CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the project

Our environment is a gift to us and a prime requirement for a thriving and habitable

Ecosystem. Environmental degradation over the past few decades have been on the rise

directly influenced by the conscious actions of man. Climate change, global warming, the green

house effect and some other forms of environmental degradation can be directly linked to

industrial processes in the energy industries. Some processes involved in the processing of fossil

fuels (e.g. gas flaring) and the combustion of fossil fuels produces large volumes of green house

gas (carbon dioxide and water vapour) which in turn increases global warming.

In addition less than 1 billion people lived on our planet in the year 1800. The number of

humans living on earth has since grown by more than 700% living the number at about 7 billion.

This rapid population growth increases energy demand which in turn increases the extraction

and use of fossil fuel which presently accounts for 80% of the world’s energy. The constant

depletion of fossil fuels will inevitably lead to its exhaustion as fossil fuels are not renewable in

sensible time. Furthermore Oil rich areas especially the Middle East have increasingly become

unstable as they are crises ridden; the volatility of these regions has led to shortages and

irregularities in the supposedly abundant supply of fossil fuels. This in turn leads to hike in
prices of fossil fuel products and even mutilate energy generation in Gas power generation

plants. This increase in population has also led to increased agricultural production to meet up

food demands. This activity of man has produced huge quantities of agricultural waste and

domestic food waste.

World Population 1950 – 2016 (In Billions)

0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 200 2010 2016

The combination of the above mentioned factors have led both the political class, Engineers and

Scientist to seek for viable, sustainable, environmentally friendly and economic energy

alternatives as well as work out modules for handling agricultural wastes . There were however

are various techniques to handle solid biowaste such us landfilling, composting, incineration,
recycling (Reiht et al., 2002). Some of these techniques forged environmental issues, solid waste

liable to decay produced odour and methane ( a green house gas) when land filled , Incineration

on the other hand produced green house gas carbon dioxide and fly ash. One alternative that

tackled our energy and waste management dilemma is the use of solid waste matter (E.g.

wood, husk (from rice and corn)) to produce fuels called Biofuels.

Biofuel is a kind of fuel whose energy is developed or derived from the conversion of inorganic

carbon (carbon dioxide ) to organic carbon by biological means (Carbon fixation) . Biomass is a

term given to plants or plants based material used as energy source. Although burning of biomass

material gives carbon emissions they are still classified as a renewable source of energy. Biomass

is a renewable energy source not only because the energy it possesses emanated from the sun, but also

because harvested plant feedstock can be regenerated over a relatively short period of time compared

with the hundreds of millions of years that it took for fossil fuels to form. Through the process of

photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun's energy by converting carbon dioxide from the

air and water from the ground into carbohydrates (complex compounds composed of carbon,

hydrogen, and oxygen.

Plant cell wall is composed majorly of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, water soluble sugars, amino acids

and aliphatic acids, ether and alcohol-soluble constituents (e.g. fats, oils, waxes, resin and many

pigments), and proteins. These components essentially make up plant biomass and the ratio in which

they are present varies from plant to plant. However of all these components cellulose is our focus

in this study because it can be be converted to glucose which can be used as a chemical precursor

for the manufacture of biofuels. Hence an efficient and economic process for the conversion of

cellulose to sugars was developed. The major processes presently used are the chemical

hydrolysis of cellulose and enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose. These sugars are then used as feed
for the manufacture of ethanol which can reduce energy reliance on fossil fuels and greenhouse

gas (GHG) emissions.

Cellulose

Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is an organic compound and the most abundant organic polymer on Earth,

it is a polysaccharide comprising of a straight chain of a few hundreds to numerous thousands of

beta 1,4 linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary

cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria

secrete it to form biofilms. Cotton fibers contain about 90% cellulose, wood contains 40–50%,

and that of dried hemp is approximately 57% cellulose content (Klemm et al, 2005). Cellulose is

an abundant polymer possessing no odour, its tasteless, hydrophilic with the contact angle of

20–30 degrees, incapable of dissolving in water and most organic solvents, is biodegradable and

asymmetric in such a way that the structure and its mirror image are not superimposable

(Dauenhauer et al, 2016). It can be degraded using various Medias into its glucose units by

hydrolysis.

1.1.1 Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis formed from Ancient Greek word ‘’hydro”, meaning water, and ‘’lysis’’, meaning 'to

unbind' is the rupture or splitting of chemical bonds by reacting with water. Condensation

reaction (a polymerisation reaction) can be compared to Hydrolysis as they both involve the use

of water. for the former larger molecules are formed by removing water molecules while the

latter is the reverse (water molecules are added to break down large molecules) . This reaction is

most time catalyzed by an Enzyme or an Acid

 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Sucrose using Invertase

Simply put, hydrolysis is a chemical reaction in which water is used to split the bonds of a

particular compound (the act of separating chemicals when to water is added to it under

favourable conditions). In biotechnology and as far as living organisms are concerned, these

compounds broken down are often polymers.

Acid Hydrolysis of Sucrose using Hydrochloric acid

Chemical compounds such as glucose, maltose, cellobiose, maltotriose, cellotriose, etc. undergo

degradation involving the seperation of the glycosidic bond (primary covalent bond) between the

monomeric residues and disruption of both the intra and inter-molecular hydrogen bonding
amidst the polymer chains. Intra-hydrogen bonding in cellulose is responsible for its chain

stiffness while inter-hydrogen bonding establishes its crystallinity (kazeem 2012)

1.1.2 Catalyst

Humans for over 2000 years have consistently applied catalyst. The first recorded use of

catalysts was in the making of alcohol (wine), cheese, and baking. It was found that adding small

amounts of the previous batch to produce the current batch was a necessity if production in

sensible time was to happen. However, Berzelius in 1835 after clearly observing works carried

out by previous chemist posited that small amounts of a foreign source could greatly influence

the rate or speed of chemical reactions.

This mysterious force attributed to the substance was called catalytic. In 1894, Ostwald

expanded Berzelius’ explanation by stating that catalysts were substances that accelerate the rate

of chemical reactions without being consumed. In over 150 years since Berzelius’ work,

catalysts have emerged playing a pivotal role in the world market economies. In the Europe,

revenues from process catalysts sales in 2000 was over $900 million, which had its major use in

refining of fuels and manufacture of chemicals.

A catalyst is a material that influences the kinetics of a chemical reaction but does not take part

in the reaction i.e it leaves the process without losing its chemical characteristics. A catalyst

usually changes a reaction rate by providing a different molecular path (“mechanism”) for the

reaction. For example, gaseous sulfur dioxide and oxygen at room temperature will not react to
give sulfur trioxide in any sensible time, but reacts rapidly when exposed to vanadium (v) oxide.

Chemical catalysts are significantly important in most large scale manufacturing processes.

Approximately one-third of the material gross national product of the United States involves a

catalytic process somewhere between raw material and finished product. The development and

use of catalysts is a major part of the constant search for new ways of increasing product yield

and selectivity from chemical reactions. Because a catalyst makes it possible to obtain an end

product by a different pathway (e.g. a lower energy barrier), it can affect both the yield and the

selectivity.

Homogeneous catalysis involves processes in which the reactant and the catalyst are in the same

phase. An example is the use of an aqueous acid in the acid hydrolysis of cellulose.

A heterogeneous catalytic process involves processes in which the reactant and the catalyst are in

different phases; most times the catalyst is a solid and the reactant are basically fluids. An

example is the use of a solid acid catalyst to hydrolyze cellulose.

1.2 Aim of study

To determine the performance parameter of a plug flow reactor for the acid Hydrolysis of 15000

metric tonnes of cellulose using Sulphuric acid.

1.3 Objectives

At the end of the research project, the parameters listed below must have been determined to

facilitate the acid hydrolysis of 15000 metric tonnes of cellulose. These parameters include,

a. Reactor volume

b. Space velocity

c. Space time

d. Reactor length

e. Pressure drop along the reactor

1.4 Scope of work

The scope of the work is limited to the above listed objectives

Chapter 2
Biofuel is seen as an energy source substitute in the near future when fossil fuels will be in short

supply. Currently the major raw material for biofuel production is sugar from starch, however, a

small percentage comes from lignocellulosic biomass due to its relatively high cost. However,

the majority of the total carbohydrates in biomass is presented in forms of lignocelluloses like

cellulose, hemicellulose or lignin. B. R. Hames (2009). Hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin are

the three major parts of plant material. The three together are called Lignocellulose.

2.1 Dissolution and hydrolysis of cellulose

Cellulose is a bioorganic compound made up of D-glucose monomer units joined by β-1,4-

glycosidic bonds, it is a linear polymer and the most bountiful renewable resource. Cellulose is

formed from many thousands (~10,000) of β-anhydroglucose residues to form a long linear chain

molecule and that the reason why its molecular weight is greater than a hundred thousand.

Cellulose chain molecules possess fibrillar structures made stable by inter-chain hydrogen

bonding this characteristics resulted from its linear configuration and high density. The cellulosic

fibril is a larger-image of a smaller scaled unit called a microfibril for all lignocellulosic biomass.

This micro-scale unit, microfibril, is made up of systematically organized crystallites with a

cylindrical conformational structure. The organisation of cellulose molecules and the hydrogen

bonding in fibrils are demonstrated in Figure below. The intra-chain hydrogen bonding gives rise

to the stiffness in the cellulose chain while the crystallinity of cellulose is sponsored by the inter-

chain hydrogen bonding between layers of microfibrils that are longitudinally arranged. These

characteristics shows why cellulose is ranked among intractable and refractory compounds

(substances that are not easily broken down). A particular fluid/solvent such as a supercritical
fluid would be used for the dissolution of majority of such compounds. Cellulose fibrils although

mostly crystalline, still possess amorphous structures at the ends of two adjoining microfibrils.

Figure 1.1 Arrangement of hydrogen bonds and cellulose molecules in fibrils (Cellulose

Hydrolysis by Fan et al.)

Cellulose dissolution basically ensures separating the inter-chain hydrogen bonding between

layers of cellulose chains hence making the hydroxyl (OH) on each of the glucose units available

for bonding with the constituents of the dissolving solvent. Before dissolution the cellulose chain

swells giving the dissolving solvent access and enough contact to disengage the inter-chain
hydrogen bonding breaking up the crystalline structure .The dissolved cellulose can be further

converted to lower molecular compounds such as the oligomers and fermentable sugars.

Dissolution and hydrolysis of crystalline cellulose in media such as acid or supercritical water

involve solvation of hydronium ions (protonated water molecules) around cellulose molecules.

This process initiates protonation of either the cyclic oxygen (on one of the monomers) or

acyclic oxygen (glycosidic binding oxygen) along the polymeric chain. Fan, L. T et al (1987).

The combined effect of solvation and protonation initiates rupturing of the inter-molecular

hydrogen bonding (dissolution) and cleavage of intra-glycosidic and intra-hydrogen bonds

(hydrolysis). Lipinsky, E. S (1979).

Fig 1.2 illustrates the dissolution and hydrolysis of crystalline cellulose

Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram of crystalline cellulose dissolution and hydrolysis

As shown in the diagram above, direct hydrolysis of crystalline cellulose to smaller compounds

like sugars is possible but with relatively huge amount of cellulose chains yet undissolved.

2.2 Cellulose hydrolysis in acidic media

The breakdown of celluloses using acidic mediums became relevant because of its ability to

hydrolyze both the glycosidic bond and break the intra- and inter-molecular hydrogen bonding.

Cellulose degradation in acidic medium can occur in the homogenous or heterogeneous phase.

Saeman et al. in his work in 1945 presented a kinetic model for the hydrolysis of wood biomass.

He stated that the hydrolysis of cellulose follows the multiple reaction step following two

successive steps.

𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 → 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 → 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒

Using acids as hydrolytic Medias for the disintegration of substances like cellulose is usually

discouraged. This is due to the fact that expensive corrosion-resistant stainless steel reactor will

be required to resist the high corrosivity of the acid. The environmental impact of acid disposal

from such systems is also an issue of thoughtful consideration. Fan, L. T. et al (1987)

2.3 Cellulose Enzymatic Hydrolysis

Knauf, et al. (2004) saw enzymatic hydrolysis as the future alternative for degrading pretreated

cellulosic biomass and other carbohydrate macromolecules. To reduce the bioconversion time for

enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose, pre-treatment of cellulose for de-crystallization and

gelatinization is necessary. In plants, linear cellulose chains are responsible for tensile strength,

while hydrophobic amorphous lignin provides chemical resistance, specifically protecting it

against water. Hemicellulose provides bonding between cellulose and lignin. Hence, the main

road blocks preventing the hydrolysis of cellulose in lingocellulosic material are;

a). The intractable nature of crystalline cellulose itself (due to the linear chain structure strongly

Binding the microfibrils in cellulose),

b). The intense protective lignin surrounding it posing as a physical obstacle for microbial

activities (i.e. enzymatic attack).

Cellulolytic enzymes, e.g. xylalases and cellulase , hydrolyze the covalent joining the

carbohydrate molecules (sugars) together thru the acid catalytic mechanism, the mechanism for

acid catalysis requires a proton donor (HA) and a nucleophile/base (B-). The catalytic activity is

provided by two aspartic- or glutamic acid residues (Mosier et al., 1999). The term cellulose is

used to describe not just one enzyme, but a combination of enzymes (with identical and
sometimes partly coinciding activities) acting serially or working in synergy with each other to

decompose cellulose. Enzymatic hydrolysis was reported to be dependent on the degree of

polymerization of the cellulose. Elwyn Reese (1955)

2.4 Limitations of past work

Seaman in 1945 formulated a semi batch procedure for the hydrolysis of wood. The procedure

was considered cost ineffective for the production of ethanol when compared with ethanol gotten

from petroleum.

2.5 Significance of work

This design elucidates the use of a plug flow reactor for the hydrolysis of cellulose using a

mineral acid as a catalyst while stipulating optimal operational parameters for the reactor for the

required feed rate.

Chapter 3
 Materials and methods

3.1 Materials

The required raw materials for the hydrolysis of cellulose using an acid catalyst are water (H2O),

biomass containing cellulose and the acid to be used as catalyst (Sulphuric acid).

Table 3.1 Physical properties of Cellulose

Chemical formula (C6H12O5)n

Molecular weight 342.297 g/mol

Appearance White powder

Solubility in water None

Density 1.5 g/cm3

Melting point 260−270℃

Table 3.2 Physical properties of water

 Chemical formula H20

Molecular weight 18.0158 g/mol

Boiling point 100℃

Density 977 kg/m3

3.2 Methods

The feed containing cellulose is first pretreated to reduce the crystalline nature of the feed. The

pretreated feed is then mixed with water to form a slurry. The slurry is the pumped thru a heating

unit where its temperature is increased. The acid catalyst is then added the flow of the heated

slurry. The acidic slurry is then sent to the reactor were the hydrolytic reaction takes place.

The acid catalysed hydrolysis of crystalline cellulose to glucose can be seen as a homogenous

pseudo first order reaction Thompson (1979). The reaction follows a multi-step process as shown

below

K1 K2

Cellulose Glucose Decomposed glucose

A B R

The kinetic equations of the reaction are given as

𝑑𝐶𝐴
= −𝐾1 𝐶𝐴 …………………………………………… (3.1)
𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝐶𝐵
= 𝐾1 𝐶𝐴 − 𝐾2 𝐶𝐵 ………………………… (3.2)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐶𝑅
= 𝐾2 𝐶𝐵 ……………………….. (3.3)
𝑑𝑡

Where CA, CB and CR are the instantaneous concentrations of Cellulose, Glucose (the desired

product) and Decomposed glucose (the unwanted product).

Integrating equation 3.1 we have

𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝐴,𝑂 𝑒 −𝐾1 𝜏 ……………………………………….. (3.4)

CA,O= initial concentration of Cellulose, 𝜏 =space time

Integrating equation 3.2 we have

𝐶𝐵 𝐾1
=𝐾 (𝑒 −𝐾1 𝜏 − 𝑒 −𝐾2 𝜏 )……………………….. (3.5)
𝐶𝐴,𝑂 2 −𝐾1

The maximum concentration of Glucose is given by

𝐾2
𝐾 𝐾 −𝐾
𝐶𝐵,𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝐴,𝑂 (𝐾1 ) 2 1 ……………………………….. (3.6)
2
3.3 Derivation of the reactor volume, space time and space velocity

General material balance equation for the reactor

Rate of input= rate of output + rate of accumulation ± rate of depletion

The above diagram is used for the derivation of the performance model of a plug flow reactor

Input to elemental volume (dv) = FA

Output from elemental volume (dv)= FA + dFA

Rate of depletion in elemental volume = − (RA) dV

 𝑑𝐹𝐴
Reactor is operated at steady state i.e. =0
𝑑𝑡

∴ Accumulation in elemental volume = 0

The mass balance on the elemental volume dV

FA = FA + dFA + (-rA)dV …………………………………………………………. (3.8)

-dFA = (-rA)dV ……………………………………………………………………….. (3.9)

For an isothermal and constant volume process

FA = FA,O(1-XA)

Putting the value of FA into equation (3.9) we have

-d[𝐹𝐴,0 (1 − 𝑋𝐴 )] = (−𝑟𝐴 )𝑑𝑉

FA,0(𝑑𝑋𝐴 ) = −𝑟𝐴 𝑑𝑉

𝐹𝐴,0 𝑑𝑋𝐴
dV= −𝑟𝐴

Integrating we have

𝑋 𝑑𝑋
𝑉 = 𝐹𝐴,0 ∫𝑋 𝐴,𝑓 −𝑟 𝐴 ………………………………. (3.10)
𝐴 𝐴

Equation 3.10 is the design equation for a plug flow reactor in the absence of pressure drop or

heat exchange.

For a first order reaction

−𝑟𝐴 = 𝐾1 𝐶𝐴 …………………………………… (3.11)

Substituting into equation 3.10

𝑋 𝑑𝑋𝐴
𝑉 = 𝐹𝐴,0 ∫𝑋 𝐴,𝑓 𝐾 ……………………… (3.12)
𝐴 1 𝐶𝐴
For an isothermal constant pressure process

𝐹𝐴 𝐹𝐴,𝑂 (1−𝑋𝐴 )
𝐶𝐴 = = ……………………………… (3.13)
𝑣 𝑣

Where

FA = exit molar flow rate of reactant A

FA,O = inlet molar flow rate of reactant A

𝑣 = volumetric flowrate at exit

XA = fractional conversion of reactant A

Since the volumetric flowrate is constant in the isothermal plug flow reactor i.e. no fractional

volume change

𝑉 = 𝑣0

Substituting into equation 3.11 we have

𝐹𝐴,0 (1−𝑋𝐴 )
𝐶𝐴 = = 𝐶𝐴,0 (1 − 𝑋𝐴 ) ………………. (3.14)
𝑣0

Substituting equation 3.14 into equation 3.12 we have

𝑋𝐴,𝑓
𝑑𝑋𝐴
𝑉 = 𝐹𝐴,0 ∫
𝑋𝐴,0 𝐾1 𝐶𝐴,𝑂 (1 − 𝑋𝐴 )

𝐹𝐴 𝑋𝐴,𝑓 𝑑𝑋
𝑉=𝐾 𝐶
∫𝑋 (1− 𝑋𝐴 ) ………………….. (3.15)
1 𝐴,𝑂 𝐴,0 𝐴

45100
The rate constant K1 = 28 × 1019 𝐴1,78 𝑒 − 𝑅𝑇 ,
 −32800
𝐾2 = 4.9 × 1014 𝐴0.55 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 Hirokazu

Kobayashi et al (2015)

The reaction is to be carried out at 200℃ (473K)

Gas constant R = 8.314 J/Mol.K

A is the acid concentration in weight percent = 30%𝑤𝑡

45100
∴ 𝐾1 = 28 × 1019 × 301.78 × 𝑒 8.314×473

𝐾1 = 1.25 × 1018 𝑠 −1

Space time is defined as the time taken to treat or process one reactor volume of feed.

Mathematically

𝑉
𝜏=𝑣 …………………………………. (3.16)
0

Where,

V= reactor volume

𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑

The optimum space time for the consecutive/series reaction is given by

𝐾
𝑙𝑛( 2 )
𝐾1
𝜏𝑜𝑝𝑡 = ……………………………………………… (3.17)
𝐾2 −𝐾1
Space velocity (Sv) is defined as the number of reactor volumes of feed that will be processed

per unit time.

Mathematically

1
𝑆𝑣 = …………………………………. (3.18)
𝜏

3.4 Thickness of reactor and length of the reactor

(a) Thickness

𝑃𝑅
𝑇 = 0.9𝑆−𝑂.6𝑃 + 𝐶 ……………………. (3.19)

Where

T = Thickness

P = Pressure

R = Internal radius

C = corrosion allowance (3mm)

S = Maximum allowable stress

(b) Length of reactor

A typical plug flow reactor has the shape of a cylinder

𝜋𝐷 2 𝐿
Volume of cylinder = 4
Where L = length of reactor

𝐷 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

4𝑉
𝐿 = ………………………. (3.20)
𝜋𝐷 2

3.5 Material balances and stoichiometric calculations

Process parameters

Mass of slurry = mass of water + mass of cellulose + mass of acid

Slurry contains 15% cellulose

Reactor is properly lagged no heat losses.

The heat of reaction (∆𝐻) is relatively small hence neglected

Taking basis of 15000 tonnes per year of cellulose,

Assuming the plant runs for 300 days per annum

𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1000𝑘𝑔

15000 × × × = 1712.32𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 300 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒

Mass flow rate of cellulose = 1712.32 kg/hr

 15
But × mass inlet flow rate of slurry = mass flow Rate of cellulose
100

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒

Mass inlet flow rate of slurry= 0.15

1712.32𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
Mass inlet flow rate of slurry = 0.15

Inlet Mass flow rate of slurry = 11415.467 kg/hr

Inlet mass flow rate of the acid catalyst = 0.02 × 11415.467

= 228.309 kg/hr

Mass flow rate of water = 11415.467 − 1712.32 − 228.309

= 9475.057 kg/hr

Volumetric flow rates of reactant (𝑣0 )

Let Volumetric flow rate of cellulose = 𝑣0,𝐴

Let Volumetric flow rate of water = 𝑣0,𝐵

Let Volumetric flow rate of acid = 𝑣0,𝐶

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒

𝑣0,𝐴 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒

1712.23𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
=
1.5 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑣0.𝐴 = 1.14 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟

 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑣0,𝐵 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

9475.057 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝑣0,𝐵 =
977 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑣0.𝐵 = 9.93 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑

𝑣0,𝐶 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑

228.309𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝑣0,𝐶 = = 0.124 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
1.84 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑣0 = 𝑣0,𝐴 + 𝑣0,𝐵 + 𝑣0,𝐶 = 11.19 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒

Molar flow rate FA,0 = 𝑚𝑜;𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒

1712.32𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝐹𝐴,0 =
342.297𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝐹𝐴,0 = 5.02 𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ𝑟

𝐹𝐴,0 5.02 𝑚𝑜𝑙/ℎ𝑟

Recall that 𝐶𝐴,0 = = 11.19 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
𝑣0

𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐶𝐴,0 = 0.447
𝑚3

Substituting the values of K1, FA,O and CA,O into equation 3.15 we have

𝑋𝐴,𝑓
5.02 𝑑𝑋𝐴
𝑉= ∫
1.25 × 1018 × 0.447 𝑋𝐴,0 (1 − 𝑋𝐴 )
 𝑋 𝑑𝑋
∴ 𝑉 = 8.985 × 10−18 ∫𝑋 𝐴,𝑓 (1− 𝑋𝐴 ) …………………… (3.21)
𝐴,0 𝐴

Substituting the value of V into equation 3.20

1.14 × 10−17 𝑋𝐴,𝑓 𝑑𝑋𝐴

𝐿 = ∫
𝐷2 𝑋𝐴,0 (1 − 𝑋𝐴 )

The corresponding conversion for the optimal space time is given by

𝑋𝐴,𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝐾1 𝜏𝑜𝑝𝑡

𝐾1
𝐾1 𝐾2 −𝐾1
𝑋𝐴,𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 1−( )
𝐾2

3.5 Pressure drop

Most times, the pressure drop as it relates to the designed flow rate is comparatively small and

hence poses minute limitations on the condition of operation. Not withstanding the pressure drop

might still need to be calculated as part of the performance parameters. For processes with gases

at low pressures or scenarios of high viscosity the effect of the pressure drop might cause a

change in the performance of the reactor (Max and Timmer 1991).

“ In liquid-phase reactions, the concentration of reactants insignificantly affected by even

relatively large changes in the total pressure. Consequently, we can totally ignore the effect of
pressure drop on the rate of reaction when sizing liquid-phase chemical reactors” (Scott H.

Fogler 2004)