x→a x→a
Theorem
→a
x→a
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ±∞, if c > 0.
x→a
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ∓∞, if c < 0.
x→a
2 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = +∞, then lim f ( x ) g( x ) = +∞.

x→a x→a x→a
Theorem
→a
x→a
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ±∞, if c > 0.
x→a
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ∓∞, if c < 0.
x→a

x→a x→a x→a
3 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = −∞,
x→a x→a
Theorem
→a
x→a
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ±∞, if c > 0.
x→a
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ∓∞, if c < 0.
x→a

x→a x→a x→a
3 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = −∞, then lim f ( x ) g( x )
x→a x→a x→a
Theorem
→a
x→a
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ±∞, if c > 0.
x→a
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ∓∞, if c < 0.
x→a

x→a x→a x→a
3 If lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = −∞, then lim f ( x ) g( x ) = −∞.
x→a x→a x→a
Example

2
Evaluate lim x2 − .
x →1− x−1
Example

2
x →1− x−1
lim x2
x →1−
Example

2
x →1− x−1
lim x2 = 1
x →1−
Example

2
x →1− x−1
lim x2 = 1
x →1−
2
lim
x →1− x−1
Example

2
x →1− x−1
lim x2 = 1
x →1−

2 2
lim = −∞
x →1− x − 1 0−
Example

2
x →1− x−1
lim x2 = 1
x →1−

2 2
lim = −∞
x →1− x − 1 0−

2 2
lim x − = +∞
x →1− x−1
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x →−3− x2 − 9 x + 3
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x →−3− x2 − 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim 2
+
x →−3− x −9 x+3
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x →−3− x2 − 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x →−3− x2 − 9 x+3

1 2x
= lim +
x →−3− ( x + 3)( x − 3) x+3
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x →−3− x2 − 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x →−3− x2 − 9 x+3

1 2x 1
= lim +
x →−3− ( x + 3)( x − 3) x+3
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x →−3− x2 − 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x →−3− x2 − 9 x+3

1 2x 1
= lim +
x →−3− ( x + 3)( x − 3) x+3 (0 )
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x →−3− x2 − 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x →−3− x2 − 9 x+3

1 2x 1
= lim +
x →−3− ( x + 3)( x − 3) x+3 (0− )
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x →−3− x2 − 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x →−3− x2 − 9 x+3

1 2x 1
= lim +
x →−3− ( x + 3)( x − 3) x+3 (0− )(−6)
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x →−3− x2 − 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x →−3− x2 − 9 x+3

1 2x 1
= lim + +
x →−3− ( x + 3)( x − 3) x+3 (0− )(−6)
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x →−3− x2 − 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x →−3− x2 − 9 x+3
−6

1 2x 1
= lim + +
x →−3− ( x + 3)( x − 3) x+3 (0− )(−6) 0
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x →−3− x2 − 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x →−3− x2 − 9 x+3
−6

1 2x 1
= lim + +
x →−3− ( x + 3)( x − 3) x+3 (0− )(−6) 0−
Example

1 2x
Evaluate lim + .
x →−3− x2 − 9 x + 3

1 2x
lim +
x →−3− x2 − 9 x+3
−6

1 2x 1
= lim + +
x →−3− ( x + 3)( x − 3) x+3 (0− )(−6) 0−
= +∞
Recall
Theorem
x→a x→a x→a
→a
x→a
1 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ±∞, if c > 0.
x→a
2 lim f ( x ) g( x ) = ∓∞, if c < 0.
x→a
Other Indeterminate Forms
Definition
Definition
1 Suppose lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = +∞.
x→a x→a
Definition
1 Suppose lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim g( x ) = +∞. Then
x→a x→a
lim ( f ( x ) − g( x ))
x→a
Definition
x→a x→a
lim ( f ( x ) − g( x ))
x→a
is called an indeterminate form of type ∞ − ∞.
Definition
x→a x→a
lim ( f ( x ) − g( x ))
x→a
2 Suppose lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim g( x ) = ±∞.

x→a x→a
Definition
x→a x→a
lim ( f ( x ) − g( x ))
x→a
2 Suppose lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim g( x ) = ±∞.Then

x→a x→a
lim f ( x ) g( x )
x→a
Definition
x→a x→a
lim ( f ( x ) − g( x ))
x→a
2 Suppose lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim g( x ) = ±∞.Then

x→a x→a
lim f ( x ) g( x )
x→a
is called an indeterminate form of type 0 · ∞.
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x →−1− x + 1 2x − x − 1
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x →−1− x + 1 2x − x − 1

1 3
= lim +
x →−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)( x + 1)
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x →−1− x + 1 2x − x − 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + +
x →−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0− (−3)(0− )
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x →−1− x + 1 2x − x − 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + + (∞ − ∞)
x →−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0− (−3)(0− )
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x →−1− x + 1 2x − x − 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + + (∞ − ∞)
x →−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0− (−3)(0− )
(2x − 1) + 3
= lim
x →−1− (2x − 1)( x + 1)
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x →−1− x + 1 2x − x − 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + + (∞ − ∞)
x →−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0− (−3)(0− )
(2x − 1) + 3
= lim
x →−1−(2x − 1)( x + 1)
2x + 2
= lim
x →−1 − ( 2x − 1)( x + 1)
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x →−1− x + 1 2x − x − 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + + (∞ − ∞)
x →−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0− (−3)(0− )
(2x − 1) + 3
= lim
x →−1−(2x − 1)( x + 1)

2x + 2 0
= lim
x →−1 − ( 2x − 1)( x + 1) 0
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x →−1− x + 1 2x − x − 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + + (∞ − ∞)
x →−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0− (−3)(0− )
(2x − 1) + 3
= lim
x →−1−(2x − 1)( x + 1)

2x + 2 0
= lim
x →−1 − ( 2x − 1)( x + 1) 0
2
= lim
x →−1 − 2x −1
Example

1 3
lim + 2
x →−1− x + 1 2x − x − 1

1 3 1 3
= lim + + (∞ − ∞)
x →−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)( x + 1) 0− (−3)(0− )
(2x − 1) + 3
= lim
x →−1−(2x − 1)( x + 1)

2x + 2 0
= lim
x →−1 − ( 2x − 1)( x + 1) 0
2
= lim
x →−1 − 2x −1
2
=−
3
Example

3 2x
lim −
x →2+ x − 2 x2 − 4
Example

3 2x
lim − 2
x →2+ x − 2 x −4

3 2x
= lim −
x →2+ x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 2)
Example

3 2x
lim − 2
x →2+ x − 2 x −4

3 2x 3
= lim −
x →2+ x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 2) 0+
Example

3 2x
lim − 2
x →2+ x − 2 x −4

3 2x 3 4
= lim − − +
x →2+ x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 2) 0+ (0 )(4)
Example

3 2x
lim − 2
x →2+ x − 2 x −4

3 2x 3 4
= lim − − + (∞ − ∞)
x →2+ x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 2) 0+ (0 )(4)
Example

3 2x
lim − 2
x →2+ x − 2 x −4

3 2x 3 4
= lim − − + (∞ − ∞)
x →2+ x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 2) 0+ (0 )(4)
3x + 6 − 2x
= lim
x →2 + ( x − 2)( x + 2)
Example

3 2x
lim − 2
x →2+ x − 2 x −4

3 2x 3 4
= lim − − + (∞ − ∞)
x →2+ x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 2) 0+ (0 )(4)
3x + 6 − 2x
= lim
x →2 + ( x − 2)( x + 2)
x+6
= lim
x →2+ ( x − 2)( x + 2)
Example

3 2x
lim − 2
x →2+ x − 2 x −4

3 2x 3 4
= lim − − + (∞ − ∞)
x →2+ x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 2) 0+ (0 )(4)
3x + 6 − 2x
= lim
x →2 + ( x − 2)( x + 2)

x+6 8
= lim
x →2+ ( x − 2)( x + 2) (0+ )(4)
Example

3 2x
lim − 2
x →2+ x − 2 x −4

3 2x 3 4
= lim − − + (∞ − ∞)
x →2+ x − 2 ( x − 2)( x + 2) 0+ (0 )(4)
3x + 6 − 2x
= lim
x →2 + ( x − 2)( x + 2)

x+6 8
= lim
x →2+ ( x − 2)( x + 2) (0+ )(4)
= +∞
Example

1 t 8
lim −
t →4+ 4−t t−1 t+2
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim − − (−∞ · 0)
t →4+ 4−t t−1 t+2 0− 3 6
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim − − (−∞ · 0)
t →4+ 4−t t−1 t+2 0− 3 6
t ( t + 2) − 8( t − 1)

1
= lim
t →4+ 4 − t (t − 1)(t + 2)
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim − − (−∞ · 0)
t →4+ 4−t t−1 t+2 0− 3 6
t ( t + 2) − 8( t − 1)

1
= lim
t →4+ 4 − t (t − 1)(t + 2)
t2 − 6t + 8
= lim
t →4+ (4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2)
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim − − (−∞ · 0)
t →4+ 4−t t−1 t+2 0− 3 6
t ( t + 2) − 8( t − 1)

1
= lim
t →4+ 4 − t (t − 1)(t + 2)
2
t − 6t + 8

0
= lim
t→4 (4 − t )( t − 1)( t + 2)
+ 0
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim − − (−∞ · 0)
t →4+ 4−t t−1 t+2 0− 3 6
t ( t + 2) − 8( t − 1)

1
= lim
t →4+ 4 − t (t − 1)(t + 2)
2
t − 6t + 8

0
= lim
t→4 (4 − t )( t − 1)( t + 2)
+ 0
(t − 2)(t − 4)
= lim
t →4+ (4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2)
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim − − (−∞ · 0)
t →4+ 4−t t−1 t+2 0− 3 6
t ( t + 2) − 8( t − 1)

1
= lim
t →4+ 4 − t (t − 1)(t + 2)
2
t − 6t + 8

0
= lim
t→4 (4 − t )( t − 1)( t + 2)
+ 0
(t − 2)(t − 4)
= lim
(4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2)
t →4+
−(t − 2)
= lim
t→4+ ( t − 1)( t + 2)
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim − − (−∞ · 0)
t →4+ 4−t t−1 t+2 0− 3 6
t ( t + 2) − 8( t − 1)

1
= lim
t →4+ 4 − t (t − 1)(t + 2)
2
t − 6t + 8

0
= lim
t→4 (4 − t )( t − 1)( t + 2)
+ 0
(t − 2)(t − 4)
= lim
(4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2)
t →4+
−(t − 2)
= lim
t→4+ ( t − 1)( t + 2)
2
=−
(3)(6)
Example

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim − − (−∞ · 0)
t →4+ 4−t t−1 t+2 0− 3 6
t ( t + 2) − 8( t − 1)

1
= lim
t →4+ 4 − t (t − 1)(t + 2)
2
t − 6t + 8

0
= lim
t→4 (4 − t )( t − 1)( t + 2)
+ 0
(t − 2)(t − 4)
= lim
(4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2)
t →4+
−(t − 2)
= lim
t→4+ ( t − 1)( t + 2)
2 1
=− =−
(3)(6) 9
Exercises
Evaluate the following limits:

x2 − 1
1 lim
x → 21
− 1 − 2x
x2 − 2x
2 lim
x →2+ [[ x ]] − x
p
3 lim x2 + 2x − 3
x →−3−

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M53 Lec1.2 One-Sided2 and Infinite Limits PDF

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One-sided limits and

Institute of Mathematics (UP Diliman)

1 One-Sided Limits (continuation)

1 One-Sided Limits (continuation)

limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a from the left is L

[limit of f ( x ) as x approaches a from the right is L]

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

As x → −3+ , f ( x ) → 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

As x → −3+ , f ( x ) → 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.

As x → 3− , f ( x ) → 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

As x → −3− , f ( x ) → 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

As x → −3+ , f ( x ) → 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.

As x → 3− , f ( x ) → 0, passing through positive values as it approaches 0.

As x → 3+ , f ( x ) → 0, passing through negative values as it approaches 0.

If f ( x ) approaches 0 through positive [negative] values,

If f ( x ) approaches 0 through positive [negative] values,

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0

(−∞, −3) (−3, 3) (3, +∞)

f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for

f ( x ) = [[2x − 1]] = n for