SECTION II: Pattern Evidence
FIGURE 3.14
Shotgun shell. Shotgun
shells share some features
with regular ammunition,
including the presence
of a cap and primer, and
propellant. However,
the bullet is replaced by
shot, separated from the
propellant by a wad, and
the round is contained in
a plastic case. Older shells
had paper cases. The case
is crimped shut at the
top to contain the charge
of shot. From http://
commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/Image:Cartridge.gif
42
Some hunters use
the rule of thumb that
birdshot pellets can
be measured into the
cartridge by weight and
poured in, while buckshot
pellets must be carefully
placed in a specific
arrangement within a
shell to make the shot fit.
The one gauge oddity is
the .410 caliber shotgun,
whose barrel diameter
really is 0.410 inches (that
would be about 67 gauge).
This caliber “weapon”
was intended for skeet
shooting, though some
people do hunt with it.
pound of lead. Hence, the popular 12-gauge
shotgun has an inside diameter equal to that
of a sphere made from ½ of a pound of lead.
(See Figure 3.14.)
Shotgun ammunition differs too. Just the
name refers to the fact that shotgun shells are
not like bullets. Rather than firing a single pro-
jectile, a shotgun disperses a number of balls
or pellets, called shot, packaged together in a
shell. Depending on the size of the balls, it is
referred to as birdshot (diameter smaller than
0.20 inches or 5 mm) and buckshot (diam-
eters from about 0.24–0.36 inches). Finally,
shotgun barrels have smooth bore, so the
shot is not marked with striations. Instead,
examiners use the size and weight of recov-
ered shot to identify the type of shell fired.
Association with a specific weapon depends
on examination of the spent cartridge cases.
Shotgun barrels have a constriction, called
the choke, near the muzzle to control shot
dispersion.
Automated Firearm Identification Systems
THE NATIONAL INTEGRATED BALLISTIC
INFORMATION NETWORK (NIBIN)
The National Integrated Ballistic Information Network (NIBIN) is a database of
fired cartridge casing and bullet images. Photomicrographs of bullets and car-
tridge casings are scanned or recorded directly to the system. The network can
compare evidentiary images with those from regional and national databases.
Potential matches are then verified by a firearms examiner.
THE INTEGRATED BALLISTIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (IBIS)
Before NIBIN, the FBI and the ATF each had an automated search system. The
FBI’s program, DRUGFIRE, emphasized cartridge images. The ATF system, called
the Integrated Ballistic Identification System (IBIS), had one database for bullets
(Bulletproof) and one for cartridges (Brasscatcher). NIBIN incorporates IBIS tech-
nology, microscopes, and data recording and mining. NIBIN has pages for success
stories, including a continually updated “Hit of the Week.” Figure 3.15 shows an
IBIS workstation and Figure 3.16 is a screen capture of images processed by it.
REFERENCE COLLECTIONS
States like New York and Maryland require new guns to have sample casings and
bullets submitted to a reference collection. Such databases are not backdoor
Firearms CHAPTER 3

FIGURE 3.15
IBIS Bullettrax 3d
Workstation. The
workstation consists
of a sample holder,
microscope, computer,
and display. Reproduced
by permission of FTI,
manufacturers of the
IBIS unit.

43

FIGURE 3.16
Bullettrax screenshot.
Screenshot from
Bullettrax showing
side-by-side images
of bullets. Reproduced
by permission of FTI,
manufacturers of the
IBIS unit.
 SECTION II: Pattern Evidence

The Bureau of Alcohol, gun registrations. They contain no information about the gun owner but merely
Tobacco, Firearms, and serve as a registry for ballistic samples.
Explosives uses the
abbreviation ATF though Bullet Holes
others refer to it as Examination of bullet holes in clothing and entrance and exit wounds to the
ATF&E or even BATFE. body can provide information that can assist in reconstruction of the shoot-
ing. For example, it may be possible to determine which direction the bullet
was traveling. Physical examination together with chemical testing can provide
information about how far away from the target the gun was when fired.

ENTRANCE HOLES
Bullet entrance holes typically have even margins. The diameter of the entrance
mark is not an accurate measure of the caliber of the bullet. Because fabric can
stretch, most noncontact entrance holes are slightly smaller than the bullet that
created them. Entrance holes may exhibit bullet wipe residue, a darkened ring
around margins of the hole literally made by lead wiped from the bullet as it
passed. Bullet holes in bloodstained clothing will become distorted and smaller
as the blood dries. Figure 3.17 shows the circular hole and surrounding stippling
from discharge residues on white cotton from a bullet fired at 8 inches from a
Colt. 38. Compare with the entry hole in Figure 3.18 of an angled entry wound.
Bullets approaching at an angle leave elongated entrance marks with even mar-
gins. If there are several holes in a garment, aligning them may give information
44 about the position of the body when the shot was fired.

Fragment Entrance Holes

A bullet that strikes a hard surface before the target can fragment or expand.
The intermediate impact slows the bullet. The entrance holes of fragments or
expanded bullets have irregular margins and
may be difficult to distinguish from exit holes.
Because the bullet has passed through another
object, there likely will not be any bullet wipe.
However, minute portions of the object that
the bullet struck may be embedded in its final
target.

FIGURE 3.17
Bullet hole and discharge pattern. The hole and discharge pattern
resulting from firing a bullet from a .38 Colt straight into white
cotton at a distance of 8 inches. Courtesy Ronnie Freels.
Exit Holes
Exit holes have irregular margins and are largely
free from bullet wipe residue. Exit holes may be
larger in diameter than the entrance hole or diam-
eter of the bullet. When the bullet exits material,
it may be frayed outward. This is especially true
when expanding bullets are used or if the bullet
fragments. Figure 3.18 shows the elongated entry
hole and the characteristic star-shaped exit hole
from a close-range shot to the head.
 Firearms CHAPTER 3

FIGURE 3.19
Muzzle discharge. The photograph shows the muzzle discharge
from a Glock 30 at the moment of firing. From http://www.
everystockphoto.com/photo.php?imageId=1394460
FIGURE 3.18
Entry and exit wounds from close-range shot to the head. Note the
elongated entry hole with dark residue staining around it, and the Firearms must be kept
typical star-shaped exit wound. Courtesy Dr. Edward C. Klatt. clean. The amount of
residue emitted from
a gun varies from shot
Gunshot Residues to shot even with the
The gases that propel a bullet out of a firearm also expel gunshot residues (GSR) same type of cartridge.
when the bullet exits the weapon. Primers, gunpowder, and even microscopic Repetitive firing can slowly
bits of metal are emitted in a cone-shaped pattern that begins at the muzzle. increase the amount of
Gunshot residues also may be emitted from the gap between the barrel and cyl- residue because of fouling
inder in a revolver. in the barrel. 45
The distance that residue travels varies with the firearm and type of gunpow-
der used. Handguns with short barrels do not expel residues as far as rifles with
longer barrels. Flake, tubular, and irregularly shaped gunpowder will not travel
as far as ball powder because it encounters more drag. As the distance between
muzzle and target increases, gunshot residue patterns become broader and less
concentrated with materials.

COMPONENTS OF GUNSHOT RESIDUE (GSR)

Gunshot residue is normally a combination of unburned and partially burned
gunpowder (nitrates), soot (carbon black) from completely burned gunpowder,
and lead, but it may contain detectable traces of other materials such as antimony
and barium from primers. Because lead is toxic, many manufacturers are reducing
the content of lead in their products. Some ammunition, like that used for hunting
in wetlands, is nearly lead free.

Gunpowder
Modern smokeless gunpowder and black powder contain nitrate compounds.
Black powder is a mixture of potassium nitrate, charcoal, and sulfur. The smoke
in this powder comes from the charcoal component.
Single-based gunpowder usually contains nitrocellulose (cellulose hexani-
trate). These powders are “smoke free” but still leave deposits. Double-based
 SECTION II: Pattern Evidence

powder is a mixture of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin (glyceral trinitrate).

Triple-based powders may contain nitroguanidine in addition to a double-
based mixture.

Nitrates. Nitrates are the oxidizing material in black powder. Potassium nitrate
Triple-based powders can be mined as a mineral or created by chemical processes. Even though the
are used by the military powder is burned in the firing process, nitrate deposits will be found in GSR.
and are not widely seen
among game or target Lead. Lead residues can be lead styphnate from the primer or minute amounts
shooters. of lead vapor and particulates from the melting of the bullet during firing.
Particulate lead, tiny balls of metal, will travel farther than vaporous lead.
Nitrocellulose is the However, the dense lead vapor can “raft” on gunpowder particles and travel to
flash paper used by the target.
magicians to burn a
sheet leaving “nothing.” Antimony and Barium. Some primers contain barium nitrate and antimony sul-
It was used in film by fide, though newer primer formulations avoid these metals and lead.
the movie industry
but was replaced, as DETECTING GSR
the hot bulbs of movie
Evidence may be inspected for GSR stippling with the unaided eye and with
projectors could cause
a microscope. One place to start is near a bullet hole. After looking for visible
the film to flash over in
traces of GSR, chemical tests for nitrates and lead are applied. Collection and
the same way.
analysis of metal particle residues is covered later.
46
Chemical Tests
Griess Test for Nitrites. The Griess test, or (Dillon’s) modified Griess test, is a
color test that detects nitrite residues. The results of this test can help firearms
examiners with distance determination. A test paper, essentially a type of pho-
tographic paper desensitized to light, is sprayed with Griess reagent (sulfanilic
acid and -naphthol) and heated while pressed against the area suspected of
having GSR, which was sprayed with dilute acetic acid (vinegar solution). The
resulting reaction produces an orange azo dye. (See Figure 3.20.)

FIGURE 3.20
Firearms discharge residues. Discharge residues from a gun fired at 3, 12, and 18 inches away from the
target. The residues are detected by the Griess test for nitrite produced by the propellant. Images from LA
County Sheriff’s Crime Laboratory, courtesy Barry Fisher.
 Firearms CHAPTER 3

Sodium Rhodizonate Test for Lead. Evidence is sprayed with yellow-orange Color tests detect the
sodium rhodizonate solution. The salt reacts with lead to form a bright pink presence or absence
complex. This color test is confirmed by application of diluted hydrochloric of a chemical but may
acid. A color change from pink to blue indicates lead deposited. Figure 3.21 is not give an indication of
the same material as shown in Figure 3.17 but developed with sodium rhodi- its quantity. These are
zonate reagent to detect lead residues. sometimes referred to
as presumptive tests.
Gunshot Residue Distance Standards Chemical tests must
Because gunshot residue varies, firearms examiners create distance standards be applied in a certain
to attempt to duplicate the evidence and bracket the muzzle-to-target distance. order. The Griess test is
Using the same weapon and ammunition, the examiner fires test shots into performed first because
squares of white cloth called witness panels. Tests are made at distances from it does not interfere with
contact to about 4 feet in small increments. tests for lead residues.
We will learn more about
The witness panels are then processed like evidence. The results of the Griess and the order of testing in
sodium rhodizonate tests are used to estimate the muzzle-to-target distance. The the fingerprints chapter
witness panel at the minimum firing distance (closest position likely) will show more (Chapter 4).
concentrated residue with less dispersion than the evidence. At maximum firing dis-
tance, the witness panel will show a lighter, more dispersed pattern of residues.

Gunshot Residue Rule of Thumb

If the firearm is not recovered or if it has been rendered incapable of generating At shorter distances,
distance standards, there are some indicators of firing distance seen in gunshot handguns may deposit
evidence. As the weapon is brought closer to the target, the residue concentra- greater concentrations 47
tions increase but the size of the pattern decreases. Though the size of the resi- of gunshot residues than
due plume may vary, the range that is most interesting is less than 4 feet. rifles.

FIGURE 3.21 FIGURE 3.22

Lead in firearms discharge residues. Discharge residues contain
lead from primer and traces of lead deposited in the barrel when
lead bullets are fired. This can be detected by the rhodizonate
test, as shown in this figure. This is the same material as shown in
Figure 3.17. Image courtesy Ronnie Freels.
Distance determination. The muzzle discharge dissipates with
distance. The width of residue patterns from the Griess or
rhodizonate test can be used to give an indication of firing distance.
This chart is constructed from the data shown in Figure 3.20.
Created by author.
 SECTION II: Pattern Evidence

Contact or Near Contact

Contact or near-contact gunshots deposit a dark ring of GSR around the margins
of the entry hole. Heat from the shot may melt synthetic fibers or scorch natural
ones. The blast may even carry fibers and GSR deep into the wound.

Close Range (2–12”)

Close-range gunshots leave the entrance hole marked with GSR that is visible to
the unaided eye.

Intermediate Range (12–24”)

The GSR pattern from an intermediate-range gunshot may not be eas-
ily seen with the eye. Such evidence should be processed by microscopic
The absence of evidence examination.
is not the evidence of
absence. When no GSR Moderate Range (24–48”)
is found around a bullet Detecting GSR at this range can be difficult. The deposit depends upon the cali-
hole, it may mean the ber, barrel length, and powder type used in the ammunition.
weapon was fired at
such a distance that the At longer distances, only a trace of GSR may be found. Such trace levels can arise
residues could not reach from handling a weapon or being near one that was discharged.
the target, the bullet
passed through an object PRIMER RESIDUE ON THE HANDS: WHO IS THE SHOOTER?
48 on the way to the target, As mentioned earlier, primers are formulated with lead styphnate, barium
or the residues were nitrate, and antimony sulfide. Other compounds containing elements such as
removed by mechanical aluminum, sulfur, and tin may also be present. When a gun is fired, blowback
means (brushing or from the primer is deposited on the back of the firing hand. It can then be trans-
washing). ferred elsewhere by movement, and, as with GSR, traces of primer residue may
wind up on a person who handles a weapon or is standing nearby when it is dis-
charged. Primer residue can be washed away or mechanically disturbed (brush-
ing or scrubbing), so it is advisable to take samples from a potential shooter’s
hands or “bag” them to recover the evidence.
If present, primer residue is lifted from the hands with adhesive tape or an adhe-
sive chuck, a holder specific to the microscope, that is searched with a scanning
electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX)
analysis array. Once very time consuming for the examiner, laboratories now
employ automated SEM–EDX systems that permit unattended scans for the
characteristic particles formed when the discharge gases condense.
This testing provides information about the morphology and composition of
the particles. The X-rays are employed to provide the energy-dispersive pattern
and, thereby, the elemental composition of the particles in terms of lead, bar-
ium, antimony, and others.
The morphology of the microscopic particles and their elemental composition
provide identification that the material is residue from a gunshot and not envi-
ronmental contamination (see Figure 3.23). Before the advent of automated
 Firearms CHAPTER 3

FIGURE 3.23
SEM image of gunshot
residue particle, and
its X-ray spectrum.
Screen shot from SEM
showing a GSR particle
(top left) and its X-ray
energy spectrum (in red
at bottom). The particle
size and shape together
with the lead, antimony,
and barium composition
is characteristic of a
GSR. Courtesy of Ronnie
Freels and Bob Poole.

49
scanning stages in SEMs equipped with EDX analyzers, evidence of firing a
gun was obtained from analysis of washings from the hands of the suspected
shooter.
Atomic absorption (AA) spectrophotometry was the most common technique
used to detect the presence of barium and antimony. A sample is vaporized to
its constituent elements using a flame or electrical heating element. A hollow
cathode lamp, specific for the element to be tested, is beamed through the ele-
mental vapor. The extent to which the excited atoms absorb the radiant light is
measured by a detector array and can be used to calculate the concentration of
the element in the sample.

Serial Number Restoration

Serial numbers are used to identify everything from cars to firearms to comput-
ers. On metal components, the serial number is usually stamped in during man-
ufacturing. In plastics and other items, the identification mark might be molded
or etched into the surface.

FILLING THE SERIAL NUMBER

Serial numbers may be recovered by drawing material deep into the remainder of
the markings. On nonmetal objects, contrast media may work. Alternatively, a tiny
metal particle can be drawn into crevices using a magnet from the reverse side.
 SECTION II: Pattern Evidence

BOX 3.1 GSR TEST SPECIFICITY

The specificity of tests to prove the presence of various chemicals in firearms discharge
residues has been questioned for several decades. Attempts were made to improve
the specificity of identification of discharge residues by improving the specificity of the
analytical technique, but the issue has always been to prove that the chemical detected
came from discharge residue and not another source.
For example, the “paraffin test” for nitrates, first introduced into the United States in
1933, is rarely used anymore. Melted paraffin wax was applied to the hand, cooled, and
then peeled away. The wax sample was sprayed or swabbed with diphenylamine, now
considered a carcinogen, yielding a blue color if nitrates were present. Unfortunately, the
test could not distinguish GSR nitrates from nitrates of other sources.
As far as metallic residue from primer is concerned, attempts were made to get round
the issue of specificity of source by measuring the relative concentrations of detected
metals and using more accurate techniques such as neutron activation analysis (NAA)
and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). However, there is general
agreement today that chemical testing alone can be regarded only as presumptive.

RAISING THE SERIAL NUMBER

Sometimes, for metal surfaces, the metal around the serial number can be eaten
away with an acid solution. Because the metal directly under the number was
hardened when stamped, it resists etching, and the softer, unstamped metal will
50 be eaten away, causing the serial number to rise up.

SUMMARY
Rifling, a series of helical lands and grooves running down the barrel of a fire-
arm, is an important class characteristic. Rifling spins the projectile, giving it a
straighter trajectory.
Striations are microscopic tool marks created during the process of drilling the
tube of a gun barrel and during its rifling. When a bullet is fired, the soft, hot
lead expands into the lands and grooves and is marked with these tiny lines
individual to a particular firearm.
Impressed action marks include those made by the firing pin, breech face, extrac-
tor, ejector, or other machined surfaces.
Bullets usually come in a cartridge, a case containing the bullet with a primer
and gunpowder to propel it from the weapon. Bullets are examined using a com-
parison microscope. The investigator chooses a well-defined feature in one bul-
let and looks for it in the other. Then the bullets are rotated together to look for
points of correspondence.
The gases that propel a bullet out of a firearm also expel gunshot residues
(GSR) when the bullet exits the weapon. Primers, gunpowder, and even micro-
scopic bits of metal are emitted in a cone-shaped pattern that begins at the
 Firearms CHAPTER 3

muzzle. The distance that residue travels varies with the firearm and type of
gunpowder used.
Gunshot residue is normally a combination of unburned and partially burned
gunpowder, soot (carbon black) from completely burned gunpowder, and
lead, but it may contain detectable traces of other materials. The Griess test is
a color test that detects nitrite residues. The sodium rhodizonate test identi-
fies lead.
Because gunshot residue varies, firearms examiners create distance standards
to attempt to duplicate the evidence and bracket the muzzle-to-target distance.
Using the same weapon and ammunition, the examiner fires test shots into
squares of white cloth called witness panels. The results of the Griess and sodium
rhodizonate tests are used to estimate the muzzle-to-target distance.

PROBLEMS
1. Give the word or phrase for the following definitions:
a. the diameter of a gun barrel measured between opposing lands
b. the diameter of a shotgun barrel
c. spiraling grooves running the length of the barrel of a weapon
d. a pattern of gunpowder residue deposited on an object shot at close
range
e. the raised portion between the grooves in a rifled bore
f. a target used in determining firing distance 51
2. Categorize the following as individual or class characteristics:
a. six grooves, right-twist rifling
b. the mark made by a firing pin
3. Describe the use of the following tests and techniques:
a. Griess test
b. sodium rhodizonate test
c. atomic absorption spectroscopy
d. comparison microscopy
e. scanning electron microscopy
f. gunshot residue distance standards
4. Which of the following can be used for individualization?
a. recovered bullets
b. recovered shotgun shot
c. recovered cartridge casings
d. rifling in a recovered weapon
e. firing pin marks from a recovered weapon
5. Describe the difference between the barrel of a rifle and that of a shotgun.
6. Describe the variance of GSR deposits with distance from contact to 4 feet.
7. How can a firearms examiner approximate firing distance?
8. What elements are present in gunshot residue?
9. What elements are present in primer residue?
10. Describe a method for restoration of a serial number.