Professional Documents
Culture Documents
THE PLANCK COLD CLUMP G108.37-01.06: A SITE OF COMPLEX INTERPLAY BETWEEN H ii REGIONS,
YOUNG CLUSTERS AND FILAMENTS
Somnath Dutta,1 Soumen Mondal,1 Manash R Samal,2 and Jessy Jose3
arXiv:1808.05217v1 [astro-ph.GA] 15 Aug 2018
ABSTRACT
The Planck Galactic Cold Clumps (PGCCs) are the possible representations of the initial conditions
and the very early stages of star formation. With an objective to understand better the star and
star cluster formation, we probe the molecular cloud associated with PGCC G108.37-01.06 (hereafter,
PG108.3), which can be traced in a velocity range −57 to −51 km s−1 . The IPHAS images reveal Hα
emission at various locations around PG108.3, and optical spectroscopy of the bright sources in those
zones of Hα emission disclose two massive ionizing sources with spectral type O8-O9V and B1V. Using
the radio continuum, we estimate ionizing gas parameters and find the dynamical ages of H ii regions
associated with the massive stars in the range 0.5−0.75 Myr. Based on the stellar surface density map
constructed from the deep near-infrared CHFT observations, we find two prominent star clusters in
PG108.3; of which, the cluster associated with H ii region S148 is moderately massive (∼ 240 M⊙). A
careful inspection of JCMT 13 CO(3−2) molecular data exhibits that the massive cluster is associated
with a number of filamentary structures. Several embedded young stellar objects (YSOs) are also
identified in the PG108.3 along the length and junction of filaments. We find the evidence of velocity
gradient along the length of the filaments. Along with kinematics of the filaments and the distribution
of ionized, molecular gas and YSOs, we suggest that the cluster formation is most likely due to the
longitudinal collapse of the most massive filament in PG108.3.
1. INTRODUCTION sive stars (e.g. Lefloch & Lazareff 1994; Chauhan et al.
The formation of the star cluster is a topic of 2011; Jose et al. 2013; Dawson et al. 2015), iii) mat-
considerable interest since most stars in our Galaxy ter sandwiched between bubbles (e.g. Yamaguchi et al.
form in groups within clustered environments (e.g., 2001; Ojha et al. 2011), and iv) at the collision point
Lada & Lada 2003). Several environmental conditions of molecular clouds (e.g. Fukui et al. 2014; Wu et al.
can breed young clusters such as: i) fragmentation of 2018; Hayashi et al. 2018), v) at the junction of con-
the swept up matter in the shells of the expanding verging filaments or hub of filamentary systems (e.g.
H ii regions (e.g. Elmegreen & Lada 1977; Koenig et al. Schneider et al. 2012; Kirk et al. 2013). As molecu-
2008; Samal et al. 2014; Liu et al. 2016), ii) external lar clouds are often comprised of H ii regions, bubbles,
compression of pre-existing clumps by nearby mas- and dense filamentary structures (Bieging et al. 2009;
Mallick et al. 2013; Samal et al. 2015; Bieging et al.
2016; Jose et al. 2017), therefore, understanding what
Corresponding author: Somnath Dutta shapes the molecular clouds to dense and massive
duttasomnath9@gmail.com enough to form a young cluster is of great inter-
2 Dutta et al.
est. Additionally, the initial cloud configuration de- this work, we made use of optical spectroscopic obser-
cides the future location of cluster formation (e.g. vations to identify the ionizing stars of the H ii regions.
Burkert & Hartmann 2004). Therefore, the exact role We studied ionized gas content and dynamical status of
of environment on the star and star cluster formation of the H ii regions using radio continuum data. Using deep
a cloud can only be thoroughly understood by tracing H, K band data sets along with Spitzer-IRAC data, we
various components of the interstellar medium (ISM) identify and characterize the various young stellar ob-
through multiwavelength observations. jects (YSOs) and young clusters of the region. We ex-
Planck is the third generation mission to mea- amine the cold gas distributions and their kinematics
sure the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave back- using JCMT 13 CO(3 − 2) observations and probe their
ground (CMB) at nine frequency bands from 30 to correlation with ionized gas, YSOs, and clusters. In the
857 GHz, with beam sizes ranging from 33′ to 5′ final step, we attempt to comprehend the star forma-
(Planck Collaboration et al. 2011a). As the high- tion scenario of the complex. We organize our work as
frequency channels of Planck cover the peak thermal follows. In Section 2 we present a brief overview of the
emission of dust colder than 14 K, therefore, Planck PG108.3. Section 3 describes our observational details.
images probe the coldest parts of the ISM. In fact, us- Section 4 deals with various results on the ionized, stel-
ing (sub)millimeter and millimeter wavelengths Planck lar and young stellar, and gas component of the cloud.
have revealed an extremely cold population of dense Section 5 is devoted to our studies of star and cluster
molecular clumps, namely the Planck Galactic Cold formation in the cloud based on the various results ob-
Clumps (PGCCs, Planck Collaboration et al. 2016b). tained in this analysis. We summarize our main findings
The Planck Early Release Compact Source Catalogue in Section 6.
(ERCSC, Planck Collaboration et al. 2011b) provides
lists of positions and flux densities of compact sources 2. OVERVIEW OF THE PG108.3 COMPLEX
at each of the nine Planck frequencies. The properties
Figure 1 shows the location of the bright clump
of PGCCs, however, are still not well known due to the
PG108.3, which is located in Perseus arm of our
lack of observations at high spatial resolution. Anal-
Milky Way. Three H ii regions (S149, S148, S147;
ysis of a part of the ERSSC suggests that depending
Sharpless 1959) are projected in the field of PG108.3
upon distances, these cold sources trace a broad range
complex. The position of S148 nearly coincides with
of objects, from low-mass dense cores to giant molecular
PG108.3. In the direction of PG108.3, the radial veloc-
clouds (Zhang et al. 2018). High angular resolution Her-
ity peaks of the molecular gas were found to be −54.8,
schel and CO isotopologues follow-up observations have
−55.8, −49.4 km s−1 for S149, S148 and S147, respec-
revealed that substantial fraction of such cold sources
tively (e.g., Bergeat et al. 1975; Glushkov et al. 1975;
are filamentary (Juvela et al. 2012, 2017) and corre-
Crampton et al. 1978; Blitz 1979; Tatematsu et al.
spond to the very initial evolutionary stages of star for-
1985; Azimlu & Fich 2011). Recent observations on
mation (Wu et al. 2012; Meng et al. 2013; Zhang et al.
molecular gas around PG108.3 were performed by
2016; Liu et al. 2018a). In particular, Zahorecz et al.
Azimlu & Fich (2011). Using James Clerk Maxwell
(2016) pointed out based on Herschel data, about 25%
Telescope (JCMT) observations in 13 CO(2-1) and
of PGCCs near the Galactic mid-plane may be massive 12
CO(2−1) with a velocity resolution 0.04 km s−1 for
enough to form high-mass stars and star clusters.
both, several cold clumps were detected in the mass
In this work, we examine the molecular cloud and stel-
range 190 to 1400 M ⊙ (Azimlu & Fich 2011) assum-
lar content associated with PGCC G108.37-01.06 (here-
ing the distance of the region S148-S149 as 5.6 ± 0.6
after PG108.3, for details see section 2) located at l =
kpc. Such massive clumps are the possible location of
108◦ .3710, b = −1◦ .0649 (α2000 = 22h 56m 21s , δ2000
on-going or future formation of stellar cluster. How-
= +58◦ 30′ 55′′ ) using multiwavelength datasets. The
ever, we note that the mass of CO clumps as estimated
large-scale CO morphology of the cloud is filamentary, it
by Azimlu & Fich (2011) is likely an overestimation as
hosts a number of H ii regions (Tatematsu et al. 1985).
they have adopted a distance 5.6 kpc for the region,
Moreover, in the shallow near-infrared (NIR) 2MASS
while from the recent works and as well as from this
images, it appears to be a possible site of cluster forma-
work we suggest that 3.3 kpc is likely the more ap-
tion. Therefore, PG108.3 is a good target to investigate
propriate distance to the region (see also section 4.1).
the environmental effect on the formation of star and
Tatematsu et al. (1985) suggests that the group S149-
star clusters. Our aim is to use multiwavelength high-
147 is possibly attached with the group of H ii regions
resolution observations to understand what dominates
S153-152 from their observations in the 12 CO(1−0) and
the star formation process in this planck cold clump. In 13
CO(1−0) molecular lines. The group S153-152 is lo-
The Planck cold clump G108.37-01.06 3
42′00.0′′
36′00.0′′
S149
S148
30′00.0′′
DEC (J2000)
S147
G108.37-01.06
24′00.0′′
18′00.0′′
+58◦12′00.0′′
22h58m00.00s 57m00.00s 56m00.00s 55m00.00s 54m00.00s
RA (J2000)
Figure 1. Planck 857 GHz view of the PG108.3. The simbad positions of three H ii regions are marked. The contour levels
of background image are at 60.0, 80.0, 100.0, 130.0, 160.0 MJy sr−1 . Our FOV (∼ 23′ × 19′ ) in CFHT WIRCam is shown in
black box, whereas green box is the region covered by Spitzer-IRAC. See text for details.
cated towards the north of S149-147, with an average mal extraction method with APALL task in IRAF1 and
radial velocity of −50 km s−1 . wavelength calibrated using the FeAr arc lamp obser-
vations. The spectra were also corrected for the instru-
mental response using the sensitivity function generated
from the standard star observations.
the exposure time of 14.80 s and 23.8 s resulting total plays the cumulative logarithmic distribution of sources
effective exposures 300 s and 2000 s, respectively. at different wavebands. We considered ∼ 90% com-
The data were reduced using Interactive Data Lan- pleteness of our data at the magnitudes at which the
guage (IDL) based reduction pipeline-SIMPLE Imaging histograms deviate from linear distribution and are in-
and Mosaicking PipeLine (SIMPLE; Wang et al. 2010). dicated by vertical lines in Figure 2. With the above
This pipeline generates sky-flat from median combin- approach, our photometry is ∼ 90% complete down to
ing of the dithered images. It provides good treatment H = 18.25 mag, K = 18.50 mag, [3.6] = 15.00 mag and
to sky background fluctuation and minimized artifacts [4.5] = 14.75 mag, respectively. However, in the high
from bright objects. Absolute astrometry solution was nebulous region, we expect 2-5% brighter completeness
obtained with 2MASS reference catalog. The images limits with respect to present estimated values.
were calibrated with the 2MASS catalog. In order to
3.4. Other ancillary datasets
avoid nonlinearity due to saturated stars in WIRCam
bright end, we considered only stars in 13-14.5 mag for Planck: The Planck satellite surveyed the entire
K and 13-15 mag for H with good photometric accuracy sky in nine frequency wavebands during 2009-2013
(err ≤ 0.1) for the calibration of photometric images. (Planck Collaboration et al. 2011a) with the High Fre-
The identification of point sources was performed with quency Instrument (HFI; 857, 545, 353, 217, 143
the DAOFIND task in IRAF. Following Stetson (1987), and 100 GHz) impacting the effective angular reso-
roundness limits of −1 to +1 and sharpness limits of lution ranging from 5′ to 9.6′ (Lamarre et al. 2010;
0.2 to +1 were applied to eliminate bad pixels bright- Planck HFI Core Team et al. 2011).
ness enhancements and the extended sources such as JCMT: The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT)
background galaxies from the point source catalog. The is operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf
photometry on the images was performed with PSF al- of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the
gorithm of DAOPHOT package (Stetson 1992). United Kingdom, the Netherlands Organisation for Sci-
To avoid the inclusion of WIRCam saturated sources entific Research, and the National Research Council of
we replaced all the sources in our catalog having 2MASS Canada. Heterodyne Array Receiver Program (HARP)
magnitudes H ≤ 13.75 mag and K ≤ 13.5 mag. We do installed on the JCMT operates in the submillimetre
not have WIRCam J band observations. We include all frequency bands (325 to 375 GHz) allowing simultane-
available 2MASS J magnitude of the detected sources. ous observations of multiple lines within an intermedi-
Thus, our final catalog is sensitive down to ∼ 20.0 mag ate frequency of 5 GHz (Buckle et al. 2009). This study
and ∼ 20.5 mag in H and K-band, respectively, with utilized 13 CO(3−2) (330.58796 GHz) observations (Pro-
good photometric accuracy (error ≤ 0.1 mag). gram ID: M10BU08) available at JCMT data archive4 .
This dataset has a velocity resolution of 0.05 km s−1 and
3.3. Spitzer-IRAC data rms level is 0.16 K. The JCMT beam size at 330.58796
The Spitzer-IRAC observations in 3.6 and 4.5 µm GHz is 15.2 arcsec; and the main beam efficiency (ηmb)
bands were available in the Spitzer archive program is 0.61.
(Program ID: 30734 ; PI: Figer, Donald F) for the cen- We also obtained the Submillimetre Common-User
tral part (marked in the green box in Figure 1) to- Bolometer Array 2 (SCUBA-2) 850 µm observa-
wards the PG108.3. The basic calibrated Data (version tions from the JCMT archive to trace the dust con-
S18.18.0) were downloaded from Spitzer archive3. The tinuum emission in the star-forming region (SFR;
raw data were processed and the final mosaic frames Dempsey et al. 2013). The beam FWHM of SCUBA-2
were created using MOPEX (version 18.5.0). We per- at 850 µm is 13 arcsec with a mean rms noise level of ∼
formed point response function (PRF) fitting method 2.9 mJy beam−1 .
using APEX tool provided by Spitzer Science center on IRAS: The Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS)
the mosaic Spitzer-IRAC images to extract the magni- was the first-ever space telescope to perform a survey
tudes of point sources. The objects with good photo- of the entire night sky at 12, 25, 60, and 100 µm wave-
metric accuracy (error ≤ 0.2 mag) were utilized for this lengths. Using the High Resolution Image Restoration
analysis. (HIRES; Surace et al. 2004) image reconstruction tech-
The completeness limits at various bands were nique, a spatial resolution ranging from 30′′ to 1.5′ can
estimated from histogram turn over method (e.g., be achieved for the IRAS images. For this analysis, we
Ohlendorf et al. 2013; Samal et al. 2015). Figure 2 dis- obtained the IRAS images.
3 http://archive.spitzer.caltech.edu/ 4 http://www.cadc-ccda.hia-iha.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/en/jcmt/
The Planck cold clump G108.37-01.06 5
101 101
F eI + T iI + CrI
M gI triplet
HeI
CII + OII
HeII
4.5
T iO
HeI
OII/CII
HeII
F eII
CaI
G band
N aI
S149
Hα
T iO
HeI
HeI
CaI
Hβ
Hδ
Hγ
HeI
OII
HeI
33′00′′ 4.0 O8 − O9 V e
S03
A S02 S148 S01
3.5
S01 B1 V
Relative F lux
Dec(J 2000)
S147 K6 III
2.5 S03
27′00′′ 2.0 G9 − K0 V
S04
1.5
F3 − F5 V
+58◦24′00′′
1.0 S05
0.5
4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000
57m00s 40s 20s 56m00s 40s 22h55m20s
W avelength (Å)
RA(J2000)
Figure 3. (left panel) Optical Hα emission is displayed. The spectroscopically observed stars are marked. The projected
H ii regions (S149, S148 & S147) including subregion ‘A’ (see section 4.2.1) are also shown. The contours of Planck 857 GHz
continuum emission have the same meaning as in Figure 1. (right panel) The wavelength and flux calibrated spectra of the
observed sources. The perceptible lines are marked on the top (see text for details).
2MASS J-mag makes it difficult to draw any conclusive ± 0.52 kpc, which is also classified as a class II YSO in
remark. PG108.3 (discussed in section 4.2.2). Thus, based on
Following the prescription of Dutta et al. (2015), we Gaia DR2 datasets, we adopt an average distance of
estimated the visual extinction (AV ) to each observed 3.3 ± 0.22 kpc of PG108.3 and associated H ii regions,
source from their observed photometry and intrinsic as the Gaia measurements are likely to be more robust
colours adopted from Pecaut & Mamajek (2013) accord- compared to our spectrophotmetric observations.
ing to their spectral classification. The distances were
measured from their absolute magnitudes and estimated 4.1.2. Properties of ionized gas
AV , which are presented in Table 1. The membership In this section, we investigate the ionized gas asso-
of the candidates was investigated based on their spec- ciated with the H ii regions using the NVSS 1.4 GHz
tral types and distance. The distance for star ids S01 radio continuum map (the NVSS contours are shown
and S02 are estimated to be 3600 ± 330 and 3590 ± in Figure 5). The number of Lyman continuum pho-
250 pc, respectively. Our estimated spectral classifica- tons (NLy ) can be computed from the observed inte-
tions and distances for S01 and S02 agree well with the grated flux density using the following the equation (see
published values of S152-S153 H ii regions in the litera- Martı́n-Hernández et al. 2005):
ture (Ramı́rez Alegrı́a et al. 2011), which are likely part
−0.33 2
7.603 × 1046 s−1
of the same cloud in which the S149-S148 H ii regions Sν Te D
NLy =
are associated (see Section 2 and also Tatematsu et al. b(ν, Te ) Jy 104 K kpc
1985, for details). Considering their distances, S04 and (1)
S05 seem to be foreground stars. The distance of star where Sν is the radio continuum integrated flux density
S03 was not estimated since we were unable to spec- at frequency ν, Te is the electron temperature, θD is
ify the luminosity class of the star from low-resolution the angular diameter of the source, D the distance from
spectra. We considered S03 as background giant stars the Sun. The values of Sν were adopted from NVSS
after visual inspection of multiwavelength images and 1.4 GHz catalog6. The electron temperature Te were
its location on (J − H)/(H − K) CC diagram. presumed from the galactocentric distance of the source
We also searched for Gaia DR2 parallax for bright (Rgal = 11.71 and 11.72 kpc for S148 and S149, respec-
sources (G < 16 mag) in the nebulous region, with tively; Caplan et al. 2000) following the relation given
good relative parallax uncertainties (̟/σ̟ > 5) to com- by Tremblin et al. (2014):
pute distances (d = 1/̟) within 20 % uncertainty limit
(Luri et al. 2018). Under the above criterion, we find the Rgal
Te = 278K + 6080K (2)
distance of S02 (d ∼ 3.4 ± 0.32 kpc, see Table 1) remain kpc
within error bars of spectroscopic distance. We also no-
Following Panagia & Walmsley (1978), the rms elec-
tice, the distances of S04 & S05 are close to the spec-
tron density (ne ) can be obtained from the radio con-
troscopic measurements. We reveal one source (α2000
tinuum map at 1.4 GHz considering spherical geometry
= 22h 56m 17.46s , δ2000 = +58◦ 31′ 17.5′′ ) very close to
of H ii regions:
S01 (within 0.04 pc), thus likely member of S148 cluster.
The Gaia distance of the source is 3.1 ± 0.22 kpc. At 0.5 0.25
4.092 × 105 cm−3 Sν Te
around the faint nebulosity (α2000 = 22h 56m 46s , δ2000 ne =
104 K
p
b(ν, Te ) Jy
= +58◦ 30′ 26′′ ) in the western part, three sources are −0.5 −1.5 (3)
found to persist above criteria of Gaia DR2, of which D θD
two (S04 & S05) are classified as foreground from spec- kpc arcsec
trophotometry, another source (α2000 = 22h 56m 45.35s,
6 https://www.cv.nrao.edu/nvss/
δ2000 = +58◦ 30′ 24′′ ) is estimated to be located at ∼ 3.55
8 Dutta et al.
Dec(J2000)
following Tremblin et al. (2014):
28′00′′
Pe = 2ne kb Te (5)
40′00′′
2.5 pc
B
35′00′′
B
A
Dec(J2000)
30′00′′ 1 arcmin
25′00′′ A
+58◦20′00′′
1 arcmin
m s s m s s m s s h m s
57 00 30 56 00 30 55 00 30 22 54 00
RA(J2000)
Figure 6. (left panel) The surface density map of sources detected in K-band towards PG108.3 region overlaid on the color-
composite (Red: WISE W3; Green: WISE W1; Blue: 2MASS K) image. Stellar surface density was calculated using the five
nearest neighbors. The Planck cold contour levels have the same meaning as in Figure 1. (right panel) The (zoomed) surface
density contour of cluster ‘A’ and ‘B’ are overplotted on WIRCam K band image.
(e.g., Testi et al. 1998; Jose et al. 2012). We probed the “B” (peak at α2000 = 22h 56m 16s , δ2000 = +58◦ 30′ 59′′ )
sub-clusters within the molecular cloud by stellar surface associated with S148 H ii region. The radius of the clus-
density map derived using nearest neighborhood tech- ter was estimated to be ∼ 1.41′ (1.35 pc at cluster dis-
nique (Gutermuth et al. 2005). By using the total num- tance) from the contours above 3σ of the background
ber of K band detection within the completeness limit, surface density. This cluster peaks nearly at the core
we generated the stellar density profile towards PG108.3 of S148 and is extended upto H ii region boundary (see
following the method introduced by Casertano & Hut section 4.1.2). The second-overdensity is a cashew nut
(1985). Briefly, the stellar density σ(i, j) inside a cell of structure “A” (peak at α2000 = 22h 56m 46s , δ2000 =
uniform grid centred at (i, j) is σ(i, j) = πdN2 −1
(i,j)
where +58◦ 30′ 26′′ ) associated with faint Hα nebulosity in the
N
dN is the distance to the Nth nearest source from the eastern part of S148 H ii region. This subcluster is ex-
centre of the cell. The value of N is allowed to vary tended over an effective radius 0.8′ (ellipticity param-
depending upon our interest on the smallest scale struc- eters, a = 1.3′ and b = 0.6′ ). It is to be noted that
tures of the field. In Figure 6 (left panel), the isodensity cluster “A” corresponds to most massive clump “C1” of
contours are plotted above 3σ from background stellar Azimlu & Fich (2011), whereas cluster “B” is associated
density. In Figure 6 (right panel), the surface density with another massive clump “C5”(see also section 5).
contours are overlaid on the zoomed WIRCam K-band
image. This map was obtained for nearest neighbor N 4.2.2. Young Stellar Population
= 5 in a grid size of 10′′ × 10′′ . Crucial to our young star search is the ability to distin-
The surface density in the region reveals two promi- guish YSOs from the background-foreground stars. The
nent substructures. We observed a circular structure IR excess emission from circumstellar material makes
10 Dutta et al.
2.0 8
AV
4.0
10
3.5
=
10 1
5
35
AV =
1.5
[K−[3.6]] (mag)
3.0
H−K (mag)
2.5
AV = 12
K (mag)
0
1.0
2.0
14
1.5
16
1.0 0.5
0.5
18
0.0 0.0
[[3.6]−[4.5]] (mag)
0 K−[4.5] (mag) H−K (mag)
Figure 7. Left: [3.6−4.5]0 /[K −3.6]0 CC diagram of all the uncontaminated sources identified within the Spitzer observed area.
The YSOs classified as candidate class I and class II, based on Gutermuth et al. (2009) colour criteria, are shown in red triangles
and green circles, respectively. Middle: All the detected sources are shown in K − [4.5]/H − K diagram. The blue sources are
additional YSOs detected in this method. The brown line indicates the reddening vector drawn from the tip of main-sequence.
Right: H − K/K CMD for all the sources. The magenta asterisk is the additional YSOs detected in this scheme. The colour
cut-off at H − K = 1.2 mag is shown by dashed line. The reddening vectors are plotted for various color combinations.
them distinctive from other groups of stars, although hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions which are often bright in
dust in the molecular cloud core averts YSOs observable the vicinity of young H ii regions (Smith et al. 2010).
at radio, submillimeter, and infrared wavelengths. We 2. We next used K − [4.5]/H − K CC diagram to
utilized Spitzer-IRAC, deep NIR data to distinguish IR identify additional YSOs since 4.5 µm is less affected
excess sources. Note that WIRCam provides ∼ 3 mag- by PAH emissions (Samal et al. 2014; Jose et al. 2016).
nitude deeper than 2MASS. Hence our analyses yield In Figure 7(middle panel), we plotted all the detected
embedded sources at relatively large cluster distance of sources along with the 55 previously identified YSOs
∼ 3.3 kpc. The YSOs selection is described as follows: from [[3.6] − [4.5]]0/ [[K] − [3.6]]0 . The reddening vector
1. Following Gutermuth et al. (2008, 2009), we iden- from the tip of the dwarf locus (e.g., Patten et al. 2006)
tified YSOs using H, K, and 3.6, 4.5 µm photometric is also shown. Except one, all the previously identified
data. First of all, we dereddened the data points us- YSOs are located at the right side of the reddening vec-
ing the NIR extinction map (for details on the creation tor. A few other stars also share the same IR space
of the extinction map, see Jose et al. 2016). The in- with YSOs. These sources could be IR excess sources,
clusion of extragalactic contamination was minimized but they were not distinguished in the above classifica-
by applying simple brightness cut in the dereddened tion scheme likely due to the combination of improper
Spitzer-IRAC photometry. All the class I and class II dereddening and low-sensitivity at 3.6 µm. Hence, the
YSOs essentially have [3.6]0 ≤ 15 mag and [3.6]0 ≤ 14.5 stars above the tip of the dwarf locus (H − K > 0.47)
mag, respectively. After removing the possible contam- and towards the right side of the reddening vectors are
inants, we plotted all the sources in ([[3.6] − [4.5]]0 / considered as additional excess sources in the region.
[[K] − [3.6]]0 ) color-color (CC) diagram as shown in This colour cut-off was determined from the compari-
Figure 7 (left panel). Using colour criteria described son of the K − [4.5]/H − K colour-colour distribution
in Gutermuth et al. (2009), we identified 55 candidate of the candidate YSOs with that of the control field re-
YSOs including 16 relatively high excess class I and 39 gion, which shows that majority of the selected YSOs
class II with intermediate IR excess emission. In Figure are likely above H − K > 0.47 (see Jose et al. 2016, for
7, the class I and class II sources are displayed with the details). Thus, we added 28 more stars to the YSO list.
red triangles and green circles, respectively. A redden- 3. Our Spitzer datasets are limited by spatial coverage
ing vector AK = 2 mag is also plotted by using the (see Figure 1), while our deep NIR observations cover a
reddening law from Flaherty et al. (2007). However, larger area, therefore we used the (H − K/K) colour-
we note that our present YSO selection is incomplete magnitude diagram (CMD; see the right panel of Fig-
as sources in nebulous region might not have detected ure 7) to identify additional YSOs (e.g., Bernard et al.
in low-sensitive Spitzer observations, particularly in the 2016). However, trying to disentangle young stars from
Spitzer 3.6 µm band as it is affected by poly-aromatic reddened background stars using NIR CMD is complex,
so we adopted the following approach: i) we selected
The Planck cold clump G108.37-01.06 11
F1 F1 F1
F1 F1 F1
33′00′′
A S148 A S148 A S148
Dec(J2000)
30′00′′
F1 F1 F1
27′00′′
+58◦24′00′′
RA(J2000)
Figure 12. The 13 CO(3−2) velocity channel maps in the direction of the cloud. The molecular emission is integrated within
the velocity range given in each panel. The locations of filament F1 and S148 are marked. The filamentary head ‘A’ is also
mentioned.
the YSOs identified using Spitzer-IRAC and HK-bands the vertical part of F1 filament do not show any prefer-
are shown in the left panel, while the YSOs identified ential clustering, rather distributed more or less linearly
based on only HK bands with H − K color > 1.2 mag along the long axis. Since the YSOs identified using HK
are shown in the middle panel. As can be seen, most bands can be biased due to high extinction often ob-
of the YSOs are distributed in the close proximity of served in filamentary environments (e.g., Busquet et al.
the CO emission along the filamentary cloud with en- 2013; Deharveng et al. 2015), in the right panel of Fig-
hanced concentration towards the locations of clusters ure 13, we present a zoomed in view of the vertical
A and B7 . One can also see the YSOs distributed in
surface density map in our studied area, we observed two cluster-
7 Wenote that the close proximity of the Spitzer based YSOs ing of point sources that are mimicking the location of enhanced
with the CO emission could be due to small spatial coverage of concentrations found, implying perhaps no further young clus-
Spitzer observations. However, we emphasize that with K-band ters/groups are present in the cloud.
The Planck cold clump G108.37-01.06 15
S149
F3 F4
33′00′′ S148 33′00′′
A S147
F2
30′00′′ 30′00′′ pv2
DEC(J2000)
Dec(J 2000)
27′00′′ 27′00′′
F1
pv1
24′00′′ 24′00′′
+58◦21′00′′ +58◦21′00′′
57m00s 40s 20s 56m00s 40s 22h55m20s 57m00s 40s 20s 56m00s 40s 22h55m20s
RA(J2000) RA(J2000)
Figure 13. (Left) Spatial distribution of YSOs in PG108.3 cloud complex overplotted on the 13 CO(3−2) image, integrated
over −56 to −52 km s−1 . The points with various colours have the same meaning as that of Figure 7. The main sub-regions are
marked. The 1.4 GHz contour (brown) have the same meaning of Figure 5. (Middle) Spatial distribution of additional YSOs
identified from H − K/K CMD are shown in magenta ‘asterisk’. Four filaments (F1, F2, F3 & F4) are marked in blue. Two
yellow arrows (pv1 & pv2) indicate the axes of position-velocity diagram (see Figure 15). (Right) Colour-composite image of
the zoomed in section of the vertical part of inverse L-shaped filament F1 (R: WISE 12 µm; G: WIRCam K; B: WIRCam H)
is shown. The white contours are SCUBA 850 µm emission at 15, 50, 100, 150, 200, 250 mJy beam−1 .
8 6 3
S148 Subregi n A S149
Mean Antena Temperature (K)
6
4 2
4
1
2
2
0
0 0
−57 −54 −51 −48 −60 −57 −54 −51 −56 −54 −52 −50
Radial Vel city (km/s) Radial Vel city (km/s) Radial Vel city (km/s)
13
Figure 14. The CO(3−2) spectra towards the each subregion are shown. The velocity peaks are highlighted by dashed
lines.
part of the filament F1 in the NIR and WISE 12 µm a non clustered distribution of YSOs or cores along the
band. As can be seen, the filament contains several 12 long axis of filaments have been observed in many fila-
µm sources (red sources) along its length, indicating the mentary systems (e.g., Hartmann 2002; Hacar & Tafalla
YSOs in the filament based on HK are most likely gen- 2011; Samal et al. 2015; Gong et al. 2016). We note that
uine YSOs. To further confirm the nature of the red the non-detection of the HK YSOs in the other parts
sources, we did YSOs analysis using WISE observation of the cloud could be a selection effect as we selected
following the prescription given by Kang et al. (2017). sources with high H − K colour to minimize the effect of
However, WISE observations are of low-sensitivity com- cloud extinction in the YSO selection. As 0.1 mag is the
pared to the Spitzer observations, we identified only six mean intrinsic H − K color of PMS stars of age around
YSOs in our studied area, three of which lie in the verti- 1 Myr, thus a source with the H − K color 1.2 mag
cal part of the F1 filament. We find these three sources, would require a foreground cloud of visual extinction
are already been classified as YSOs based on H − K/K (AV ) 17.5 mag (AV =15.9×E(H−K), Rieke & Lebofsky
CMD. This affirms that the most, if not all, the YSOs 1985) to be a reddened field star, implying any NIR YSO
identified in the filament should be genuine YSOs. Such with a small excess embedded in a cloud of foreground
16 Dutta et al.
Figure 15. (left panel) A position-velocity diagram along the axis “pv1” (along the vertical part of inverse L-shaped filament
F1) as shown in the middle panel of Figure 13. (right panel) A position-velocity diagram along the axis “pv2” (along the
horizontal part of inverse L-shaped filament F1) as shown in the middle panel of Figure 13. The peak velocities of molecular
gas corresponding to cluster A and cluster B (around S148) are marked by red and blue lines, respectively. The clusters (A &
B) are marked in their corresponding positions and velocities.
AV less than 17.5 mag would not have been identified S149 located near the boundary of S148 and smaller
in our scheme. in size, one can argue that S149 might have been influ-
enced by S148. Unfortunately, from the current data, we
5. STAR FORMATION PROCESSES IN PG108.3 have no way to estimate precisely either the age of the
Feedback from massive stars plays a critical role in H ii regions or the embedded YSOs in S148. Nonethe-
the star formation process and evolution of molecu- less, we searched for signatures of the early phases of
lar clouds. In particular, expanding H ii regions may high-mass star formation such as masers and outflows in
have a positive effect on star formation, i.e. they can the vicinity of S148 and our search resulted in no such
trigger a new generation of star formation in molecu- observations. The small size of the S149 H ii regions
lar clouds either by sweeping ambient clouds into dense could be due to the fact it is ionized by less massive
shells or by compressing nearby dense clouds into bound star compared to S148, as a result, S149 is expanding
clumps/cores (for details, see Deharveng et al. 2010). In at a slow rate compared to S148 assuming both of them
both cases, dense material eventually fragments to form formed in a similar environment. Considering the fact
new stars. Since the PG108.3 cloud consists of three that S149 is optically visible, its dynamical age is close
evolved H ii regions, thus one can speculate that the for- to the age of S148 and the ionized gas pressure of both
mation of young sources in the region might have been regions are within a factor of two, we regard the proba-
triggered by the expanding bubble. However, our ob- bility that the formation of S149 is solely due to expan-
servations largely do not favor such a process because sion of S148 rather low, although we can not ignore the
in such a scenario one would expect the distribution of possibility that the expanding ionization front of S148
young YSOs or star-forming cores at the outskirts of might have accelerated star formation in S149 after the
the H ii regions (for example, see Zavagno et al. 2006; initial clump formation and fragmentation. A way to
Jose et al. 2013; Panwar et al. 2014; Liu et al. 2016; prove such a hypothesis is to compare the molecular gas
Samal et al. 2018). In contrast, we find no young Class I pressure of S149 with external gas pressure generated by
sources around S147 and most of Class I sources around the S148 (e.g., Thompson et al. 2004; Kim et al. 2017;
S148 are co-spatial with the Class II sources located near Liu et al. 2017) in the early stage of star formation, how-
the centre of the ionized gas. Since young clusters often ever, in S149, neither we find significant cold gas nor
harbor Class III to Class I sources as a part of cluster Azimlu & Fich (2011) any molecular clumps to obtain
formation process (e.g., Jose et al. 2017; Panwar et al. some clue in this direction.
2017, 2018), thus the Class I YSOs of the S148 are most In the PG108.3 cloud complex, we have identified
likely part of the central cluster responsible for the ion- two sites of cluster formation using deep K-band sur-
ization of S148. Given the fact that the H ii region face density map. One of them is associated with the
The Planck cold clump G108.37-01.06 17
H ii region S148 (i.e. cluster B) and is rich in infrared as can be seen in the integrated intensity 13 CO(3−2)
point sources with a total stellar mass around 240 M⊙ map shown in the left panel of Figure 13, at least
(see 4.2.4 for details), while the other cluster (i.e. clus- four filamentary (F1, F2, F3 & F4) structures are at-
ter A) appears to be a loose stellar aggregate. We tached to the location of cluster B. This is the loca-
note, among the 13 dense compact clumps identified by tion, where we observed a relatively rich cluster around
Azimlu & Fich (2011) in the vicinity of PG108.3, the an O9 V massive star, consistent with the picture of
most massive (∼ 486 M⊙ )8 clump C1 identified by them hub filamentary system (Myers 2009), where several
corresponds to cluster A, while the cluster B is associ- fan-like filaments can intersect, merge and fuel the
ated to a less massive (∼ 333 M⊙ )8 clump C5. Given the clump/core located at their geometric centre to form
fact that extinction around cluster B as estimated from high-mass stars and star clusters. Such hub-potential
the spectroscopy of the ionizing sources is ∼ 4 mag, im- systems where the massive star and cluster formation
plying the cluster is in the advanced stage of evolution, is occurring have also been noticed in a few Galac-
therefore some of the gaseous mass has already been tic clouds (e.g., Csengeri et al. 2011; Liu et al. 2012;
converted into stars and some of it has been ionized by Galván-Madrid et al. 2013; Peretto et al. 2014). Al-
the H ii region. Moreover, the excitation temperature though, the spatial and velocity resolution of our data
of 12 CO(2−1) for C1 (∼ 32 K) is colder compared to C5 is not enough to investigate the kinematics of all the
(∼ 40 K) clump (Azimlu & Fich 2011), implying the star sub-filaments around the cluster A, nonetheless, from
formation in clump C1 is in earlier phase compared to the channel maps discussed in Figure 12, we observed
C5. Although, we searched for massive sources around gas motion along the F1 filament axis running all the
cluster B using optical observations, but failed to iden- way from its southern end to the location of clump
tify them, likely due to high extinction. Nonetheless, in C5. We note, while cluster formation can occur at
the WISE 12 µm band, we find that the cluster shows the junction of filamentary flows, sub-filaments them-
diffuse emission at 12 µm. The 12 µm WISE band con- selves can fragment to form stars along their length due
tains 11.7 µm emission commonly attributed to PAH to some kind of filament fragmentation process (e.g.,
molecule, therefore, a good tracer of newly formed, em- Inutsuka & Miyama 1997; Palau et al. 2018). These
bedded B-type star formation (e.g., Peeters et al. 2004) dense cores often aligned with large-scale filaments like
as these stars have the ability to heat the surround- pearls in a string and can pull matter form the global
ing dust to enough temperature that can excite PAH accretion flows of the system to their local potential well
molecules. We suggest the clump C1 is also a site of (e.g., Zhang et al. 2015). The key to understanding the
massive star formation like C5 albeit a less massive one. fragmentation process and to distinguish between dif-
Recent Herschel observations have shown that fila- ferent models, such as a pure thermal fragmentation or
ments and filamentary structures play a vital role in turbulent fragmentation, require high-resolution dust as
the star formation process (André et al. 2010), includ- well as molecular observations (e.g. see Palau et al.
ing the formation of massive stars (Schneider et al. 2012; 2018, and references therein). Nonetheless, the distri-
Motte et al. 2017). In particular, Herschel results have bution of YSOs along the F1 filament as shown in the
emphasized that filaments are the main evolutionary middle panel of Figure 13, indicates that the filament
stage that sets the initial condition for the formation has undergone fragmentation. The most massive clump
of dense cores and stars, where the gas can be fun- is located at one end of the L-shaped filament. We find
neled along the filaments and feed the star-forming re- velocity gradient along the filament, likely result from
gions located at the bottom of their potential well and an overall inflow of mass to the center of the poten-
can facilitate the formation of star clusters. For ex- tial, which in this case is the location of the cluster and
ample, in the DR21 region, several low-density stria- clump associated to S148. However as discussed ear-
tions or sub-filaments were observed perpendicular to lier, PG108.3 as a whole has a more complex geometry
the main filament of the complex, and they were ap- and density structure than the ones of a single filament.
parently feeding matter to the main filament resulting The cluster is attached to a few small-filaments along
cluster formation at the junction (e.g., Schneider et al. with the inverted L-shaped filament more like a hub-
2010; Hennemann et al. 2012). In the PG108.3 complex, filament system. In such a configuration, the potential
well is dominated by the central mass of the hub. How-
8 Azimlu & Fich (2011) estimated the masses of the clumps C1
ever, it is difficult to conclude, whether the small-scale
and C5 as 1400 M⊙ and 960 M⊙ , respectively, at a distance 5.6
filaments (F2, F3, F4) were present before the forma-
kpc, since mass is proportional to the square of distance; we have tion of the cluster or they have formed after the forma-
scaled the mass at modified distance of 3.3 kpc. tion of the massive clump by the focusing effect of grav-
18 Dutta et al.
ity of the clump that might have pulled and channeled where we found a gas motion from its southern end
gaseous matter around its vicinity to its center. High- to S148 H ii regions via junction head at subclus-
resolution observations would shed more light on this ter ‘A’. By comparing the distribution of ionized,
issue. Nonetheless, it appears that the large-scale longi- molecular, and young stellar content, our findings
tudinal collapse of the L-shaped filament is most likely do not point any triggering star formation at the
the dominant contributor to the cluster formation. H ii region boundaries, we rather suggest that the
cluster formation is most likely due to the longitu-
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS dinal collapse of the filament to the center of the
In this paper, we carried out an extensive study using potential well.
multi-wavelength datasets to explore the physical condi-
tions of the molecular cloud and star formation activity
around PG108.3 cloud complex. Our analyses focused We thank the anonymous referee for the constructive
on the massive ionizing sources and ionized gas, asso- comments which have helped to improve the scientific
ciated young clusters, molecular gas, filamentary struc- content and the presentation of the paper. This work
ture, and embedded young stellar population. We sum- is supported by Satyendra Nath Bose National Centre
marize the important findings of the present analyses as for Basic Sciences, Kolkata, India under Department of
follows: Science and Technology (DST), Govt. of India. The au-
thors are thankful to Dr Wei-Hao Wang for valuable sug-
• From our optical spectroscopic analysis, we identi- gestions on SIMPLE Imaging and Mosaicking PipeLinE
fied that H ii regions associated with the PG108.3 for WIRCAM. I would like to thank Dr Ramkrishna Das
cloud harbor at least two massive ionizing sources. for valuable suggestions. This work has made use of data
The S148 H ii region is powered by the star S01 from the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia
(O9 V), whereas S149 is from the star S02 (B1 V). (https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia), processed by the
Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC,
• Two compact radio continuum sources (i.e., S01
https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/dpac/consortium).
and S02) are traced with the NVSS 1.4 GHz data,
Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national
and thus our analyses reveal the H ii regions are
institutions, in particular the institutions participating
excited by corresponding massive sources. The dy-
in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. This research used
namical age of S148 was estimated to be 0.5−0.75
the facilities of the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre
Myr.
operated by the National Research Council of Canada
• The stellar surface density map reveals that at with the support of the Canadian Space Agency. This
least two prominent subclusters (‘A’ and ‘B’) in publication also used the data products from the SIM-
the vicinity of the PG108.3 cloud complex. The K- BAD database (operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France),
band luminosity function of S148 resembles that of the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project
Trapezium cluster. The total mass of S148 cluster of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared
is estimated to be ∼ 240 M⊙. The cluster fol- Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of
lows the size-mass linear relation like other nearby Technology, funded by NASA and NSF, archival data
clusters given in Lada & Lada (2003). obtained with the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer
(a joint project of the University of California, Los Ange-
• Using the Spitzer-IRAC and deep NIR observa- les, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory [JPL], California
tions, we identified 111 candidate YSOs, which in- Institute of Technology [Caltech], funded by the Na-
clude 16 Class I, 39 Class II. Our YSO estimation tional Aeronautics and Space Administration [NASA]),
is sensitive to ∼ 0.2 M⊙. and the NOAO Science archive, which is operated by
the Association of Universities for Research in Astron-
• The molecular cloud is depicted using JCMT
13 omy (AURA), Inc., under a cooperative agreement with
CO(3−2) observations in the velocity range −57
the National Science Foundation.
to −51 km s−1 . A careful inspection of the molec-
ular line data shows that the peak velocity of Software: Python,IDL,Astropy(Astropy Collaboration et al.
molecular gas around cluster A and cluster B 2013), CASA (McMullin et al. 2007), DAOFIND (Stetson
(around S148) are at −55.2 km s−1 and -52.7 km 1987), IRAF (Tody 1986, 1993), DAOPHOT (Stetson
s−1 . The molecular data reveals the filament F1, 1992), SIMPLE (Wang et al. 2010), MOPEX (v18.5.0)
The Planck cold clump G108.37-01.06 19
Table 3. Catalog of YSOs towards PG108.3 cloud complex. The complete table is available in the electronic version.
RA (J2000) Dec (J2000) J eJ H eH K eK [3.6] e[3.6] [4.5] e[4.5]
deg (deg) (mag) (mag) (mag) (mag) (mag) (mag) (mag) (mag) (mag) (mag)
Class I sources
344.02996 58.54746 ... ... 16.978 0.017 15.267 0.020 12.551 0.010 11.707 0.008
344.11737 58.54593 14.279 0.175 14.108 0.028 13.916 0.016 12.824 0.015 10.816 0.006
344.05988 58.52124 16.244 0.190 15.334 0.025 14.357 0.022 12.184 0.007 11.634 0.008
344.10590 58.53710 ... ... 16.740 0.039 15.812 0.026 14.148 0.035 13.569 0.035
344.18661 58.50423 ... ... 16.451 0.024 15.549 0.015 12.686 0.022 12.510 0.030
344.08853 58.51944 ... ... 16.192 0.023 15.309 0.021 14.243 0.033 13.437 0.030
344.08157 58.52227 ... ... 15.917 0.015 15.381 0.019 14.335 0.039 13.464 0.030
344.18518 58.52365 ... ... 18.030 0.041 16.949 0.018 14.150 0.061 13.646 0.070
344.04636 58.52343 ... ... 19.256 0.098 17.480 0.027 13.528 0.018 13.293 0.024
344.06329 58.52825 ... ... 16.150 0.022 14.967 0.023 14.009 0.029 13.066 0.022
REFERENCES
Allen, L. E., & Strom, K. M. 1995, AJ, 109, 1379, Busquet, G., Zhang, Q., Palau, A., et al. 2013, ApJL, 764,
doi: 10.1086/117370 L26, doi: 10.1088/2041-8205/764/2/L26
André, P., Men’shchikov, A., Bontemps, S., et al. 2010, Caplan, J., Deharveng, L., Peña, M., Costero, R., &
A&A, 518, L102, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201014666 Blondel, C. 2000, MNRAS, 311, 317,
Astropy Collaboration, Robitaille, T. P., Tollerud, E. J., doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03029.x
et al. 2013, A&A, 558, A33, Carpenter, J. M. 2001, AJ, 121, 2851, doi: 10.1086/320383
doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201322068 Casertano, S., & Hut, P. 1985, ApJ, 298, 80,
Azimlu, M., & Fich, M. 2011, AJ, 141, 123, doi: 10.1086/163589
doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/141/4/123 Chauhan, N., Pandey, A. K., Ogura, K., et al. 2011,
Balser, D. S., Rood, R. T., Bania, T. M., & Anderson, L. D. MNRAS, 415, 1202,
2011, ApJ, 738, 27, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/738/1/27 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18742.x
Barentsen, G., Farnhill, H. J., Drew, J. E., et al. 2014, Cohen, J. G., Persson, S. E., Elias, J. H., & Frogel, J. A.
1981, ApJ, 249, 481, doi: 10.1086/159308
MNRAS, 444, 3230, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stu1651
Condon, J. J., Cotton, W. D., Greisen, E. W., et al. 1998,
Bergeat, J., Sibille, F., & Lunel, M. 1975, A&A, 40, 347
AJ, 115, 1693, doi: 10.1086/300337
Bernard, A., Neichel, B., Samal, M. R., et al. 2016, A&A,
Crampton, D., Georgelin, Y. M., & Georgelin, Y. P. 1978,
592, A77, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201628754
A&A, 66, 1
Bersanelli, M., Mandolesi, N., Butler, R. C., et al. 2010,
Csengeri, T., Bontemps, S., Schneider, N., Motte, F., &
A&A, 520, A4, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/200912853
Dib, S. 2011, A&A, 527, A135,
Bessell, M. S., & Brett, J. M. 1988, PASP, 100, 1134,
doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201014984
doi: 10.1086/132281
Cutri, R. M., & et al. 2012, VizieR Online Data Catalog,
Bieging, J. H., Patel, S., Peters, W. L., et al. 2016, ApJS,
2311
226, 13, doi: 10.3847/0067-0049/226/1/13
Dawson, J. R., Ntormousi, E., Fukui, Y., Hayakawa, T., &
Bieging, J. H., Peters, W. L., Vila Vilaro, B., Schlottman, Fierlinger, K. 2015, ApJ, 799, 64,
K., & Kulesa, C. 2009, AJ, 138, 975, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/799/1/64
doi: 10.1088/0004-6256/138/3/975 Deharveng, L., Lefloch, B., Zavagno, A., et al. 2003, A&A,
Blitz, L. 1979, ApJL, 231, L115, doi: 10.1086/183016 408, L25, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20031157
Bressan, A., Marigo, P., Girardi, L., et al. 2012, MNRAS, Deharveng, L., Schuller, F., Anderson, L. D., et al. 2010,
427, 127, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21948.x A&A, 523, A6, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201014422
Buckle, J. V., Hills, R. E., Smith, H., et al. 2009, MNRAS, Deharveng, L., Zavagno, A., Anderson, L. D., et al. 2012,
399, 1026, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15347.x A&A, 546, A74, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201219131
Burkert, A., & Hartmann, L. 2004, ApJ, 616, 288, Deharveng, L., Zavagno, A., Samal, M. R., et al. 2015,
doi: 10.1086/424895 A&A, 582, A1, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201423835
20 Dutta et al.
Dempsey, J. T., Friberg, P., Jenness, T., et al. 2013, Inutsuka, S.-i., & Miyama, S. M. 1997, ApJ, 480, 681,
MNRAS, 430, 2534, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stt090 doi: 10.1086/303982
Drew, J. E., Greimel, R., Irwin, M. J., et al. 2005, MNRAS, Jacoby, G. H., Hunter, D. A., & Christian, C. A. 1984,
362, 753, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09330.x ApJS, 56, 257, doi: 10.1086/190983
Dutta, S., Mondal, S., Jose, J., et al. 2015, MNRAS, 454, Jose, J., Herczeg, G. J., Samal, M. R., Fang, Q., & Panwar,
3597, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stv2190 N. 2017, ApJ, 836, 98, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/836/1/98
Dutta, S., Mondal, S., Joshi, S., et al. 2018, MNRAS, 476, Jose, J., Kim, J. S., Herczeg, G. J., et al. 2016, ApJ, 822,
2813, doi: 10.1093/mnras/sty329 49, doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/822/1/49
Elmegreen, B. G., & Lada, C. J. 1977, ApJ, 214, 725, Jose, J., Pandey, A. K., Ogura, K., et al. 2012, MNRAS,
doi: 10.1086/155302 424, 2486, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21175.x
Fich, M. 1986, AJ, 92, 787, doi: 10.1086/114212 Jose, J., Pandey, A. K., Samal, M. R., et al. 2013, MNRAS,
Flaherty, K. M., Pipher, J. L., Megeath, S. T., et al. 2007, 432, 3445, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stt700
ApJ, 663, 1069, doi: 10.1086/518411 Juvela, M., Ristorcelli, I., Pagani, L., et al. 2012, A&A,
Fukui, Y., Ohama, A., Hanaoka, N., et al. 2014, ApJ, 780, 541, A12, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201118640
36, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/780/1/36 Juvela, M., He, J., Pattle, K., et al. 2017, ArXiv e-prints.
Gaia Collaboration, Brown, A. G. A., Vallenari, A., et al. https://arxiv.org/abs/1711.09425
2018, ArXiv e-prints. https://arxiv.org/abs/1804.09365 Kang, S.-J., Kerton, C. R., Choi, M., & Kang, M. 2017,
Gaia Collaboration, Prusti, T., de Bruijne, J. H. J., et al. ApJ, 845, 21, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa7da3
2016, A&A, 595, A1, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201629272 Kim, J., Lee, J.-E., Liu, T., et al. 2017, ApJS, 231, 9,
Galván-Madrid, R., Liu, H. B., Zhang, Z.-Y., et al. 2013, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/aa7b31
ApJ, 779, 121, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/779/2/121 Kirk, H., Myers, P. C., Bourke, T. L., et al. 2013, ApJ, 766,
Glushkov, Y. I., Denisyuk, E. K., & Karyagina, Z. V. 1975, 115, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/766/2/115
A&A, 39, 481 Kirsanova, M. S., Sobolev, A. M., & Thomasson, M. 2017,
Gong, Y., Mao, R. Q., Fang, M., et al. 2016, A&A, 588, Astronomy Reports, 61, 760,
A104, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201527334 doi: 10.1134/S1063772917090025
González-Solares, E. A., Walton, N. A., Greimel, R., et al. Koenig, X. P., Allen, L. E., Gutermuth, R. A., et al. 2008,
2008, MNRAS, 388, 89, ApJ, 688, 1142, doi: 10.1086/592322
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13399.x Koornneef, J. 1983a, A&A, 128, 84
Gutermuth, R. A., Megeath, S. T., Myers, P. C., et al. —. 1983b, A&AS, 51, 489
2009, ApJS, 184, 18, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/184/1/18 Kurtz, S., Churchwell, E., & Wood, D. O. S. 1994, ApJS,
Gutermuth, R. A., Megeath, S. T., Pipher, J. L., et al. 91, 659, doi: 10.1086/191952
2005, ApJ, 632, 397, doi: 10.1086/432460 Lada, C. J., & Lada, E. A. 2003, ARA&A, 41, 57,
Gutermuth, R. A., Myers, P. C., Megeath, S. T., et al. doi: 10.1146/annurev.astro.41.011802.094844
2008, ApJ, 674, 336, doi: 10.1086/524722 Lada, E. A., Depoy, D. L., Evans, II, N. J., & Gatley, I.
Hacar, A., & Tafalla, M. 2011, A&A, 533, A34, 1991, ApJ, 371, 171, doi: 10.1086/169881
doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201117039 Lada, E. A., & Lada, C. J. 1995, AJ, 109, 1682,
Hacar, A., Tafalla, M., & Alves, J. 2017, A&A, 606, A123, doi: 10.1086/117396
doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201630348 Lamarre, J.-M., Puget, J.-L., Ade, P. A. R., et al. 2010,
Hartmann, L. 2002, ApJ, 578, 914, doi: 10.1086/342657 A&A, 520, A9, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/200912975
Haworth, T. J., Harries, T. J., Acreman, D. M., & Rundle, Lefloch, B., & Lazareff, B. 1994, A&A, 289, 559
D. A. 2013, MNRAS, 431, 3470, Liu, H.-L., Li, J.-Z., Wu, Y., et al. 2016, ApJ, 818, 95,
doi: 10.1093/mnras/stt427 doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/818/1/95
Hayashi, K., Sano, H., Enokiya, R., et al. 2018, PASJ, Liu, T., Wu, Y., Zhang, H., & Qin, S.-L. 2012, ApJ, 751,
doi: 10.1093/pasj/psx141 68, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/751/1/68
Hennemann, M., Motte, F., Schneider, N., et al. 2012, Liu, T., Lacy, J., Li, P. S., et al. 2017, ApJ, 849, 25,
A&A, 543, L3, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201219429 doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aa8d73
Heyer, M. H., Brunt, C., Snell, R. L., et al. 1998, ApJS, Liu, T., Kim, K.-T., Juvela, M., et al. 2018a, ApJS, 234,
115, 241, doi: 10.1086/313086 28, doi: 10.3847/1538-4365/aaa3dd
Hillenbrand, L. A., Strom, S. E., Vrba, F. J., & Keene, J. Liu, T., Li, P. S., Juvela, M., et al. 2018b, ApJ, 859, 151,
1992, ApJ, 397, 613, doi: 10.1086/171819 doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aac025
The Planck cold clump G108.37-01.06 21
Luri, X., Brown, A. G. A., Sarro, L. M., et al. 2018, ArXiv Panwar, N., Pandey, A. K., Samal, M. R., et al. 2018, AJ,
e-prints. https://arxiv.org/abs/1804.09376 155, 44, doi: 10.3847/1538-3881/aa9f1b
Mallick, K. K., Kumar, M. S. N., Ojha, D. K., et al. 2013, Panwar, N., Samal, M. R., Pandey, A. K., et al. 2017,
ApJ, 779, 113, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/779/2/113 MNRAS, 468, 2684, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stx616
Martı́n-Hernández, N. L., van der Hulst, J. M., & Tielens, Patten, B. M., Stauffer, J. R., Burrows, A., et al. 2006,
A. G. G. M. 2003, A&A, 407, 957, ApJ, 651, 502, doi: 10.1086/507264
doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20030982 Pecaut, M. J., & Mamajek, E. E. 2013, ApJS, 208, 9,
Martı́n-Hernández, N. L., Vermeij, R., & van der Hulst, doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/208/1/9
J. M. 2005, A&A, 433, 205, Peeters, E., Spoon, H. W. W., & Tielens, A. G. G. M. 2004,
doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20042143 ApJ, 613, 986, doi: 10.1086/423237
McMullin, J. P., Waters, B., Schiebel, D., Young, W., & Peretto, N., Fuller, G. A., Duarte-Cabral, A., et al. 2013,
Golap, K. 2007, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific A&A, 555, A112, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201321318
Conference Series, Vol. 376, Astronomical Data Analysis Peretto, N., Fuller, G. A., André, P., et al. 2014, A&A, 561,
Software and Systems XVI, ed. R. A. Shaw, F. Hill, & A83, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201322172
D. J. Bell, 127 Pfalzner, S., Kirk, H., Sills, A., et al. 2016, A&A, 586, A68,
Meng, F., Wu, Y., & Liu, T. 2013, ApJS, 209, 37, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201527449
doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/209/2/37 Planck Collaboration, Ade, P. A. R., Aghanim, N., et al.
Meyer, M. R., Calvet, N., & Hillenbrand, L. A. 1997, AJ, 2011a, A&A, 536, A23,
114, 288, doi: 10.1086/118474 doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201116472
—. 2011b, A&A, 536, A13,
Molinari, S., Swinyard, B., Bally, J., et al. 2010, A&A, 518,
doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201116471
L100, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201014659
Planck Collaboration, Abergel, A., Ade, P. A. R., et al.
Motte, F., Bontemps, S., & Louvet, F. 2017, ArXiv
2014, A&A, 571, A11, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201323195
e-prints. https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.00118
Planck Collaboration, Arnaud, M., Ashdown, M., et al.
Muench, A. A., Lada, E. A., Lada, C. J., & Alves, J. 2002,
2016a, A&A, 586, A134,
ApJ, 573, 366, doi: 10.1086/340554
doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201425022
Myers, P. C. 2009, ApJ, 700, 1609,
Planck Collaboration, Ade, P. A. R., Aghanim, N., et al.
doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/700/2/1609
2016b, A&A, 594, A28,
Neichel, B., Samal, M. R., Plana, H., et al. 2015, A&A,
doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201525819
576, A110, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201425464
Planck HFI Core Team, Ade, P. A. R., Aghanim, N., et al.
Ohlendorf, H., Preibisch, T., Gaczkowski, B., et al. 2013,
2011, A&A, 536, A4, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201116487
A&A, 552, A14, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201220218
Ramı́rez Alegrı́a, S., Herrero, A., Marı́n-Franch, A., et al.
Ojha, D. K., Ghosh, S. K., Kulkarni, V. K., et al. 2004,
2011, A&A, 535, A8, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201016427
A&A, 415, 1039, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20034312
Rieke, G. H., & Lebofsky, M. J. 1985, ApJ, 288, 618,
Ojha, D. K., Samal, M. R., Pandey, A. K., et al. 2011, ApJ, doi: 10.1086/162827
738, 156, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/738/2/156 Russell, R. W. 1978, A&A, 67, 273
Oke, J. B. 1990, AJ, 99, 1621, doi: 10.1086/115444 Samal, M. R., Deharveng, L., Zavagno, A., et al. 2018,
Oliveira, J. M., Jeffries, R. D., & van Loon, J. T. 2009, A&A, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201833015
MNRAS, 392, 1034, Samal, M. R., Pandey, A. K., Ojha, D. K., et al. 2007, ApJ,
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14140.x 671, 555, doi: 10.1086/522941
Palau, A., Zapata, L. A., Román-Zúñiga, C. G., et al. 2018, Samal, M. R., Zavagno, A., Deharveng, L., et al. 2014,
ApJ, 855, 24, doi: 10.3847/1538-4357/aaad03 A&A, 566, A122, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201321794
Panagia, N. 1973, AJ, 78, 929, doi: 10.1086/111498 Samal, M. R., Ojha, D. K., Jose, J., et al. 2015, A&A, 581,
Panagia, N., & Walmsley, C. M. 1978, A&A, 70, 411 A5, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201322787
Pandey, A. K., Sharma, S., Ogura, K., et al. 2008, MNRAS, Schmidt-Kaler, T. 1982, Bulletin d’Information du Centre
383, 1241, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12641.x de Donnees Stellaires, 23, 2
Pandey, A. K., Eswaraiah, C., Sharma, S., et al. 2013, ApJ, Schneider, N., Csengeri, T., Bontemps, S., et al. 2010,
764, 172, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/764/2/172 A&A, 520, A49, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201014481
Panwar, N., Chen, W. P., Pandey, A. K., et al. 2014, Schneider, N., Csengeri, T., Hennemann, M., et al. 2012,
MNRAS, 443, 1614, doi: 10.1093/mnras/stu1244 A&A, 540, L11, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201118566
22 Dutta et al.
Sharpless, S. 1959, ApJS, 4, 257, doi: 10.1086/190049 Walborn, N. R., & Fitzpatrick, E. L. 1990, PASP, 102, 379,
Smith, N., Povich, M. S., Whitney, B. A., et al. 2010, doi: 10.1086/132646
MNRAS, 406, 952, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16792.x Wang, W.-H., Cowie, L. L., Barger, A. J., Keenan, R. C., &
Spezzi, L., Petr-Gotzens, M. G., Alcalá, J. M., et al. 2015, Ting, H.-C. 2010, ApJS, 187, 251,
A&A, 581, A140, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201425417 doi: 10.1088/0067-0049/187/1/251
Stetson, P. B. 1987, PASP, 99, 191, doi: 10.1086/131977 Wood, D. O. S., & Churchwell, E. 1989, ApJS, 69, 831,
Stetson, P. B. 1992, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific doi: 10.1086/191329
Conference Series, Vol. 25, Astronomical Data Analysis
Wu, B., Tan, J. C., Nakamura, F., Christie, D., & Li, Q.
Software and Systems I, ed. D. M. Worrall,
2018, PASJ, doi: 10.1093/pasj/psx140
C. Biemesderfer, & J. Barnes, 297
Wu, Y., Liu, T., Meng, F., et al. 2012, ApJ, 756, 76,
Surace, J. A., Sanders, D. B., & Mazzarella, J. M. 2004,
doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/756/1/76
AJ, 127, 3235, doi: 10.1086/420705
Yamaguchi, R., Mizuno, N., Onishi, T., Mizuno, A., &
Tatematsu, K., Nakano, M., Yoshida, S., Wiramihardja,
Fukui, Y. 2001, ApJL, 553, L185, doi: 10.1086/320678
S. D., & Kogure, T. 1985, PASJ, 37, 345
Testi, L., Palla, F., & Natta, A. 1998, A&AS, 133, 81, Zahorecz, S., Jimenez-Serra, I., Wang, K., et al. 2016,
doi: 10.1051/aas:1998451 A&A, 591, A105, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201527909
Thompson, M. A., White, G. J., Morgan, L. K., et al. 2004, Zavagno, A., Deharveng, L., Comerón, F., et al. 2006,
A&A, 414, 1017, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20031680 A&A, 446, 171, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20053952
Tody, D. 1986, in Proc. SPIE, Vol. 627, Instrumentation in Zhang, C.-P., Liu, T., Yuan, J., et al. 2018, ArXiv e-prints.
astronomy VI, ed. D. L. Crawford, 733 https://arxiv.org/abs/1805.03883
Tody, D. 1993, in Astronomical Society of the Pacific Zhang, Q., Wang, K., Lu, X., & Jiménez-Serra, I. 2015,
Conference Series, Vol. 52, Astronomical Data Analysis ApJ, 804, 141, doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/804/2/141
Software and Systems II, ed. R. J. Hanisch, R. J. V. Zhang, T., Wu, Y., Liu, T., & Meng, F. 2016, ApJS, 224,
Brissenden, & J. Barnes, 173 43, doi: 10.3847/0067-0049/224/2/43
Torres-Dodgen, A. V., & Weaver, W. B. 1993, PASP, 105,
Zinnecker, H., McCaughrean, M. J., & Wilking, B. A. 1993,
693, doi: 10.1086/133222
in Protostars and Planets III, ed. E. H. Levy & J. I.
Tremblin, P., Anderson, L. D., Didelon, P., et al. 2014,
Lunine, 429–495
A&A, 568, A4, doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201423959