Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Genetics and Genomics
Review Course
June 19 – 21, 2015
Cancer Genetics 1
Sharon E. Plon, MD, PhD, FACMG
Center for Advanced Medical Learning and Simulation (CAMLS) • Tampa, Florida
Faculty Disclosure:
Sharon E. Plon
I have the following financial relationships to disclose:
I am a employee of Baylor College of Medicine (BCM)
which derives revenue from genetic testing, including
whole exome sequencing.
BCM and Miraca Holdings Inc. have entered into a
joint venture, Baylor Miraca Genetic Laboratory with
shared ownership and governance of the clinical
genetics diagnostic laboratories
I am a member of the BMGL Scientific Advisory Board
I will discuss off label use and/or investigational use in my
presentation.
Center for Advanced Medical Learning and Simulation (CAMLS) • Tampa, Florida
Outline of topics – Cancer Genetics 1
Basic principles
Oncogenes
Somatic cell genetics/targeted therapy
Basic principles
Tumor suppressor genes (LOH)
Familial predisposition syndromes
Retinoblastoma
Li Fraumeni syndrome
Origins of Mutations in Oncogenes
The types of mutations differ between
oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes.
Mutations in oncogenes activate the gene
product (missense) or cause the gene to be
misexpressed (translocations).
Mutations in oncogenes are frequently
somatic, e.g., found in the tumor but not in
matched normal DNA from the patient.
Activation by Point Mutation
1. SPECIFIC POINT MUTATIONS which
change the normal activity of a
protein to be transforming.
RAS proto oncogene proteins have Active Ras GTP
GTPase activity that is normally
regulated. G12V
This activity becomes constitutively
active due to specific missense
mutations.
HRAS codon 12 is one of the most
common mutations in all human
Inactive Ras GDP
cancer.
Common Somatic Ras Missense
Mutations
It is not entirely clear why there are different Ras
mutations in different tumor types.
Oncogene Amplification
Increases copy number. MYCN strong
Double minutes and amplification pattern
homogeneously staining regions
(HSR)
MYCN (n myc) frequently
amplified in high risk
neuroblastoma.
Her 2/Neu/c ERBB2
amplification frequent in human
breast cancers.
Therapeutic target of Images from R. Naeem,
Trastuzumab/Herceptin Cytogenetics Laboratory, Texas
Children s Hospital
MYCN Amplification Associated w/ Poor
Prognosis in Neuroblastoma
80
EFS (%)
60
P < 0.0001
40
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Years from Dx
Chromosome 14
IgG locus at 14q32
t(8;14) Translocation
IgG – c-Myc
Normal cell Somatic inversion
event
KD = kinase domain
Tumor cell
• Somatic inversion event in ~3% of non small cell lung cancer.
• Results in activation of ALK kinase because the EML4 domain
aids in heterodimerization.
• FDA approved companion diagnostic test to decide upon use of
ALK inhibitors – crizotinib in treatment of lung cancer.
Specific Kinase Alterations in Cancer
JAK2 mutations in high risk childhood ALL and
ALL associated with Down syndrome (Mullighan
et al, NEJM, 2009).
ALK mutations (and amplification) in familial and
sporadic neuroblastoma (Mosse et al, Nature,
2008).
FLT3 internal tandem duplication in AML.
EGFR missense mutations in lung cancer
associated with sensitivity to tyrosine kinase
inhibitors (gefitinib was first of class FDA
approved in 2003).
Secondary somatic mutations V843I or T790M then
associated with resistance to same class of drugs.
RAS Pathway Sequencing Reveals BRAF
V600E
BRAF (B raf) gene was found to carry a
specific mutation V600E in a substantial
percentage of malignant melanoma:
Subsequently identified in other advanced cancers
and pediatric brain tumors.
Targeted trials of BRAF inhibitors led to rapid
FDA approval for V600E mutated melanoma
Similar mutations at orthologous position in
KIT (D>V) as seen in BRAF in other tumor
types.
The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)
Using high throughput methodologies to
interrogate the cancer genome for:
Copy number/LOH using SNPchips
Methylation sensitive array methods
Direct sequencing of exomes or whole genomes in
cancer samples vs. normal DNA.
Sequencing of RNA for transcriptome and fusion
detection
http://cancergenome.nih.gov/index.asp
Started with high grade gliomas but now
expanded to over twelve tumors types
Metabolic Genes Implicated through
Sequencing
Whole exome sequencing of high grade gliomas by
Hopkins group led to discovery of gain of function
mutations in IDH1/2 in astrocytomas and
secondary glioblastoma multiforme.
IDH1/2 also frequently mutated in AML
Functional assays reveals that these are gain of
function mutations which alter substrates for
chromatin remodeling
Multiple other Krebs cycle proteins implicated in
cancer, e.g. fumarate hydratase
From Wallace, DC Nat Rev Cancer 2012, 10:685
Sampling FDA approved targeted drugs
Drug Target Tumors off label use in italics
Germline status
Many GWAS have been performed to identify
common variants that increase cancer risk.
Use large cohorts of cases and controls and scan
genome for polymorphisms.
Typically use polymorphisms with minor allele
frequencies >5%.
Risk allele has small impact on risk (1.1 2.0 RR).
Not clinically useful at this point.
GWAS experiments
Many candidate
SNPs have not
validated
Taylor et al Trends Mol Med. 2001 Nov;7(11):507 12.
Breast cancer GWAS hits demonstrate
modest impact on cancer risk
Gene/SNP Chromosome Risk allele Relative Risk per
frequency allele
FGFR2 10q 0.38 1.26
TNRC9 16q 0.25 1.2
MAP3K1 5q 0.28 1.13
LSP1 11p 0.30 1.07
?/rs13281615 8q 0.40 1.08
?/rs13387042 2q 0.50 1.2
CASP8 2q 0.86 1.13
From Pharoah, (2008) N Engl J Med 358;26; 2796
Chromosomal Abnormalities and
Cancer Risk – Trisomy 21
Results in ~20 fold increase in leukemia and
also shifts the myeloid: lymphoid ratio to
40:60.
Transient myeloid proliferation (TMP) which may or
may not evolve into leukemia is seen in infants.
Somatic GATA1 mutations found in TMP cells
Acute megakaryocytic leukemia is 400 fold RR.
In DS associated ALL see JAK2 missense mutations
and CRLF2 activation due to intrachromosomal
deletion.
Little increased risk of other cancer types
Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
Girls with mosaic Turner syndrome or gonadal
dysgenesis are at increased risk for
gonadoblastoma.
Correlates with presence of Y chromosome
containing material.
XXY males have an increased risk of breast
cancer.
Long term survivors of trisomy 18 have
increased risk of Wilms tumor.
Structural Chromosome Defects
WAGR – Wilms tumor, Aniridia, Genital
abnormalities, mental Retardation
Contiguous gene syndrome on 11p13.
WT1 Wilms Tumor and GU abnormalities
PAX6 aniridia
Denys Drash syndrome caused by missense or
nonsense mutations in WT1.
Increased risk of end stage renal failure
Recommend screening children with deletion by
abdominal U/S q 4 months until age 5 and then q 6
months until age 9.
Structural Chromosome Defects
Microdeletions including tumor suppressor
genes (+/ flanking genes) often associated
with DD/congenital anomalies
Retinoblastoma ~3% constitutional deletions
of 13q14 overlying the RB1 gene.
NF1 ~3 5% of patients. More severe
phenotype
Syndromic thrombocytopenia with AML
associated with deletions of RUNX1 at 21q22.
Chr 21q22 microdeletion syndrome
Shinawi, et al., Blood, 2008
Imprinting Disorders
Beckwith Weideman Sydnrome – pre and post
natal excessive growth, large tongue,
organomegaly, ear creases, hemihypertrophy
(HH), embryonal tumors.
Risk of Wilm s Tumor 2 5% and also increased risk of
hepatoblastoma (~1 3%).
Cancer risk greater when BWS includes HH or
organomegaly.
Recommend screening kidneys by ultrasound and AFP
for hepatoblastoma.
Autosomal Dominant Disorders
Multiple generations affected with cancer
w/proportion of de novo mutations highly
variable.
Transmission through mothers and fathers
independent of tissue type.
Earlier age of onset of cancer compared with
sporadic cases
Increase in multiple and bilateral tumors
Clustering of specific tumor types w/in family
Variable penetrance w/ unaffected mutation
carriers
Inherited Oncogene Mutations
Gene Disorder
RET Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2
MET Hereditary papillary renal cell cancer
HRAS Costello syndrome with skeletal abnormalities,
developmental delay, bladder
KRAS Cardio Facio Cutaneous syndrome – no known cancer
phenotype
ALK Hereditary neuroblastoma
EGFR Familial lung cancer (V843I or T790M) germline
When somatic these mutations associated with
acquired resistance to tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy
Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia 2
Type 2A includes in this order of diagnosis:
Medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC)
Pheochromocytomas
Parathyroid disease
Missense mutations in cysteine residues found in >90%.
Type 2B presents in infancy with
Ganglioneuromas of the GI tract, lips and skeletal
abnormalities. Can be confused with Hirschsprung s
megacolon.
Onset of MTC in early childhood
Two specific tyrosine kinase domain missense
mutations: M918T >> A883F
Familial MTC without other MEN features.
Clinical Evaluation for MEN2
Genetic testing is standard of care in MEN2 families and
anyone with MTC especially at young ages.
Testing is sequencing of regions with recurrent missense
mutations in RET.
If mutation positive, recommend prophylactic
thyroidectomy (Chen et al., Pancreas, 2010):
Level 1 mutations age 5 – 10 outside conserved cysteine
residues
Level 2 mutations by age 5 (cysteine alleles in exon 10 11)
Level 3 mutations by age 1 (including MEN2B alleles).
Specific RET alleles associated with Hirschsprung s
Tumor Suppressor Genes
Many dominant disorders result
Active Ras-GTP
from deleterious mutations in
tumor suppressor genes.
TSG normally function to: NF1
Inhibit proliferation
Down regulate the cell cycle
Repair DNA Inactive Ras-GDP
DNA damage checkpoints
Retinoblastoma
1 in 20,000 children affected
Unilateral or bilateral tumors develop
in early childhood
Occurs in heritable and nonheritable
forms
Identifying at risk infants substantially
reduces morbidity
Developed concept of tumor
suppressor gene and loss of
heterozygosity.
Cloning of RB1 gene
The RB1 gene was linked to 13q14.2 by obvious
cytogenetic deletions in children with Rb,
developmental delay and anomalies.
A large variety of loss of function mutations are
seen in Rb patients
Germline or mosaic germline for hereditary form
Somatic only for sporadic Rb
RB1 gene encodes a cell cycle regulator.
Inhibits the G1 to S phase by recruiting histone
deacetylases to promoters to inhibit transcription of
genes required for S phase.
RB1 protein itself regulated by phosphorylation.
Familial Retinoblastoma
Only 20% of patients with
bilateral Rb have a +FH.
80% are de novo
mutations without FH.
B-Rb Overall 90% penetrance
dx 1
for diagnosis of Rb in
germline mutation
carriers with LOF
5y 7y
B-Rb mutations.
Dx 6 mo
Genetic Counseling in Absence of Testing
All bilateral cases considered
constitutional/hereditary form.
Although ~4% represent somatic mosaicism
13 15% of unilateral cases are
constitutional/hereditary.
Also ~4% have somatic mosaicism
Low penetrant mutations including missense and
splice site are seen with families w/multiple
members with unilateral Rb.
Germline mosaicism in parents has been
documented which leads to substantial
recurrence risk.
Recurrence Risk for Rb in absence of
testing
Clinical scenario Retinoblastoma
Risk
Offspring of bilateral cases 45%
Normal genes
(prevent cancer)
1st mutation
( if inherited
susceptible carrier)
GROWTH
2nd mutation or loss
(leads to cancer)
Constitutional RB1 mutations – variety
of null mutations – typical of TSGs
Cytogenetically visible deletions (<5%)
Small deletions (detected by MLPA)
Nonsense and truncating mutations (80%)
Missense mutations
Testing approach.
Bilateral analyze RB1 directly from blood.
Unilateral analyze RB1 in tumor AND blood.
Identify both hits in the tumor and then see if
one is found in the blood.
Two Hit Hypothesis
Inactivation of both copies of a TSG is required to
develop cancer.
Both inactivation events can occur somatically during
development of childhood (unilateral tumor)
OR
Inherit a single mutation in a TSG and then somatically
acquires loss/inactivation of the second normal copy of
the gene to develop tumor (more likely to be bilateral).
At cellular (somatic) level these genes are recessive
because both copies of the gene are lost in tumors.
Autosomal dominant inheritance of susceptibility
to cancer.
Loss of Heterozygosity (LOH)
First event maybe a simple LOF mutation but
majority of second hits are larger scale events.
DNA from blood from an Rb patient is
heterozygous for polymorphic markers on
chromosome 13 flanking the RB1 locus.
The tumor tissue typically has lost the markers
from the normal allele. Only the marker associated
with a mutant allele is left – termed loss of
heterozygosity (LOH).
LOH is frequently seen near tumor suppressor
genes in many different types of tumors.
Loss of Heterozygosity Experiment
SNPchip data near TSG
Nl Tumor
Breast
dx 35
Sarcoma, Adrenocortical 45
Dx 5 Ca, dx 10
LFS Clinical Diagnosis
LFS Classic definition High suspicion: Chompret
Sarcoma <45 yrs PLUS Criteria for LFS Diagnosis
1° relative with any cancer Tumor within LFS
<45 yrs PLUS spectrum <46 yrs PLUS
1°/2° relative with LFS
Another 1°/2° relative
related tumor <56 yrs OR
with any cancer <45 yrs
with multiple tumors OR
OR sarcoma at any age.
Multiple tumors, 2 within
LFS spectrum and 1st
Li Fraumeni Like tumor <46 yrs OR
Syndrome (LFL) Any adrenal cortical
carcinoma or CPT,
Less stringent parameters
regardless of FH
Tinat et al, JCO, 2009
Molecular Genetics of LFS
80% of LFS families have mutations detectable
by sequencing TP53.
5 10% have deletions TP53.
TP53 testing by sequencing and deletion
analysis. TP53 also on most BRCA panels.
NCCN guidelines: TP53 testing for woman with BRCA
diagnosed <age 35 who is BRCA1/2 negative.
No other LFS gene has clearly been identified.
CHEK2 is LFS2 in OMIM but data that causes LFS is
very slim. Mainly associated with breast and colon
cancer risk.
Common Tumor Types in Li Fraumeni
Syndrome
Sarcomas – both soft tissue and osteosarcoma in children and
adults, but not Ewing s sarcoma.
Breast cancer – most common malignancy in LFS families
overall with average age of onset ~ 31.
Leukemias and lymphomas – including hypodiploid ALL
Adrenocortical carcinoma – in children, otherwise a very rare
malignancy.
60% of children with ACC have germline TP53 mutation
Brain tumors – in both children and adults. Choroid plexus
carcinoma are highly indicative of TP53 mutations.
GI malignancies including colon cancer, colorectal, laryngeal
Others: kidney, testicular,, head/neck cancers, neuroblastoma
Adrenocortical carcinoma
Estimated that 60% of pediatric ACC patients
carry TP53 germline mutations.
In Brazil, ACC is more common and not always
seen as part of LFS.
Specific mutation, R337H, with ~10% penetrance for
ACC and few other tumors in family (Figueiredo, JMG,
2006).
In US, ACC is associated with typical LFS TP53
mutations with much higher penetrance.
Modifiers of cancer risk
p53 pathway (Fang et al PLoS One 2010):
TP53 codon (P72R) (RR/RP vs PP carriers age of
cancer diagnosis (21 vs 34.4 years, P = 0.05)
MDM2 309T>G (GG/GT vs TT carriers age of cancer
diagnosis (18.6 vs 27.6 years, P = 0.009)
Telomere length –short telomeres assoc. w/
greater risk childhood cancer diagnosis.
Increasing copy number variation assoc. w/cancer
risk.
ScreeningTP53 mutation carriers
EARLY (begin at age 18 21) breast cancer screening with
MRI.
Colonoscopy beginning at age 25.
Surveillance guidelines in children were recently
published and reported to decrease mortality:
whole body MRI
brain MRI
abdominal ultrasound
serum studies for ACC
CBC
(Villani et al., Lancet Oncology 2011).
Surveillance for TP53 Mutation Carriers
(Villani, Lancet Oncology, 2011)
Demonstrated to improve morbidity/mortality
Evaluations q3 4 months:
Physical exam
Imaging: abdominal ultrasound (ACC)
Blood tests: adrenal androgens, AFP, hCG (ACC), CBC
(leukemia)
Urine test: Urinalysis (ACC)
Annual brain MRI (brain tumor)
Annual whole body MRI (sarcoma other soft
tissue tumors)
Adults include breast MRI (beginning age 18 21)
and colonoscopy beginning age 25.
The End
Center for Advanced Medical Learning and Simulation (CAMLS) • Tampa, Florida