INDICE GENERAL x 2.4 Mecdinica de érbitas 74 APLICACION A LA INGENIERIA: SATELITES DE COMLNICACIONES 79 2.5 Movimiento relativo 82 EJEMPLO CON COMPUTADOR 91 Resumen del capitulo 93 Problemas de repaso 96 27 eR TOES 3 Fuerza, masa y aceleracion 9 3.1 Segunda ley de Newton 100 3.2 Marcos de referencia inerciales 100 3.3 Ecuacién de movimiento para el centro de masa 10! 3.4 Aplicaciones 103 Coordenadas cartesianas y movimiento en linea recta 103 / Componentes normal y tangencial 115 / Coordenadas polares 124 APLICACION A LA INGENIERIA: DINAMICA DE VEHICULOS 118. Coordenadas polares 124 EIENPLO CON COMPUTADOR 128 Resumen del capitulo 134 Problemas de repaso 134xii INDICE GENERAL a a NT 4 Métodos energéticos 139 Trabajo y energia cinética 140 4.1 Principio del trabajo y Ia energia 140 4.2 Trabajo y potencia 141 Evaluacién del trabajo 141 / Trabajo realizado por varias fuerzas 147// Potencia 149 Energia potencial 160 4.3 Conservacién de Ia energia 160 4.4 Fuerzas conservativas 161 Energias potenciales de varias fuerzas 162 / Relaciones entre la fuerza y la energia potencial 167 EJEMPLO CON COMPUTADOR 174 Resumen del capitulo 174 Problemas de repaso 179 RS EASE, ETE SAIS ETO 5 Métodos de Ia cantidad de movimiento 18s 5.1 Principio del impulso y Ia cantidad de movimiento 186 5.2 Conservacién de la cantidad de movimiento lineal 195 5.3 Impactos 198 Impactos centrales directos 199 / Impactos centrales oblicuos 200 5.4 Momento angular 209 Principio del impulso angular y del momento angular 209 / Movimiento bajo una fuerza central 210 5.5 Flujos de masa 215 APLICACION A LA INGENIERIA: MOTORES DE REACCION 218 Resumen del capitulo 267 Problemas de repaso 268INDICE GENERAL xill —— Se FT 6 Cinematica plana de cuerpos rigidos 23: 6.1 Cuerpos rigidos y tipos de movimiento 232 6.2 Rotacién respecto a un eje fijo 235 6.3 Movimientos generales: velocidades 239 Velocidades relativas 239 / Vector de velocidad angular 240 / Centos instantdneos 254 6.4 Movimientos generale: 6.5 Contactos destizantes 271 : aceleraciones 260 6.6 Sistemas coordenados en rotacién 281 Movimiento de un punto respecto a un sistema coordenado en rotacién 281 / Marcos de referencia inerciales 286 Resumen del capitulo 296 Problemas de repaso 298 7 Dinadmica bidimensional de cuerpos tigidos 33 7.1 Revisi6n previa de las ecuaciones de movimiento 304 7.2 Principios de 1a cantidad de moy de particulas 305 Principio de la fuerza y cantidad del movimiento lineal 30S / Principios del momento y momento angular 306 7.3 Deduecién de las ecuaciones de equilibrio 309 jento para un sistema Rotacién alrededor de un eje fijo 309 / Movimiento plano general 310 7.4 Apl Traslacién 312 / Rotacién alrededor de un ee fijo 314 / Movimiento plano general 318 ciones 311 APLICACION A LA INGENIERIA: FUERZAS Y MOMENTS INTERNOS EN vias 324 7.5 Pri pio de D'Alembert 327 EJENPLOCON COMPUTADOK 341 Apéndice: Momentos de inercia 344 Cuerpos simples 345 / Teorema de los ejes paralelos 350 Resumen del capitulo 360 Problemas de repaso 362xiv INDICE GENERAL EE 8 Energia y cantidad de movimiento en la ain ica plana cuerpos fi jOS 367 8.1 Principio del trabajo y la energia 368 ‘Sistema de particulas 368 / Cuerpo rigido en movimiento plano 369 8.2 Trabajo y energia potencial 372 8.3 Potencia 374 8.4 Principios del impulso y Ia cantidad de movimiento 339 Cantidad de movimiento lineal 389 / Momento angular 390 8.5 Impactos 397 Conservacién de la cantidad de movimiento 397 / Coeficiente de restitucién 398 Resumen del capitulo 412 Problemas de repaso 415 9 Cinematica y dindmica tridimensionales de cuerpos rigidos 42: 9.1 Cinemittica 422 9.2 Momento angular 430 Rotacién alrededor de un punto fijo 430 / Movimiento general 432 9.3 Momentos y productos de inereia 433 ‘Cuerpos simples 433 / Teoremas de los ejes paralelos 436 / Momento de inercia respecto a un ee arbitrario 437 / Ejes principales 438 9.4 Eeuaciones de Euler 448 Rotacion respecto a un punto fijo 448 / Movimiento general 430 9.5 Angulos de Euler 464 ‘Cuerpos con un eje de simetria 464 / Cuerpos arbitrarios 468 Resumen del capitulo 476 Problemas de repaso 480INDICE GENERAL x Eee ea 10 Vibraciones 433 10.1 Sistemas conservativos 484 Ejemplos 484 / Soluciones 486 10.2 Vibraciones amortiguadas 499 Amortiguamiento suberitica $00 / Amortiguamientos critica y supereritico SOL 10.3 Vibraciones forzadas 508 Funcién de excitacién oscilatoria $09 / Funcién de excitacién polinomial 510 APLICACION A LA INGENIERIA: TRANSDUCTORES DE, DESPLAZAMIENTO. 516 EJENPLOS CON COMPUTADOR 521 Resumen del capitulo 524 Problemas de repaso $27 ae ee ee SS Se Apéndices A Repaso de matemiticas 529 B Propiedades de direas y lineas 532 C Propiedades de D Coordenadas esféricas 536 imenes y cuerpos homogéneos 534 Respuestas a los problemas pares 537 indice de materias 546Introduccion L transbordador espacial se concibid como un méto- do econémico para poner en orbita personal y equipo. Durante su desarrollo, los ingenieros usaron principios de dinamica para predecir su movimiento durante el des- pegue, en orbita y al aterrizar. Estas predicciones fueron esenciales para el disefio de su configuracién aerodinami- ca y estructura, asi como de los motores y del sistema de contro]. La dindmica es una de las ciencias en que se basa eldisefio de todos los vehiculos y maquinas.2 CAPITULO NTRODUCCION 1.1 Ingenieria y mecanica Cémo se disefian los sistemas para predecir sus caracteristicas antes de construirlos? Los ingenieros confian en su conocimiento y experiencia, enexperimentos, cl ingenio y a creatividad para producir nuevos disefos. Los ingenieros modeos cuentan con una poderosa técnica: desarrollan ecuaciones matemdticas basadas en las caracteristicas fisicas de los obje- tos que disefian. Con estos modelos matematicos, predicen el comporta- miento de sus disefios, los modifican y los prucban antes de construirlos. Los ingenieros civiles usaron modelos mateméticos para analizar la respuestas a cargas de la estructura de acero de la Torre Sears. Y los inge- nieros aeroespaciales usan modelos mateméticos para predecir las trayec- torias que los transbordadores espaciales seguirdn en su vuelo, Los ingenieros son responsables de disefiar, construir y probar los ob- jetos que usamos, desde sillas y afiladores de lapices hasta presas, auto- ‘mOviles y aeronaves. Deben tener un profundo conocimiento de la fisica que sustenta tales sistemas y deben poder usar modelos matematicos para predecir el comportamiento de estos sistemas. Los estudiantes de ingenie- ria aprenden a analizar y predecit el comportamiento de los sistemas fisicos mediante el estudio de la mecdnica, En su nivel mds elemental, la mecénica es el estudio de las fuerzas y sus efectos. La mecénica elemental se divide en estatica, que es el estudio de los objetos en equilibrio, y dindmica, que estudia los objetos en movi- miento. Los resultados obtenidos en la mecénica elemental se aplican di- rectamente a muchos campos de la ingenieria. Los ingenieros civiles y mecénicos que disefian estructuras usan ecuaciones de equilibrio obteni- das por medio de la estatica. Los ingenieros civiles que analizan las res- puestas de edificios frente a sismos y los ingenieros aeroespaciales que determinan las trayectorias de satélites, usan las ecuaciones de movi- miento contenidas en la dindmica. La mecénica fue la primera ciencia analitica; por ello los conceptos fundamentales, los métodos analiticos y las analogias de la mecénica se encuentran virtualmente en todas las ramas de la ingenieria. Por ejem- plo, los estudiantes de ingenieria quimica y eléctrica comprenden mejor los conceptos basicos de temas como cl equilibrio, la energia y laestal dad aprendiéndolos en sus contextos mecénicos originales; al estudiar mecénica vuelven a trazar el desarrollo histérico de esas ideas. 1.2 Aprendizaje de la mecadnica La mecanica consiste en principios amplios que rigen el comportamiento de los cuerpos. En este libro describimos esos principios y damos ejem- plos que muestran algunas de sus aplicaciones. Aunque es esencial que se resuelvan problemas similares a esos ejemplos, nuestro objetivo es ayudar a entender estos principios suficientemente bien para aplicarlos a las nuevas situaciones que se presenten, Cada generacién de ingenieros se enfrenta a nuevos problemas.Resolucién de problemas En el estudio de la mecdnica se aprenden procedimientos para resolver problemas que se usardn en cursos posteriores y a lo largo de la carrera. Aunque diferentes tipos de problemas requieren distintos métodos, los siguientes pasos se aplican a muchos de ellos: © Identifique la informacion dada y la informacién, o respuesta, que se debe determinar. Suele ser itil que usted reformule el problema en sus propias palabras. Cuando sea apropiado, asegtirese de que entiende el sistema fisico 0 el modelo implicit. * Desarrolle una estrategia para el problema. Esto es, identifique los principios y ecuaciones aplicables y diga cémo los usara. Si es posi- ble, dibuje diagramas para visualizar el problema. © Siempre que pueda, trate de predecir la respuesta. Esto desarrollaré su intuicién y lo ayudaré a reconocer una respuesta incorrecta. '® Resuelva las ecuaciones y, cuando sea posible, interprete sus resulta- dos y compérelos con su prediccién. El iltimo paso se llama verifi- cacién realista. Es razonable su respuesta? Calculadoras y computadores En este libro la mayoria de los problemas se disefiaron para que conduz- can a una expresién algebraica con la cual se calcule la respuesta en fun- cin de cantidades dadas. Una calculadora con funciones trigonométri- cas y logaritmicas es suficiente para determinar el valor numérico de tales respuestas. Es conveniente contar con una calculadora programable o un computador con programas para resolver problemas, como el Mathcad © el TK! Solver, pero no confie demasiado en herramientas de las que no dispondra en los eximenes. En las secciones Ejemplos con computador hay ejemplos y problemas adecuados para resolverse con calculadora programable o computador. Aplicaciones a la ingenieria Si bien los problemas estén diseftados principalmente para apoyar el aprendizaje de la mecanica, muchos de ellos ilustran el uso de esta ciencia en la ingenieria. Las secciones Ilamadas Aplicacién a la ingenierfa descsi. ben cémo se aplica la mecénica en varios campos de la ingenieria, Algunos problemas destacan dos aspectos esenciales de la ingenieria: * Disefo. En algunos problemas se pide escoger valores de pardme- tros que satisfagan criterios especificos de disefto. © Seguridad. En algunos problemas se pide evaluar la seguridad de dispositivos y escoger valores de pardmetros que satisfagan requisi tos especificos de seguridad. 1.2. APRENDIZAJE DELA MECANICA 34 CAPITULO | INTRODUCCION LEX 1 Corpus omne porsevorare in statu suo uiescendi vel movendi uniformiter in directum, nisi quatenus illud a viribus 8 cogitur statum suum rautare. Lex It Mutationem motis proportionalem esse vi ‘motrici impressae et fieri secondum Hineam rectam qua vis illa imprimitur. LEX U1 Actioni contrariam semper et aequalem reactionem: sive corporum duorum actiones in se mutuo semper esse ‘aequales et in partes contrarias dirigi. 1.3 Conceptos fundamentales Algunos temas de la mecanica le seran familiares debido a la expe diaria 0 por haberlos estudiado en cursos previos de fisica. En esta sec- cién repasamos brevemente los fundamentos de la mecdnica elemental. Espacio y tiempo El espacio se refiere simplemente al universo tridimensional en que vivi- mos. Nuestras experiencias diarias nos dan una nocién intuitiva del espa- cio y de las posiciones de los puntos en él. La distancia entre dos puntos en el espacio es la longitud de la linea recta que los une. Para medir la distancia entre puntos en el espacio se requiere una uni- dad de longitud. Usaremos tanto el Sistema Internacional de Unidades (SI) como el sistema inglés. En unidades SI, la unidad de longitud es el metro (m); en el sistema inglés es el pie. EI tiempo nos es muy familiar, pues nuestra vida se mide por él. Los ciclos diarios de luz y oscuridad y las horas, minutos y segundos medidos por un reloj nos dan una nocién intuitiva del tiempo. Este se mide por los intervalos entre eventos repetidos, como las oscilaciones del péndulo de un reloj o las vibraciones en un reloj de cristal de cuarzo. En los dos sistemas que usaremos la unidad de tiempo es el segundo (s). Los minutos (min), las horas (h) y los dias también son de uso comin, Si la posicién de un punto en el espacio en relacién con algin punto de referencia cambia con el tiempo, la razén del cambio de su posicién se llama velocidad, y la razén del cambio de su velocidad se denomina aceleracién. En unidades SI, la velocidad se expresa en metros por segun- do (m/s) y la aceleracion en metros por segundo cuadrado (m/s’). En las unidades del sistema inglés, la velocidad se expresa en pies por segun- do (pie/s) y la aceleracién en pies por segundo cuadrado (pie/s*). Leyes de Newton La mecanica elemental se establecié sobre una base sdlida con la publica- cién, en 1687, de Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica de \saac Newton. Aunque sumamente original, este trabajo se bas6 en conceptos fundamentales desarrollados durante una larga y dificil lucha por enten- der la naturaleza. Newton establecié tres ‘‘leyes’’ del movimiento que, expresadas en términos modernos, son: 1, Cuando la suma de las fuerzas que actian sobre una particula es igual a cero, su velocidad es constante. En particular, si inicialmen- le la particula se halla en reposo, permanecerd en reposo. 2. Cuando la suma de las fuerzas que acitian sobre una particula no es igual a cero, la suma de las fuerzas es igual a la razdn de cambio de la cantided de movimiento de la particula. Si la masa es constan- te, la suma de las fuerzas es igual al producto de la masa de ta parti- cula y su aceleracién. 3. Las fuerzas ejercidas por dos particulas entre si son iguales en mag nitud y opuestas en direccién. Observe que no definimos fuerza ni masa antes de enunciar las leyes de Newton. La concepcién moderna es que estos términos se definen conla segunda ley. Para demostrarlo, supongamos que escogemos un cuerpo arbitrario y especificamos que tiene masa unitaria. Luego definimos una unidad de fuerza como la fuerza que imparte a esta masa unitaria una aceleracién de magnitud unitaria. En principio, podemos determinar la masa de cualquier cuerpo: le aplicamos una fuerza unitaria, medimos la aceleracién resultante y usamos la segunda ley para determinar la ma- sa. Podemos también determinar la magnitud de cualquier fuerza: la aplicamos a la masa unitaria, medimos la aceleracién resultante y usa- ‘mos la segunda ley para determinar la fuerza. De esta manera, la segunda ley de Newton proporciona significados precisos a los términos masa y fuerza. En unidades SI, la unidad de masa 6s el kilogramo (kg). La unidad de fuerza es el newton (N), que es la fuer- za requerida para impartir 2 una masa de un kilogramo una aceleracién de un metro por segundo cada segundo (m/s*). En las unidades del sis- tema inglés, la unidad de fuerza es la libra (Ib). La unidad de masa es el slug, que es la cantidad de masa acelerada a un pie por segundo cuadrado por una fuerza de una libra. ‘Aunque los resultados que analizamos en este libro son aplicables a muchos de los problemas que surgen en Ia practica de la ingenieria, hay limites para la validez de las leyes de Newton. Por ejemplo, éstas no dan resultados precisos si un problema implica velocidades que no son peque- fhas comparadas con la velocidad de la luz (3 x 10* m/s). La teoria de la relatividad especial de Einstein se aplica a tales problemas. La mecani- ca elemental también falla en problemas que implican dimensiones que no son grandes comparadas con las dimensiones at6micas. Para describir los fenémenos en Ia escala atémica se debe usar la mecénica cudnt Gravitaci6n de Newton Otra de las contribuciones fundamentales de Newton a la mecdnica es su postulado sobre la fuerza gravitatoria entre dos particulas en funcién de sus masas m, y m, y de la distancia r entre ellas (Fig. 1.1). Su expresion para la magnitud de la fuerza es ay donde G es la constante de la gravitacién universal. Newton calculé la fuerza gravitatoria entre una particula de masa m, y una esfera homogénea de masa m, y encontré que también esta dada por la ecuacidn (1.1), en la que r denota la distancia de la particula al centro de la esfera. Aunque la Tierra no es una esfera homogénea, pode- mos usar este resultado para obtener el peso aproximado de un cuerpo de masa m debido a la atraccién gravitatoria de la Tierra, Gnme a a. ) donde m, es la masa de la Tierra y r es la distancia del centro de la Tierra al objeto. Observe que el peso de un cuerpo depende de su posi- cién con respecto al centro de la Tierra, mientras que la masa del cuerpo 1.3 CONCEPTOS FUNDAMENTALES 5 Figura 1.1 Las fuerzas gravitatorias entre dos particulas son iguales en magnitud y dirigidas a lo largo de la linea entre ellas.6 CAPIULO | INTRODUCCION es una medida de la cantidad de materia que contiene y no depende de su posicién. ‘Cuando el peso de un cuerpo es la tinica fuerza que actiia sobre él, la aceleracién resultante se denomina aceleracién debida ala gravedad. En este caso la segunda ley de Newton establece que W = ma, y de la ecua- cidn (1.2) vemos que la aceleracién debida a la gravedad es 2 a3) La aceleracién debida a la gravedad al nivel del mar se denota con la letra g. Si denotamos con R; ¢l radio de la Tierra, vemos de la ecuacién (1.3) que Gm, = gRb. Sustituyendo este resultado en la ecuacién (1.3), obte- nemos una expresién para la aceleracién debida a la gravedad a una dis- tancia r del centro de la Tierra en funcién de la aceleracién debida a la gravedad al nivel del mar: AE aa) ‘Come el peso del cuerpo es W = ma, cl peso de un cuerpo a una distan- cia r del centro de la Tierra sera a W=mg— (1s) Al nivel del mar, el peso de un cuerpo esta dado en funcién de su masa por Ia simple relacién W = me. a6 El valor de g varia de lugar en lugar sobre la superficie de la Tierra. Los valores que usaremos en los ejemplos y problemas son g = 9.81 m/s? en unidades SI y g = 32.2 pie/s* en unidades del sistema inglés. Ndmeros En ingenieria las mediciones, célculos y resultados se expresan en niime- ros. Es necesario que sepa cémo expresamos los nimeros en los ejemplos y problemas, y cémo deberd expresar los resultados de sus propios calculos. Cifras signiticativas Este término se refiere al niimero de digitos sig- icativos (0 sea, exactos) en un mimero, contando hacia la derecha a partir del primer digito no nulo. Los niimeros 7.630 y 0.007630 estan ex- presados con cuatro cifras significativas. Si se sabe que s6lo los primeros cuatro digitos del ndimero 7 630 000 son cxactos, esto se puede indicar escribiendo el nimero en notacién cientifica como 7.630 x 10°. Si un niimero es el resultado de una medicién, los digitos significativos que contiene estan limitados por la exactitud de la medicién. Si el resulta- do de una medicién es 2.43, esto significa que el valor real estard mas cercano a 2.43 que a 2.42 0 a 2.44, Los mimeros se pueden redondear a cierta cantidad de digitos signifi cativos. Por ejemplo, el valor de x se puede expresar con tres digitos sig- nificativos, 3.14, 0 con seis digitos significativos, 3.14159. En una calcu- ladora o un computador, el nimero de digitos significativos esta limitado segiin el disefio de la maquina.Eluso de nimeros en este libro Los niimeros dados en los proble- mas deben tratarse como valores exactos sin preocuparse de cudntas ci- fras significativas contienen. Si un problema especifica que una cantidad ¢ igual a 32.2, se puede suponer que su valor es 32.200... Se utilizardn por lo menos tres cifras significativas para expresar los resultados inter- medios y las respuestas en los ejemplos, asi como las respuestas a los, problemas. Si usa calculadora, sus resultados deben tener esa exactitud. Asegiirese de evitar los errores de redondeo que ocurren si redondea re- sultados intermedios. En vez de esto, efecttie sus calculos con la exactitud posible, conservando los valores en su calculadora 1.4 Unidades 1.4 UNIDADES 7 El sistema SI de unidades se ha estandarizado casi en todo el mundo (aunque en algunos paises también se usa el sistema inglés). En esta sec- cién resumiremos estos dos sistemas de unidades y explicaremos cémo convertir unidades de un sistema a otro. Sistema internacional de unidades En unidades SI, la longitud se mide en metros (m) y la masa en kilogra- ‘mos (kg). El tiempo se mide en segundos (s), aunque también se usan el minuto (min), la hora (h), y el dia. Los metros, kilogramos y segundos se denominan unidades bisicas del SI. La fuerza se mide en newtons (N). Recuerde que esas unidades estan relacionadas por la segunda ley de Newton: un newton es la fuerza requerida para imprimir a un cuerpo de un kilogramo masa una aceleracién de un metro por segundo cuadrado, LN = (1 kgXl m/s?) = 1 kg-m/s*, ‘Como el newton se puede expresar en funcién de las unidades basicas, se le llama unidad derivada. Para expresar cantidades por medio de niimeros de tamafio convenien- te, los multiplos de unidades se indican por medio de prefijos. En la tabla 1.1 se muestran los prefijos mas comunes, sus abreviaturas y los miilti- plos que representan. Por ejemplo, 1 km es 1 kilémetro, 0 sea 1000 m, y 1 Mg es I megagramo, que son 10° g 0 1000 kg. Con frecuencia usa- mos kilonewtons (kN). Tabla 1.1 Prefijos comunes usados en las uunidades SI y los miltiplos que representan Prefijo a ynano- micro- mili- kilo- mega- giga-8 CAPITULO! INTRODUCCION Definicién de un angulo en radianes. Sistema inglés de unidades En las unidades del sistema inglés 1a longitud se mide en pies, la fuerza en libras (Ib) y el tiempo en segundos (s). Estas son las unidades bisicas de este sistema. En este sistema de unidades la masa es una unidad deri- vada. La unidad de masa es ¢l slug, que es la masa de material acelerado a.un pie por segundo cuadrado por una fuerza de una libra. La segunda ley de Newton establece que 1b = (1 slugy(1 pie/s? De esta expresién obtenemos 1 slug = 1 Ib-s*/pie. Usaremos también otras unidades como la milla (1 mi = 5280 pies) y la pulgada (1 pie = 12 pulg), asi como la kilolibra (1 kIb = 1000 Ib). En algunas aplicaciones de ingenieria se usa una unidad alternativa de ‘masa llamada libra masa (Ibm), que es la masa de un material cuyo peso es de una libra al nivel del mar. El peso al nivel del mar de un cuerpo que tiene una masa de un slug es W = mg = (I slug)(32.2 pie/s?) = 32.2 Ib, por lo que I Ibm = (1/32.2) slug. Cuando se usa la libra masa, una libra de fuerza suele denotarse con la abreviatura Ibf. Unidades angulares En ambos sistemas de unidades los dngulos se expresan por lo general en radianes (rad). En la figura 1.2 mostramos el valor de un angulo @ en ra- dianes; se define como la razén entre la parte de la circunferencia sustenta- da por @ y el radio del circulo. Los angulos también se expresan en grados. Como hay 360 grados (360°) en un circulo completo y la totalidad de la circunferencia del circulo es 2", entonces 360° equivalen a 2x radianes. Las ecuaciones que contienen angulos casi siempre se obtienen supo- niendo que los éngulos se expresan en radianes. Por consiguiente, cuando se desee sustituir el valor de un Angulo expresado en grados en una ecua- cidn, primero deberd convertirse a radianes. Una excepcién notable a esta regla es que muchas calculadoras, cuando se usan para evaluar funciones como sen 6, aceptan angulos expresados ya sea en grados o en radianes. Figura 1.2Conversién de unidades La practica de ingenieria con frecuencia requiere convertir valores expre- sados en unidades de una clase a valores en otras unidades. Si algunos datos de un problema estan dados en unidades SI y otros en unidades del sistema inglés, todos ellos se deben expresar en términos de un solo siste- ma de unidades. En los problemas expresados en unidades SI, ocasional- mente se daran datos en unidades diferentes de las unidades basicas: se- gundos, metros, kilogramos y newtons. Estos datos se deben convertir a .unidades bisicas antes de resolver el problema. Asi mismo, en proble- ‘mas planteados en unidades del sistema inglés, los valores se deben con- vertir a las unidades basicas de segundo, pie, slug y libra, Cuando ad- quiera cierta experiencia, reconocerd situaciones en que esas reglas se pueden relajar, pero por ahora éstas representan el procedimiento més seguro para resolver problemas. La conversion de unidades es sencilla pero debe hacerse con cuidado. Suponga que se quiere expresar 1 milla/h en funcién de pie/s. Como 1 milla equivale a $280 pies y una hora a 3600 s, podemos considerar las expresiones 524 como razones cuyos valores son iguales a 1. De esta manera obtenemos uh = 1 mish x (S2800ies) (1h 1 mish = 1 mize x ( ua |x scar) 1.47 pie/s. En la tabla 1.2 se incluyen algunas conversiones titiles entre unidades. Tabla 1.2. Conversién de unidades ‘Tiempo T minuto ‘60 segundos 1 hora = © minutos 1 dia 24 horas Longitud 1 pie 12 pulgadas 1 milla 5280 pies 1 pulgada 25.4 milimetros 1 pie = 0.3048 metros Angulo 2x radianes = 360 srados Masa 1 slag 14.59 kilogramos Fuerza 1 libra = 4.448 newtons 1.4 UNIDADES 910 CAPITULO | INTRODUCCION Si un corredor olimpico (Fig. 1.3) corre 100 m en 10 segundos, su velocidad media es de 10 m/s. {Cual es su velocidad media en millas/hora? Figura 1.3, SOLUCION 10 m/s x 10 m/s {_1 pie _) 1 mi [3600 s) 3088 m) ™ {5280 pies, Th 22.4 mi/h Suponga que en la ecuacién de Einstein E= me, a masa m esta en kg y Ia velocidad de la luz c en m/s. (a) {Cua es el valor de F en unidades SI? . (b) Siel valor de £ en unidades SIs igual a 20, cual es su valor en las unida- des basicas del sistema inglés? ESTRATEGIA (a) Como conocemos las unidades de los términos m y c, podemos deducir las unidades de £ de la ecuacién dada. (b) Podemos usar las conversiones de unidades para la masa y la longitud dadas en la tabla 1.2 para convertir £ de unidades SI a unidades del sistema inglés. SOLUCION (a) De la ecuacién para E, E = (m kaye m/s. las unidades de E son kg-m?/s*,(b) Dela tabla 1.2, 1 slug = 14.59 kg y | pie 0.3048 metros. Por tanto, 14.59 0.3048 my T kgemm?/s? = 1 kgsme/s? > (asst) x fea) 0.738 slug-pie?/s*. El valor de £ en unidades del sistema inglés es E = (20)(0.738) = 14.8 slug-pie?/s'. 1.4 UNIDADES 11 EE Eompio 1.3 El Rocket (Fig. 1.4) de George Stephenson, una de las primeras locomotoras de vapor, pesaba aproximadamente 7 ton con su carbonera. (1 ton = 2000 1b.) ;Cual era aproximadamente su masa en kilogramos? Figura 1.4 ESTRATEGIA Podemos usar la ecuacién (1.6) para obtener la masa en slugs y luego la conversién dada en la tabla 1.2 para determinar la masa en kilogramos, SOLUCION La masa en slugs es W _ 14000 1b 7 3a} pci 7 48 slugs. De la tabla 1.2, 1 slug es igual a 14.59 kg, por lo que la masa en kilogramos es (con tres cifras significativas) m = (434,814.59) 6340 ke.12 CAPITULO} 1.1 El valor x es 3.1 iCual es su valor con 4 ci- fras significativas? 1.2. {Cuil es el valor e (la con S cifras significativas? de los logaritmos naturales) 1.3 _ Determine el valor de la 1/2 ~ 2) con 3 cifras significativas. 1.4 Six = 3, ceudles el 3 cifras significativas? de la expresién 1 e** con un Ferrari Dino 246GT de Ilaves SAE (unidades en él. Usted tiene llaves con 3/4 pulg y 1 pulg, y el auto = Smm, 10 mm, 15 mm, 20 que una lave ajusta si w no aves puede usar? 1.5. Suponga que acaba de y quiere saber si puede usar Gel sistema inglés) para anchos w = 1/4 pulg, 1/2 tiene tuercas con dimensiones mm y25 milimetros. Si es 2% mayor que n, zeual de pis en el ejemplo 1.3, podia 25 mi/hora. Determine su ve (a)en pie/s, (b) en km/h. 1.6 El Rocket de 1829, jalar un carro con 30 locidad con tres cifras velocidad comenzaron a correr un tren bala viaja a 240 km/h, con tres cifras significativas? 1.7 Los*trenes bala” de entre Tokyo y Osaka en 1964 {eual es su velocidad en ‘ondas de choque suelen ex: por microsegundo (mm/s). idad de frente de onda es de § mmn/ps fa) m/s, (b) en mi/s. 1.8 Los ingenieros presar la velocidad en ‘Suponga que la vel Determine esta velocidac dde un glacial y descubre {:Cual es su velocidad en m/s? 1.9 Un geofisico mide et ue se est moviendo 80 1.10 Laaceleracién debida la gravedad al nivel del mar en unidades SI es g = 9.81 m/s? Convirtiendo unidades, use es- te valor para determinar le debida a la gravedad al nivel del mar en unidades sistema inglés. 1.11 Un estadio (furlong = 1/8 de milla) por quincena es tuna unidad chusca de velocidad, inventada tal vez por un estu- iante como comentario satirico sobre la enredada variedad de unidades con que los ingenieros tienen que tratar. Si usted ca- mina 5 pie/s, ceual es su velocidad en estadios por quincena con tres cifras significativas? 1.12 El drea de la seccién transversal de una viga es igual a 480 pulg*. {Cual es el drea de su seccion transversal en m*? 1.13 Un camién puede cargar 15 yardas eiibicas de grava. (1 yarda = 3 pies). Cuantos metros cubicos puede cargar? 1.14 Un transductor de presién mide un valor de 300 |b/pulg. Determine el valor de la presion en pascales. Un pascal (Pa) es igual @ 1 N/m? 1.15. Un caballo de fuerza equivale a 550 Ib-pie/s. Un watt equivale a 1 N-m/s. Determine el niimero de watts generados Por (a) el avién de los hermanos Wright (1903), que tenia un motor de 12 caballos de fuerza; (b) un avion jer con potencia de 100 000 caballos de fuerza a velocidad de erucero. 1.16 En unidades del sistema SI, 1a constante de la gravita- cién universal es G = 6.67 x 10°! N-m?/kg?, Determine el valor de G en unidades del sistema inglés. 1.17. Sila Tierra se modela como una esfera homogénea, la velocidad de un satélite en érbita circular es donde R; es el radio de la Tierra y r es el radio de la érbita. (a) Si Gestden m/sty Ry y ren metros, jcudles son las uni- dades de v? (b) Si Re = 6370 km yr con tres cifras significativas? 6670 km, cual es el valor de vaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Movimiento de un punto L disefiar un vehiculo, sea éste una bicicleta o una A: espacial, los ingenieros deben ser capaces de analizar y predecir su movimiento. Para disefiar un mo- tor, deben analizar los movimientos de cada una de sus partes modviles. Aun al disefiar estructuras ‘‘estaticas’’ como edificios, puentes y presas, a menudo deben anali- zar los movimientos que provocan las eventuales cargas de viento y los sismos. En este capitulo comenzamos el estudio del movi- miento. No nos interesan aqui las propiedades de los cuerpos ni las causas de sus movimientos; sdlo‘queremos describir y analizar el movimiento de un punto en el espa- cio. Sin embargo, tenga presente que una particula puede representar algtin punto (como el centro de masa) de un cuerpo en movimiento. Después de definir la posicién, velocidad, y aceleracién de un punto, consideramos el ejemplo mas sencillo: el movimiento a lo largo de una linea recta. Luego mostramos cémo el movimiento de un punto a lo largo de una trayectoria cualquiera se expresa y analiza en varios sistemas coordenados.16 CAPITULO 2 MOVIMIENTO DE UN PUNTO 2.1 Posicion, velocidad y aceleracion Podemos describir la posicién de un punto P escogiendo un punto de refe- rencia O y presentando el vector de posicién r de Oa P(Fig. 2.1a). Supon- gamos que P esté en movimiento respecto a O, de manera que r es una funcion del tiempo f (Fig. 2.1b). Expresamos esto con la notacién r=r(t). La velocidad de P respecto a O en el tiempo ¢ se define como ¥ tim THAD — re - 9 = im, a 1 dondeel vector r(/ + AZ) — #(1) es el cambio de posicién, o desplazamiento de P, durante el intervalo de tiempo At (Fig. 2.1c). Asi, la velocidad es la razén de cambio de la posicién de P respecto a O. P Bas rt+At)—r() 2 ° ° oO @ © © Figura 2.1 Lasdimensiones de una derivada sedeterminan como sise tratara de una (a) Vector de posicién de P respecto a. proporcién, por lo que las dimensiones de v son (distancia)/(tiempo). El (b) Movimiento de P respecto a0. punto de referencia usado suele ser obvio, y simplemente llamamos ¥ a la (©) Cambio en la posicién de P entre 1 y velocidad de P. Sin embargo, se debe recordar que la posicién y la velocidad 4+ At. deun punto se pueden especificar s6lo con respecto a un punto de referencia, Observe en la Ec. (2.1) que la derivada de un vector con respecto al tiempo se define exactamente igual que la derivada de una funcién escalar. Por ello, comparte algunas propiedades de la derivada de una funcién escalar. Usaremos dos de esas propiedades: La derivada respecto al tiempo de la suma de dos funciones vectoriales u mas w es ida respecto al tiempo del producto de una funcién escalar f Por una funcién vectorial u es d(fu) _ df du ag ae LgeLa aceleracién de P respecto a O en un tiempo ¢ se define como dv vit +At)— vit) > [masa A ln Lt 4 (Joe + 3m) -0: 1 [40 sen20° — (0.15)(40) cos 20° + 30](9.81)(0.4) = 5(40 +30)? 2 Esta ecuacién es idéntica a la obtenida aplicando el principio del trabajo y la energia a las eajas aisladas COMENTARIO. ‘A menudo se encontrar que es més facil aplicar el principio del trabajo y la energia a un sistema completo que a sus partes por separado. Sin embargo, ‘como veremosen el siguiente ejemplo, las fuerzasinternas en un sistemapueden efectuar un trabajo neto. 4.2 TRABAJO Y POTENCIA 145 ite ' Lindl. (b) Diagrama de cuerpo libre de B. Iw B (€) Diagrama de cuerpo libre del conjunto.image not availableaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is 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reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.OTRAS OBRAS DE INTERES PUBLICADAS POR PEARSON: ALONSO y FINN: Fisica BEDFORD y FOWLER: Meednica para ingenieria: Estdtica