B.E/B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2010 Fourth Semester Mechanical Engineering ME-2253— ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY (Common to Automobile Engineering) (Regulation 2008) Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks Answer ALL Questions PART A (10x2=20Marks) 1. State Peritectic and peritectoid reactions In Peritectic reaction, upon cooling, a solid and a liquid phase transform isothermally and reversibly to a solid phase having a different composition. The Peritectic reaction can be written as cooling \ Liquid +Solid] solid? 4 ‘Heating The peritectoid reaction can be written as cooling Solid1+Solid: Wee solid3 fe 2. Distinguish between steel and cast iron. Also classify steel with respect to carbon percentage, Composition up to 0.008% carbon are regarded as commercially pure iron , those from 0.008 to 2% carbon represent steel, and those above 2% carbon represent cast iron. Steels are further subdivided into: 1. Eutectoid steels;Steels that contain 0.8% C are called eutectoid steels.2. Hypo eutectoid steels: steels having less than 0.8%C are known as hypo eutectoid steels. 3. Hyper eutect as hypereutectoid steels Steels: steels having more than 0.8%C are known 3. Enumerate any two differences between annealing and normalizing. sno | Annealing [_Normatizing in which a material is for an extended time period and then slowly cooled 1. | The term annealing refers to a heat treatment exposed to an clevated temperature Normalismg is similar to full anne’, *g, but cooling is established in still avr rather than in the furnace. 2 To induce softness To increase the strength of the stee| x It provides a coarse grain structure It provides a fine grain structure 4. Annealing is more time consuming. Normalizing is less time consuming 4. Explain the term ‘induction hardening’. The induction hardening is a process of selective hardening using resistance to induced eddy currents as the source of heat. The mechanism and purpose of induction hardening are the same as for flame hardening. The main difference is that in induction hardening the source of heat input is an induced electric current instead of using flame, 5. List the parameters that can be determined from the tensile test. (i) limit of proportionality, (ii) Yield point or yield strength, (iii)Maximum tensile strength, (iv)Breaking strength, (v) Percentage reduction in area, and (vii) Modulus of elasticity6. Mention some of the disadvantages of Brinell hardness test. It cannot be used’on very hard or very soft materials. The test may not be valid for thin specimens. The test is not valid for case-hardened surfaces. The test should be conducted on a location far enough removed from the edge of the material so that no edge bulging results. 7, What will be the effects, if the following elements alloyed with steel? (a) Phosphorous (b) Sulphur 1. Strengths low carbon steel 2. Increases resistance to corrosion. 3. Improves machinability in free-cutting steels. 4. Improves resistance to fatigue. 8. Write down the composition and any one application of the following alloys. DURALUMINIUM 94%AI,4 %Cu, 0.5%Mg, 0.5%Mn, 0.5% Si, 0.5%Fe BRASS Brass is alloy of copper and zinc. Standard brass- 65%Cu,35 Zn Cartridge brass — 70Cu, 30Zn. 9. Name any two polymers and state their applications. - PONS Poly ethylene APPLICATIONS: Flexible bottles, toys, packing films, seals and gaskets, bowls and buckets , etc. Poly propylene. APPLICATIONS:Low-cost semi rigid moulded products suchas house wares, car interior components; bottle caps, extruded pipes, carpet fibers etc. 10. Mention any four attractive properties of engineering ceramics. a. High resistance to abrasion and. wear. b. High strength at high temperature. c. Good chemical stability. d. Good electrical insulation characteristics.PART B - (5x16=80 Marks) 1 (a) (i) Draw iron-carbon equilibrium diagram and label all the phases. Also enumerate the properties of the following phase. (1) Ferrite (2) Austenite (3) Cementite. Jron-Iron carbide equilibrium diagram is very much useful in understanding the microstructures and properties of cast irons and carbon steels. It is called used to understand the basic differences among. iron alloys and the control of their properties. This phase diagram is constructed by plotting the carbon composition along the X —axis and temperature along the Y-axis, This phase diagram presents the phases present at various temperatures for very slowly cooled iron-carbon alloys with up to 6.67% carbon, Concsiion (8% 0) =e 0 s 25 % 0 a 1496 #L) The iron-iren corblde phase diagramThe Fe-Fe3C phase diagram contains the following four solid phases: Ll. a Ferrite, 2. Austenite (7), 3. Cementite (Fe,C), and 4.d Ferrite 1. a- Ferrite: This phase is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in the BCC iron crystal lattice. The solid solubility of carbon in a ferrite is a maximum of 0.02% at 723°C and decreases to 0.005% at 0°C. 2. Austenite (ory iron) : The interstitial solid solution of carbon in Giron is called austenite. Austenite has an FCC crystal structure and a much higher solid solubility for carbon than 4 ferrite. As indicated by fig, the solid solubility of carbon in austenite is a maximum of 2.08% at 1148°C and decreases to 0.8% at 723°C. 3. Cementite (Fe3C): The intermetallic iron -carbon compound (Fe3C) is called cementite. As shown in fig cementite has negligible solubility limits and a composition of 6.67%C and 93.3% Fe. 11. (a) (ii) Define the following terms (1) Solid solution. (2) Polymorphism. (1) SOLID SOLUTIONS A Solid solution is the simplest type of alloy. A solution can be defined as a homogeneous mixture in which the atoms or molecules of one substance are dispersed random in to another substance. Asolid solution may be defined asa solid that consists of mixture in which the atoms or molecules of one substance are dispersed at random into another substance A solid solution may be defined as a solid that consists of two or more elements atomically dispersed in a single phase structure. (2) POLYMORPHISM Pure iron is an allotrepic metal. Allotropy refers to the possibility of existence of two or more different crystals structures for a substance depending upon temperature. This phenomenon is also known as polymorphism.11. (b) (i) Explain Hume-Rothery rules of solid solubility. Hume Rothery’s Rules (Factors governing solid solubility) To form an extensive solid solution (i.e. greater than 10 atomic percent soluble), the solute and solvent elements should obey the following general rules of Hume Rothery’s. 1. Size factor: The atoms must be of similar size, with less than a 15% difference in atomic radius (in order to minimize the lattice strain). 2. Crystal structure: The materials must have the same crystal structure. Otherwise, there is some point at which a transition occurs from one phase to a second phase witha different structure, 3. Valence: The atoms must have the same valence’. Other wise, the valence electron difference encourages the formation of compounds * rather than solutions. 4. Electro negativity: the atoms must have approximately the same electro negativity. Electro negativity is the ability of the atom to attract an electron. if electro negativity differ significantly, the compounds will form. If one or more of the Hume Rothery’s rules are violated, only partial solubility is possible. 11. (ii) Discuss the composition, properties and application of the following cast iron (1) Malleable cast iron (2) Spheroidal cast iron. 1. Malleable cast iron Composition: The composition of a typical malleable cast iron is given below: Carbon —- 2.0 to 3.0% Silicon - 0.6 to 1.3% ‘Manganese- 0.2 to 0.6% Phosphorus — - 0.15% Silicon - 0.10% remaining is iron.Properties of Malleabie Cast lron The important properties of malleable cast iron are given below: 1. The malleable cast iron possess good ductility and malleability properties than grey cast iron 2. Itexhibits high yield strength and tensile strength. 3. It is not brittle as grey cast iron, 4. It has high Young’s modulus and low coefficient of thermal expansion. 5. It exhibits excellent impact strength and fatigue strength. 6. It has good wear resistance and vibration damping capacity. 7. Italsohas excellent machinability Applications of Malleable Cast Iron * — Malleable cast irons are widely used in the automobile industries, because of their combination of castability, shock resistance, and good machinability. Typical components include brake-shoes, pedals, levers, wheel-hubs, axle-housings, connecting rods, transmission gears, and door hinges. * They are also suitable for the manufacture of thin sections which require high ductility. Typical components include pipe fittings, parts for agricultural machinery, switchgear equipment, and fittings for bicycle and motorcycle frames. (2) Spheroidal cast iron . Composition: The composition of a typical SG cast iron is given below: Carbon - 3.2 to 4% Silicon - 1.8 to 3% Manganese- 0.2 to 0.5% Phosphorus —- 0.08% max Sulphur - 0.01% max. Remaining is iron. The SG iron is produced by adding magnesium and/or cerium to molten cast iron (i.e. the grey iron before casting.) The magnesium converts the graphite of cast iron from flake form into Spheroidal or nodular form. The resulting alloy is called Spheroidal or nodular cast iron. Properties of SG Cast Iron The important properties of the SG cast iron are given below:|. S.G.castiron has excellent ductility, tensile, and yield strengths than grey and malleable cast irons. . It has good toughness than the grey cast iron. . It has good fatigue strength. . It exhibits good impact strength. . It possesses good hardness and high modulus of elasticity. It has corrosion resistance. similar to that of grey iron. . It possesses excellent castability and wear resistance, . It has ability to resist oxidation at high temperatures. SOA AHEWH . It has good machinability. Thus, one can say that ductile iron has mechanical characteristics approaching those of steel and hence it behaves like steel. Applications of SG Cast Iron The typical applications of SG cast iron include valves, pump bodies, crank shafis, gears, pinions, rollers. rocker arms, flanges, pipe fittings, power transmission equipments, earth moving machineries 12. (a)(i) Draw time temperature-Transformation (T-T-T) diagram and label all the phases. Also enumerate any four objectives of heat treatment of steel? Objectives of Heat Treatment The heat treatment is generally employed for one or more of the following purposes; |. To relieve internal stresses (which are set up in the metal due to cold working, welding, casting, forging, etc.) To improve machinability. To refine grain size. To soften the metal. To improve hardness of the metal surface. ae en To improve mechanical properties (like tensile strength, hardness, ductility, shock resistance, etc.) — To improve magnetic and electrical properties. 8. To increase resistance to wear, heat and corrosion,9. To improve ductility and toughness. 10. To change the chemical composition. Time Temperature-Transformation (I-T-T) diagram. i) ii) Booch vreins tretmafaceewarton thes Bainite in iron-carbon alloys can be defined as an austenitic decomposition product that has a non-lamellar eutectoid structure of a ferrite and cementite (Fe,C). For eutectoid carbon steels, a distinction is made between upper bainite and lower bainite. Upper Bainite is formed by isothermal transformation at temperatures between 550°C and 350°C. Upper bainite has large, rod like cementite regions. Lower bainite is formed between about 350°C and 250°C. Lower bainite has much finer cementite particles. As the transformation temperature is decreased, the carbon atoms cannot diffuse as easily. Hence the lower bainite structure has smaller particles of cementite.12. (ii). What is case hardening? Explain the following processes ()Carburizing (2)Nitriding CASE HARDENING (OR SURFACE HARDENING) OF STEELS CASE HARDENING (OR SURFACE HEAT TREATMENT) We know that a principal reason for hardening steel is to retard wear on bearing and rubbing surfaces, but hard steel is brittle and not fatigue and shock resistant. Therefore, for high strength along with durability it is desirable to harden selected outer surfaces of many machine parts for wear and leave their cores soft and ductile for shock resistance. This can be achieved by the process knownas surface or case hardening CARBURISING Carburising process Carburising is the process in which carbon atoms are introduced onto the surface of low carbon steels to produce a hard case of surface, while the interior or core remains soft. Steels for carburising should have carbon from 0.10 to 0.20%. Process of Carburising In carburisation, when a piece of low-carbon steel is placed in a carbon saturated temperature, then the carbon will diffuse or penetrate into the steel and carburizing it. Methods of Carburising The carburising i.e., the process of adding carbon to a metal surface can be accomplished by the following three methods. 1. Pack carburizing 2. — Gas carburizing and 3. Liquid carburizing (or cyaniding), This classification is based on the form of the carburizing medium used. Carburisation Process During the process of carburizing, the following things happen: 1. During heat treatment, the charcoal is treated with barium carbonate (carburizing mixture) that promotes the formation Co, gas.BaCO, <——> BaO + CO, 2. This CO, gas in turn reacts with the excess ss carbon i in the charcoal to produce carbon monoxide (CO). core <—— > 2 co 3. This CO supplies the carbon that is necessary for diffusion. 2CO+3 FeS——"P Fe,C + CO, Thus the formation of Fe,C on the surface gives avery high hardness to them. Nitriding Nitriding is a process of introducing nitrogen atoms, to obtain hard surface of steel components. It is another process for the surface hardening of steel. Nitriding Vs Case-hardening Incase-hardening, the medium contains carbon whereas in nitriding itcontains gaseous nitrogen. Special steels known as ‘Nitralioy’ steels are necessary for the nitriding process, because hardening depends upon the formation of very hard compounds of nitrogen and metal such as aluminium, chromium and vanadium present in the steel. Nitriding is not suitable for the hardening of plain carbon steels, as iron nitrides could be formed to a considerable depth below the surface of the steel. This embrittles the material. 12,-(b)(i). What is hardenability ?Describe a test that used for determination of hardenability of steel HARDENABILITY The term hardenability refers to the ease with which hardness may be attained. That is, the ease with which a steel will transform to hardened ‘The hardenability of steel is defined as that property which determines the depth and distribution of hardness inducted by quenching form the austenitic condition. In other words, hardenability is a measure of ease of forming martensite.For instance, one can say that alloy steels are more hardenable than plain carbon steels because they form martensite more easily. Thus the hardenability is a measure of the depth to which full hardness can be attained. Determining Hardenability (Jominy End-Quench Test) The most idely adopted method of determining hardenability is the Jominy end-quench test method. The Jominy end-quench test method is universally adopted because: ii, It is relatively easy to perform iii, It has excellent reproducibility iy. It gives information useful to a designer as well as manufacture. Testing Procedure (i) The standard test-piece (Fig. (a) is heated to above the upper critical temperature of the stéel i.e. until it becomes completely austenitic. (i) Itisthen very quickly transferred from the furnace, and immediately dropped into position in the frame of the apparatus shown in Fig.(b). (iii) Here it is quenched at one end only, by a standard jet of water at 25°C. Thus, different rates of cooling are obtained along the length of the test-piece. (iv) When the test-piece has cooled, a ‘flat’ approximately 0.4mmdeep is ground along the length of the bar, as shown in Fig.(c). Now Rockwell C hardness readings are taken every 1.6 mm (1/16 inch) along the length, from the quenched end. (v) Finally, the results are plotted as shown in Fig. edness distribution er domnine bars Teptent * — From the Fig., it is clearthat the greatest hardness is at the quenched end, where martensite is formed; and the lower hardness is farther away : (ii)Explain the different types of tempering process? Classification of Tempering According to the tempering temperature, tempering may be classified into three classes. They are: 1. Low Temperature Tempering The low temperature tempering is performed in the temperature range from 150°C to 250°C. This process is used to retain hard microstructure of martensite. Also this process relieves the internal residual stresses. This process is generally applied on cutting and measuring tools of carbon and low alloy steels and the parts which are surface hardened and case-carburised. 2. Medium Temperature Tempering . * — The medium temperatute tempering is performed in the temperature range from 350°C to 450°C. This process develops tempered troostite structure. This process increases endurance limit and elastic limit.This process is applied on spring steels and die steels. 3. High Temperature Tempering * — The high temperature tempering is performed in the temperature range from 500°C to 650°C. * — This process develops Sorbite structure. * It eliminates the internal stresses completely. * This process is applied on structural steels. (iii) State any four reasons for the formation quenching cracks. Reason for the formation quenching cracks. ‘Theselection of quenching medium is based onthe following factors : 1. Desired rate of heat removal. is Required temperature interval. 3. Boiling point 4, Viscosity 5. Flash point (ifcombustible) 6. Stability under repeated use 7. Possible reactions with the material being quenched. 8. Cost 13.(a)(i). With neat-sketches explain the mechanism of the slip and twining also state the difference between them. Ans: Refer 15(a) (i) Nov/Dec 2009 S.No. Slip - Twinning 1 In-shpping, the deformation takes] In twinning, the deformation is duc to Place due to the sliding of atomic] orientation of one part of the crystal planes over the others. with respect to the other. 2 Woecurs along individual slip planes | It occurs over general crystallographic planes 3 The atomic movements are over large] The atomic movements are over a [distances fraction of atomic spacing 4 There is no change in the orientation] Twinned atoms undergo a change in ofthe atoms after slip has occurred. | their orientation and become ‘mitror of the untwined atom 5. [Slip takes place when shear stress] There is no role for resolved eriical reaches resolved critical shear stress shear stress i =13. (a) (ii)Draw creep curve and explain the different stages of creep damage. Ans: Refer Nov/Dec 2009 Q.No. 15(a) (ii) 13. (b)()Draw S-N curve for ferrous and non-ferrous metals and explain how endurance strength can be determined. Also discuss the factors that affect the fatigue life. S-N Diagram * The S-N diagram can be obtained by plotting the number of cycles of stress reversals (N) required to cause fracture against the applied stress level (S), as shown in Fig. Aluminium alloy t ‘ z. me wi SN I tl 10° 2 Number of cycles N= The S-N curves for different materials * — Ttcan be seen from the Fig that the fatigue strength is more for steels than for non-ferrous metals (such as aluminium) and their alloys. * Fatigue stress (or fatigue strength) : The stress at which a metal fails by fatigue is termed as fatigue strength. * Fatigue limit (or endurance limit) : It is defined as the yalue of stress below which the material will not fail even when it is loaded for infinite number of cycles. * Fatigue life : It is the total number of cycles required to bring about final fracture under a given conditions of use. Factors Affecting Fatigue Strength 1. Fatigue strength is influenced by many factors such as chemical composition, grain size, and amount of cold working.Fatigue strength is high at low temperatures and gradually decreases with rise in temperature. Environmental effects such as corrosion of the product by moisture decreases the fatigue strength. The design of the product also influences the fatigue strength. Because changes in shape/size may change the stress gradients and residual stresses of the materials Results of the Fatigue Test * The fatigue test can tell us show long a part may survive or the maximum allowable loads that can be applied to prevent failure. The fatigue test is useful in setting the design criterion with the use of the endurance limit, Endurance limit is stress below which there is a 60% probability that fai'..7e by fatigue will never occur, which is the common design criterion. Fatigue life tells us how long a component survives at a particular stress. From the S-N curve. one can find t he fatigue life (N) for the applied stress. Endurance lim it Endurance ratio = » 0.6. Tensilestrength The endurance or fatigue ratio allows us to estimate fatigue properties form the tensile test. (ii)Define the term “Hardness of metal”. With a neat sketch, explain the hardness measurement by Rockwell method. Hardness: * * It is the property of a material by virtue of which it is able to resist abrasion, indentation (or penetration), machining, and scratching. It is measured by the resistance of the material it offers to scratching. Examples: Diamond, quartz, and glass. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST % The Rockwell hardness test is probably the most widely used methods of hardness testing.The principle of the Rockwell test differs from that of the others in that the depth of the impression is related to the hardness rather than the diameter o1 diagonal of the impression, as shown in Fig... Rockwell test are widely used in industries due to its accuracy, simplicity and rapidity. In this test, the dial gives a direct reading of hardness; no need for measuring indentation diameter or diagonal length using the microscope. a of Depth of impression impression Rockwell indenter 14.(a)(i) Write down composition and application of the following metal 1, Stainless steel. 2. Tool steel. 1. Austenitic Stainless Steels Composition : Typical composition of austenitic stainless steel is given below : C-0.03 to 0.15% Mn — 2 to 10% Si-1to2% Cr - 16 to 26% —3,5 to 22% P and S — Normal * Applications : The typical applications of austenitic stainless steels include aircraft industry (engine p arts). chemical processing heat exchanger), food processing (kettles, tanks), household (cooking utensils), dairy industry (milk cans), transportation industry (trailers and railway cars), etc. Ferritic Stainless Steels Composition : A typical composition of ferritic stainless steel is given below:C— 0.08 to 0.10% Si- 1% Mn — | to 1.5% * Cr- 12 to 25% * Applications : The typical applications of ferritic stainless steels include lining for petroleum industry, heating elements for furnaces, interior decorative work, screws and fittings, oi] burner parts, etc. 3: Martensitic Stainless Steels * — Composition : A typical composition of martensitic stainless steel is given below: C-0.1 to 1.5% Si-1% Mn ~ 1% Cr-12 to 25% * — Applications : The typical applications of martensitic stainless steels include pumps and valve parts, rules and tapes, turbine buckets, surgical instruments, etc. Composition of Tool Steel Campestion ot) si | co Nw fom Ww v | ane-040| ctSmmx | 020i | CID | 6Sme | tae | | Foie [00-00 Oidmm | - [eon | aan | [omar [475-550 030max | 090-140 - ne 4 | Touma |in00-1399| Qd0max [070-120] | .10max | 1.00max [os=120/ 190-120) asomx | esomac | 130-300 a1 | 1 10-040 020-040 375-400 / 030mm |. - [1725-1825 90-130, = v7i-088| 015-040 620-050 /350-498 | 030mm 820-920) 140-259 Loe-135)- 35-045 | 0.25~0.70 | 0.80- 120 | 3.00-3, 036max | 200-300 oor] - 2 90mex [o10- nae 4.10048 | 075-1.25 ]0.10-.$0 | O15 040 i T T [2 | 045-190 o10-080] os0me [070-120] | 02s [oay-oanTool steel. Properties and applications of tool steels ee a an Ce OO ~ ~ | farfeg | fOsteeb) | naceung | Highce | Resting | WighMte | High | Ghotsig ee weet | wee | OS, | “pest | tien | end Aer | ores Ss (to | | [iawn Tecan a | [ic here 0) aos x | eres on | edn i i hiwe restarce ( Lowonign | Wediom | Hgh Hin i Iersey cas | ont | Fayguos | ex od | iy st 9 | dre tow tev Wesure tov lew Low we rew0 | rep=tdoe | sooo Sabo ee | e550) 1900-00 | oa |) ee Lome | me | te | i +. - de =|. al These Com pana vk ice neon Davia | I [aoc tote je atch egslares béalorton | ekiteg tots hand, [tk cpwratng ati | CESSES ates (etre ses oie ‘Se, poner, bones i (ii) What is the precipitation hardeni example. g? Illustrate this with an Precipitation Hardening? * Precipitation hardening, also known as age hardening, is the most important method of improving the physical properties of some of the non-ferrous alloys by solid state reaction. * [tis mostly applicable to the alloys of aluminium, magnesium and nickel. It is occasionally used for the alloys of copper and iron. * Examples of alloys that are hardened by precipitation treatments include aluminium-copper, copper-beryllium, copper-tin, and magnesium —aluminium, This process is called precipitation hardening because the fine precipitate particles of the new phase are formed in this hardening process. Process of Precipitation Heat Treatment The process of precipitation heat treatment consists of three steps. The three step process'is explained for an aluminium alloy, say Al-4% Cu alloy (called duralumin) below.fig. Shows the Al-Cu phase equilibrium diagram. Fig. 4.9 also shows the three steps in the precipitation hardening heat treatment together with the microstructures that are produced. Solution ‘resting : a+@ Weight percent copper The aluminium-rich end of the aluminium-copper phase diagram showing the three steps in the age-hardening heat treatment and the microstructures that are produced 14.(b)(i)Enumerate the composition and application of following alloys. (1).Cupre nickel (2).Bronze (3).Bearing alloy. Cupronickels Compositions, properties, and typical applications of some cupronickels| S| atoy Name | Composition pieperttes Typical No. (wt) applications 1. | Cupronickel | 70 Cu, 30 Ni Excellent corresion | ¥ For salt water resistant piping, codenser v Can be cast into any tubing, and for forms bullet envelopes 2, | Monei | 29Cu,68Ni,_| ~ Exccllentcorrosion | ~ For making metal 1,25 Fe, 1.25 resistant propellers, pump Mn ¥ Good mechanical fittings, | properties condenser tubes | steam turbine blades, Seo water exposed parts, tanks, and chemical and food handling I plants 3. | ‘Ki monel |29Cu,66Ni, | A heat-treated alloy. | / Used for motor | 2.75 Al, 0.4 ¥ Good metianicall boat propeller | Mn, 0.6 Ti proneitien shafts BRONZE: Compositions, Properties, and typical applications of some bronze alloysSha] Aloynare Compan 79 Properties ‘Typical appfications 1 | BilBaxe — 8Cu Sh V Hardadtritle Y Fer woking [7 Posessesresorarme bls 2 | Prphrtrom #80, 105,03R1 | ¥ Wenboremtinpostnsitis | ~ Fe bearings Zn 07 called phoghar braze warm wheds, V Progha noass tessewh detily, ‘ears rus anigqulity fossings Serine 7 Possess re or high corcsionresstroe uae lies, springs de. 3 | Sitantrave 95 Ga 35.1 Mit Y Blt d'shonb osrewhen bran Y Fe beans, fe a inpoecorsinressorns baler pats, Y Canbeces, rolled forand ard pressed marie hoterald rol ill Soopers, de cast pts, ac 4 |Aumiun = Cx 7AL35Fe | insakicioaknnuniroresto ¥ Forming roe 0351 inoeacthesraghandhxces Y Hghoorssioraisenc: pregellers, Y Gondedd is oe i locld works prparti bats purp i a ‘tubes, air pangs side selves bis. om rigs, i de S| Qimgetome 9550438, 152 | ~ Godweghadomosarsizat ¥ Fermking a copper care 6 [Lexirtmm 750,551 187R2 |” Gnony gear lock Y Ustase N Y Canvaikat higtr sank bexaseafits quickhatdisspaion | alloys. I Y Incensadstrergh BEARING ALLOY: * Composition : The composition of a typical ‘Babbit’ metal is given below: Sb 10%, Sn 82%, Cu4%, Pb 4% * The tin-base bearing alloys are of better-quality high-duty bearing metals than the lead-base bearing alloys. * Uses : They are suitable for use in many medium- and high-duty bearing applications, particularly in the automotive industries.(ii) Lead-base bearing alloys * The lead-base bearing alloys are cheaper than tin-base bearing alloys. *" Composition: The composition ofa typical lead-base bearing alloy is given below : Sb 13%, Sn 12%, Cu 0.75%, As 0.25%, Pb 74% * APPLICATIONS : They are used for low pressure/low speed baring applications. 14. (b) (ii).State the effects of following alloys elements in steel (1).Chromium. (2).Molybdenum. Chromium (Cr) 0.3-4 * Increases corrosion and oxidation resistance * Increases hardenability ii Increases high temperature strength * Resists abrasion and wear (with high carbon) 1 1.0-1.5% Cr in medium and high carbon steels for gears, axles, shafts, springs, ball bearings, and metal working roils. 2. 12-30% Cr in martensitic and ferritic stainless steels. Molybdenum (Mo) 0.1-0.5 * — Improves high temperature creep resistance * — Reduces temper brittleness in Ni-Cr steels. * — Stabilizes carbides. Increases hardenability 1. A constituent of high-speed tool steels and creep resistant steels. 2. Upto 0.5% Mo often added to pearlitic Ni-Cr steels to reduce temper- brittleness. (iii).State any three objectives of adding alloying elements on steelManganese (Mn) 0.3-2.0 * Increases the strength and hardness and forms a carbide. * Increase hardnability. * Lowers the critical temperature range. * " Promotes:an austenitic structure. * Acts as a deoxidizer and a desulphurizer, Silioon(Si) | 2 TY Acs asagensal papoe | 1. Silicon stedts (0.07% ckoxidizer 44S) wed tor Y Inproves decrical and | tensforrer cores: magnatic properties. 2. Silicon used with i Inproves axidation cromiun(3.5%Si, 8% | resistance G)feritstigh Y Strengthens lowelloy steels | *TPSture oncetion . resistare in ICergine Y Increeses harcembility of wn steels carrying non- grphitizng dererts, Gromiun [034 | ¥ Ireresescomoionand | 1. 1.0-1.5%Crin medium a) | oxidation resistance ant high carbon steels for Y Inereeseslardaebility | £2475, aves, shafis, ; springs, ball beatings, ad | “ a i meal waking rolls V Resbsdrasionardt wear |? 1250%Crin (vithhigh carton) martensitic and ferritic sainless steels, 15..(a)(i).Explain the following terms with respect to polymers. 1, Mechanical behavior 2. Thermal behaviour 3. Electrical behaviour.1, Mechanical behaviour A molten polymer is amorphous and possesses random chain orientation. If the molecules are linear, their structure may be compared with that of a ball of cotton. This structure of the molecules at higher temperatures, can be preserved at lower temperatures through a quench in fig. Tension on such a mass produces most of the initial deformation and improves the alignment of the molecules .As a result ,the stress- strain relationships are not like those of metals ,because the modulus of elasticity is increased when the stress is applied directly against the polymer chain after alignment has occurred rus stress Nudie utsectonly gti, Chair! ceny eoeegth ‘Moines oltre cient twr pear se wevg (NERBEIPMCNLIE AME Mal Be Aap ibd bare Deformation of linear polymers. (a) Thermal and deformation treatments. (b)Comparative stress-strain relationships. [The numbers in (b) correspond to the structures in[a] The stress-strain relation behaviours shown in fig. Suggest means where by polymers have their properties enhanced. For example, the drawing process which is used in making artificial fibers provides an added benefit of increased strength Through molecular orientation. Of course the strength at right angles tothe axis of the drawn fiber would be exceptionally weak in the absenceof cross linking, because ‘only vanderwaals bonds are operative, fortunately, we never load a fiber in that direction ; however,the problem is real in a plastic film or sheet. The production of plastic film requires the simultaneous drawing of the product in two directions at same time. This is achieved through blowing procedures or through rolling operations which increase the width as the length is increased. Thermal behaviour Thermoplastic (linear) and thermosetting polymers differ in that thermoplastic polymers actuaily melt and lose all semblance of crystallinity at high temperatures .further more , thermosetting plastics safter the completion of polymerization, can eventually lose strength if they are exposed to high temperatures, because degradation occurs. The most critical effect of increased temperature is an increased “ rate of chemical reaction. The temperature is an increased rate of chemical reaction .The temperature at which polymers become highly susceptible to chemical reaction corresponds closely to the temperature at which mechanical strength drops off This is below the melting temperature in linear polymers. and corresponds to start of degradation in framework polymers. Electrical behaviour There is considerable use of plastics in electrical insulation. Plastics have obvious advantages ,such as their ability, when they are applied on wire as unpolymerized or partially polymerized liquid , to form a uniform coating which can then by polymerized in place. Some plastics lend themselves to film formation; these are particularly useful as electrical materials. A wide choice of flexible or rigid plastics is available. 15. (a) (ii). What are the special properties of plastics that make them suitable for engineering applications. PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF SOME THERMOPLASTICS Some of the important thermoplastics, their trade names, properties, and typical applications are given in Table Following are some comments about several thermoplastics listed in TableHydrocarbon Plastics The major hydrocarbon thermoplatic polymers are p olyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene, 1. Polyethylene (PE) Polyethylene. also known commonly as polythene, is made by the polymerisation of ethene ie. ethylene (CH=CH,). Polythylene is made from petroleum or natural gas feed stocks. The properties and application of PE vary over wide ranges depending on the molecular weight, the method of manufacture. and differences in structure and density. Polypropylene (PP) * Polypropylene is formed from the monomer propene i.e., propylene (CH,=CH-CH,) * — Itis similar to high-density polyethylene (HDPE), but its mechanical properties make it more suitable for moulded parts than polyethylene. Characteristics of PPs 1, They are stiffer, harder, and often stronger than polyethylene’s. 2. They have excellent fatigue resistance and a higher use temperature. 3. Theyare lighter in weight 4. They have good chemical and thermal resistance. But they have poor resistance. 5. Theyare relatively low cost to ultra-violet light. Polystyrene (PS) * Polystyrene is made from ethyl-benzene. It accounts for about 20% of all thermoplastics in commercial use. Characteristics of polystyrenes 1. They are low cost, brittle. glassy: transparent polymers. 2. They are easy to process; have excellent mold ability. 3. They have good dimensional stabilityPolyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polyvinyl chlorides (PVC) is made by polymerisation of the monomer viny! chloride (CH,=CHCI). PVC is one of the most widely used plastics in terms of volume produced. ‘Typical applications of PVC include pipes. valves, fittings, floor tiles, wire insulations, toys, phonograph records, vinyl automobile roofs, etc. Polyurethanes (PUR) Polyurethane is a family name given to a series of polymers that are produced by the reaction between aromatic di-isocyanates and low molecular weight polymer molecules. Depending on the degree of formulation, the urethanes behave as thermosetting palymers, thermoplastic polymers. or elastomers. PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF SOME THERMOSETTING PLASTICS Some of the important thermosetting plastics. their trade names, properties, and typical applications are given [able Following are some comments about several thermosetting plastics listed in Table Phenolics Phenolics, also known as Bakelites, are the oldest family of thermosetting plastics. The most important phenolic materials is the polyformaldehydes. 1. Polyformaldehyde (PF) Phenolics are based on phenol and formaldehyde, that’s why they are also termed as p henol formaldehydes (PF). Amino-Formaldchyde Materials These thermoset high polymers contain an amino group (-NH?) condensed with aldehydes. The most important of amino-formaldehyde polymers are urea formaldehyde and melamine formaldehyde. 1. Urea formaldehyde (UF) ____ Urea formaldehyde is produced by condensing urea monomers with formaldehyde.Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Melamine formaldehyde is produced by condensing melamine monomers with formaldehyde. Characteristics of MFs : The general properties of melamine formaldehyde (MF) materials are similar to those of urea formaldehyde (UF) materials. But the MFs have a better resistance to heat and can be used at temperatures of upto 95°C, Polyurethanes (PUR) Polyurethane is a family name given to a series of polymers that are produced by the reaction between aromatic di-isocyanates and low molecular weight polymer molecules. Depending on the degree of formulation, the urethanes behave as thermosetting polymers, thermoplastic polymers, or elastomers 15. (b)(i).Enumerate the properties of the following 1. Thermoplastic 2. Thermosetting plastic 3. Elastomer Elastomer _ The more important engineering elastomers in general as include ; (1) Natural rubber (NR) (2) .Polyisoprene(IR) (3) Styrene-butadiene rubber(SBR) (4) Butadiene rubber (BR) (5) Polychlorotrene rubber(CR) 15. (b) (ii)Deseribe the concept of copolymerization Addition polymerisation is used in the synthesis of polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polystyrene, and many copolymers.* H H i Est H, H NN A | I c. AX ANH i i | H Snel hearin? | | | i \ | Te ee | c—C=C—C—I Poe c=c—C— 0 | H i we Butadiene mer ‘Styrene mer Copolymerisation by the addition of two kinds of mers Condensation Polymerisation Condensation polymerisation, also known as step-growth polymerisation, is the formation of polymers by stepwise intermolecular chemical reactions that normally involve at least two different monomers. In contrast to addition polymerisation, the condensation polymerisation form a small molecular weight by-product such as water or CH,OH in addition to the polymer final product. In this, the reactant products will not have the chemical formula of the mer repeat unit, and the intermolecular reaction occurs every time a mer repeat unit is formed.