The forms of government

The forms of government recognized in the bourgeois states are (1) Constitutional monarchy
(e.g.: Spain), (2) Parliamentary government (e.g.: Italy) and (3) Presidential Government (e.g.:
the USA), (4) Semi-presidential government (e.g.: France). The forms of bourgeois
government or those that arise from the private ownership of the means of production,
transport, communication and natural resources, are exclusively forms of distribution of the
social overproduct (agricultural, industrial or commercial) accumulated by the dominated
class in a complete private form and which, in the era of capitalism, takes the form of money.

In other words, the forms of government tell us the degree of the productive forces of a
country, the level of contradictions with the relations of production, or with the private
ownership of the means of production, as well as the way by which it is managed, controlled,
increased or destroyed the social overproduct or, in other words, the surplus labor of wage
earners which becomes a surplus product and which, in turn, can be converted - thanks to the
permanent agricultural overproduct - into money.

In general, all non-elective offices, within a system that defines itself as 'democratic', make it
'non-democratic'; on the contrary, it makes it oligarchic and, at times, totalitarian. Moreover,
even if all offices were elective, they would not be democratic if the duration was fixed for a
specific temporal period and not revocable when the event occurred and if the position were
'representative', that is, if it only indirectly responded to the vote. Moreover, even if the vote
was direct, that is a direct democracy, but lacked the control of the voters - who are salaried
workers - of the means of production, transport, communication, land and all natural
resources, in any case it would not be a democratic system. So, 'democracy' is a dog that bites
its own tail, a contradiction that only the bourgeoisie and its barbaric way of exploiting men
and nature can do, as well as administering this same exploitation through the state:
capitalism

1. Constitutional monarchy. In Spain, the King appoints the Head of Government and ministers
after Parliamentary Confidence. Exists a constructive distrust like in Germany. The
constitutional monarchy is a transition from an absolute feudal state to a liberal bourgeois one;
and it id characterized by the clear separation of powers between the King (executive) and
the Parliament (legislative). This form of government is, therefore, based on the balance
between two centers of power: the monarchical-hereditary (feudalism) and the elective
(capitalism). Gradually, through the introduction of a third organ, the Government
(executive), the constitutional monarchy has become a parliamentary government; the
Government has increasingly autotomized from the King and approached Parliament with the
fundamental characteristic of the relationship of trust. The power of the sovereign, therefore,
is purely symbolic, since all acts, to be valid, must be countersigned either by the head of
government (executive) or by the president of the congress of deputies (legislative). Thus,
the form of the Spanish government is beyond democracy. On the one hand, it still has
inherited feudal powers, which, consequently, are not managed by the population that

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produces the wealth that the royals of Spain consume and accumulate. The same happens, at
least in Europe, with Norway, the United Kingdom, Lichtenstein and, in the extreme case of
absolute monarchy - as well as essentially parasitic class - in the Vatican City. On the other
hand, legislative power is elected, but it is merely representative (indirect power or fictitious)
and, furthermore, executive power is not even controlled directly by those who generate
wealth. In general, the tripartition of powers is the manifestation of the class-divided society
and the domination of one or more classes on the shoulders of the salaried workers. If, in fact,
there had been a policy corresponding to unitary interests, not only would there have been
the unitary production of the means of subsistence and production, but also the absence of a
usurping class of ownership of this production. Consequently, we would not have had not
only the monarchy, but also neither the other bourgeois forms of government, nor the
division of powers. In the whole productive society they coincide in the same way that in the
single individual, for example, the power to say 'no to sugars' (legislative power),' increase
the doses of water, fruit and vegetables' (executive power) and 'judge in view of an
improvement in case they were ingested (judicial power) exist.

2. Parliamentary government. The legitimacy the Government is indirect. It exists through the
Parliament that acts as a representative of the people. Presidency is based on three hinges:

a. Direct Election of the head of government by the President elected, in turn, by the
Parliament.
b. Legitimation divided between executive (Government: Prime minister and Council of
ministers), legislative (Parliament: Senate and Chamber of deputies) and judiciary.
c. The head of government appoints and dismisses his ministers.
d. The relationship of trust is established between the government (executive) and parliament
(legislative). Parliament can discourage the government with a motion of no confidence.

Parliamentarism was born in England. In England, there is the so-called Premiership. There is
the hegemony of political parties. The Premier is the leader of the political party who won the
election so much so that if the Party Leadership is lost, the new Leader usually assumes the
Premiership too. Only the House of Commons (legislative) can discourage the Government
(executive). The electoral system is a majoritarian. There is also a Shadow Government
constituted by the opposition that relates to the Real Government.

In Germany, on the other hand, the form takes on the name of Chancellorship. The Bundestag
(Parliament) elects the Chancellor. There is Mistrust, but it is constructive in the sense that
before being able to discourage the Chancellor in office the Bundestag must elect a new
chancellor. The Electoral System is proportional with a 5% barrier threshold.

Italy, for its part, is a parliamentary republic; often used to the parliamentary compromise. The
former is characterized by the existence of a relationship of trust between Government and
Parliament. If the political system is bipolar, then there is a majoritarian parliamentarianism.
Under bipolarism, the elections allow giving rise to a political parliamentary majority whose
leader automatically becomes premier (head of government just like UK) and the government

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(including the council of ministers) has the support of a majority (legislature government). In
the Parliament, the minority (called the opposition) exercises political control over the
government, to be able to take its place at the following elections. It is therefore called cyclical
alternation (but this happens only if the system is majoritarian and, therefore, the opposition
can lead, just like the United Kingdom, a shadow government policy, controlling the work of
the government, i.e. the current executive power). On the other side, if the political system is
multipolar, then there is compromise parliamentarism. As to say, after the elections, the
parties must conclude agreements among themselves to give life to a political majority
(coalition government), whose stability will be decisive for the stability of the Government. In
this case, in parliament there is no real opposition. However, both in the first and in the second
case the relationship with the various parliamentary political groups plays a lot on the stability
of the Government. In fact, often the crises rather than institutional (i.e. the result of a lack of
confidence or trust) are political and external. Many governments have resigned without even
having suffered a real parliamentary mistrust. The rules that regulate this system are both
constitutional rules and more generally the political system of the parties. In the Constitution,
there are three institutes regulating trust between Parliament and Government: 1. Confidence
Movement (Mozione di fiducia): it is voted by the Parliament (630 deputies plus 315 senators)
within 10 days of the formation of the Government. The vote is clear, meaning that every
member must openly vote his confidence and motivate it (either individually or in groups); 2.
Motion of Mistrust (Mozione di sfiducia): at least one/tenth (630+315/10=94.5) of the
parliamentary members of the assembly can present this motion in which distrust or the
Government or an individual minister. In addition, in this case there is also an open vote; 3.
Confidence Issue (Questione di fiducia): the Government makes a statement that considers
the trust itself to be of fundamental importance for the government, asking the Parliament
to support its proposal in its entirety or otherwise to discourage it. Moreover, in this case, the
vote is clear and any amendments to the text subject to trust are forfeited.

3. Presidential. The people direct the legitimacy of the Government.

In the United States, the president cannot dissolve the Congress (Parliament); the parliament
cannot undermine the government (executive), but can impeach the president. The President
is actually elected by the grand electors (as to say, the delegates that make up the
constituency that elects the president and vice-president of the United States). In the USA,
there is not a body called the government. The executive power is exert by the Cabinet made
up of Secretaries of State that has no relationship with the Congress (formed by the Senate
– 2 representatives for each State and the House of Representatives –on a national basis
proportional to the population), which is renewed every two years and has legislative power.
President and Congress are independent of each other, even if the former has the power of
suspensive veto of the approved laws, which can be superseded by the second with a further
resolution by a majority of 2/3. The fact of the existence of the 'great electors' shows the
absence of democratic power, which would not be possible for the American bourgeoisie
even as a joke.

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4. Semipresidenzialism. It has its major development in France and Russia. The President of
the Republic is elected directly (like in the USA), appointing the Head of Government
(executive) who must in turn be trusted by Parliament (legislative) but he is independent form
it. The president of the French Republic can dissolve Parliament, unlike the USA; submit to
referendum all the laws concerning the organization of public powers and has exceptional
powers in case of danger to the nation. The structure of the power of Government (executive)
is therefore bicephalous, divided between President and Premier.

There are two forms of the semi-presidentialism:

a. Strong President (as in France)

b. Strong Government (executive), in which the role of the President is marginal and reduced
to functions of guarantee, characterized by the bipolarization of the political system and more
like a parliamentary form than a presidential one.

Other forms of contemporary government

5. Neo-parliamentary. Characterized by the direct election of the Premier (head of

government) and the other characteristics of the parliamentary forms.

6. Directorial. In Switzerland, the functions of Government (executive) and Head of State are
assumed by a directorate composed of seven members elected and not revocable by the
Parliament (legislative).