Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Genetics and Genomics
Review Course
June 19 – 21, 2015
Cancer Genetics 2
Sharon E. Plon, MD, PhD, FACMG
Center for Advanced Medical Learning and Simulation (CAMLS) • Tampa, Florida
Faculty Disclosure:
Sharon Plon
I have the following financial relationships to disclose:
I am a employee of Baylor College of Medicine (BCM)
which derives revenue from genetic testing, including
whole exome sequencing.
BCM and Miraca Holdings Inc. have entered into a
joint venture, Baylor Miraca Genetic Laboratory with
shared ownership and governance of the clinical
genetics diagnostic laboratories
I am a member of the BMGL Scientific Advisory Board
I will discuss off label use and/or investigational use in my
presentation.
Center for Advanced Medical Learning and Simulation (CAMLS) • Tampa, Florida
Polyposis Syndromes
Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP)
AD due to mutations in APC with very high
penetrance for polyps and colorectal cancer
MUTYH is involved in a recessive form of adenomatous
polyposis
15 30% of patients result from de novo mutations.
Adenomatous colonic polyps begin in childhood to
adolescence.
Nearly 100% lifetime colorectal cancer risk with
50% risk by age 33.
Extracolonic features often referred to as Gardner
Syndrome.
Polyposis Associated with FAP
Twin A
Twin B
Pathological assessment of mismatch repair gene variants in Lynch syndrome: Past, present, and future
Human Mutation
Volume 33, Issue 12, pages 1617 1625, 13 AUG 2012 DOI: 10.1002/humu.22168
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/humu.22168/full#fig1
Microsatellite Instability in MMR
mutant tumors
CRC +/ age or FH
MSI MMR Protein
Expression by IHC
MSH2 MLH1 absent
MSH6
or BRAF V600E or
Yes PMS2 MLH1 methylation
absent
No Yes
Consider mutation testing
Sporadic
of blood for MMR mutations
HNPCC Guidelines for mutation positive
individuals – NCCN 2012
Screening with colonoscopy every 1 2 years starting at
age 25 clearly decreases mortality in mutation carriers.
Prophylactic colectomy only recommended on case by case
basis.
Endometrial bleeding need prompt evaluation.
Screening for endometrial cancer by annual endometrial
sampling is an option but no clear evidence.
Prophylactic salpingo oophorectomy should be
considered once childbearing complete.
Risk factors for Colon Cancer
Situation Lifetime Risk of CRC
General Population 6%
No clear pancreatic cancer or melanoma screening
guidelines but may be recommended depending on
family history (NCCN 2013)
Guidelines for BRCA1/2 carriers
Screening test Interval of Screening Comments
Clinical breast exam q6 12 months from age 25
Mammogram Yearly beginning age 25 May defer to age 30
Breast MRI Yearly beginning age 25
No data available -
Transvaginal ultrasound Q6 mo beginning age 30 if defers BSO
No data available –
Blood CA 125 level Q6 mo beginning age 30 if defers BSO
Prophylactic Surgery
Bilateral mastectomy Discuss option with patient
Bilateral salpingo
oophorectomy Recommend once childbearing is complete around age 35 40.
Modified from NCCN 2013 guidelines.
Prophylactic Surgery
Multiple studies (Kauf et al. and Rebbeck et al., NEJM
2002) demonstrate the efficacy of bilateral prophylactic
salpingo oopherectomy (BPO):
90% reduction in ovarian cancer risk
~50% reduction in breast cancer risk, especially if done early
(mid – 30 s to early 40 s).
Surgery should include resection of the fallopian tubes.
Recommend age 35 40 after completion childbearing.
Unresolved Questions
When to use post BPO hormone replacement therapy?
Is risk of ovarian cancer low enough in BRCA2 carriers to avoid
or delay oophorectomy?
PALB2 Breast/Pancreatic Cancer Gene
First identified as the protein directly binds
BRCA2 and brings it to site of DNA damage.
Germline LOF mutations with classic 2nd hits.
Seen particularly in breast and breast/pancreatic
cancer families. Polish founder mutation in 1%.
Cancer risk and guidelines are less well described.
Absolute breast cancer risk by age 70 for PALB2 ranged
from 33% to 58% and argue to follow similar to BRCA2
carriers (Antoniou et al., NEJM 2014).
Absolute pancreatic cancer risk less clear but PALB2
mutations make up ~1% of pancreatic cancer families.
Breast Cancer Summary
Major genes – BRCA1, BRCA2, PTEN, TP53, STK11, CDH1,
PALB2, RAD51C and RECQL. Testing is indicated.
Relative Risk (RR=5 10x)
Surveillance and prophylactic surgery
Moderate genes – ATM, CHEK2
RR~2 fold, testing questionable. Screening based on family
history, generally add breast MRI.
Many different Nextgen panels with high/moderate risk
genes are available.
Low risk genes – available but no indication for efficacy.
One study found that 11% of early onset BRCA patients
who were BRCA1/2 negative had a positive high risk gene
test and another 8.6% had low risk gene mutation and
11% had a VUS in one of the genes (Maxwell et al., GIM,
2015) .
Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia 1
MEN1 classic TSG with LOF and 2nd hits; Tumor
spectrum includes:
Parathyroid
Pancreatic islet cell tumors
Anterior pituitary hyperplasia
Zollinger Ellison Syndrome (much higher mortality in
sporadic ZES versus MEN1 associated ZES).
Biochemical investigations (yearly)
Serum concentration of prolactin from 5 yo
Fasting total serum calcium calcium from 8 yo
Fasting serum gastrin from 20 yo
Imaging every 3 5 yrs
Head MRI from 5 yo
Abdominal CT or MRI from 20 yo
Screening guidelines in Thakker et al, J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012
Pheochromocytomas Paragangliomas
Studies of either pheochromocytomas or
paragangliomas patients demonstrate 40 50%
heterozygous for a constitutional mutation.
Succinate dehydrogenase subunits (SDHB, SDHD, SDHC,
SDHA, SDHAF2) encode mitochondrial proteins.
SDHD imprinted, affected when inherited from father.
SDHB mutations associated with malignant forms of the tumors.
More likely to have extra adrenal tumors including the
chemoreceptor organs (glomus and carotid body tumors)
Can also see GIST tumors
MAX, KIF1B, TMEM127, EGLN1
VHL – Von Hippel Lindau syndrome – type 2 (missense
mutations) associated with high risk of adrenal and extra
adrenal pheochromocytomas with elevated metanephrines
RET – MEN2 syndrome
Rarely NF1
AIP Related Familial Isolated Pituitary
Adenomas
Pituitary adenomas usually expressing GH
(somatotropinoma), PrL (prolactinoma), TSH
(thyrotropinoma), ACTH (corticotropinoma) or
non functioning. Age of onset 20 24 yrs
AD with reduced penetrance resulting from
heterozygous mutations in AIP
Aryl hydrocarbon receptor Interacting Protein
Mutation: ~90% sequence & 10% del/dup
Treat by surgery, medical or radiotherapy
Genetics of Renal Cell Cancer
Histology typically helps decide which gene to test for
or use NextGen panel.
VHL – almost always clear cell histology
80% of sporadic RCC has somatic VHL mutations.
Balanced translocation carriers involving chromosome
3
A variety of different translocations result in AD RCC (clear
cell)
Papillary renal carcinoma – due to activating mutations
in c MET oncogene
Hereditary leiomyomatosis RCC (aka Reed Syndrome):
mutations in fumarate hydratase (FH)
Autosomal dominant
uterine fibroids and cutaneous leiomyomata
Birt Hogg Dubé Syndrome – chromophobe/oncocytic
Birt Hogg Dubé Syndrome
Chromophobe/oncocytic
histology to RCC
Benign fibrofolliculomas
Colonic polyps
Medullary thyroid cancer
Spontaneous pneumothorax
BHD tumor suppressor gene
fibrofolliculomas
Dyserkatosis congenita
Disorder due to
dysfunctional telomeres
(telopathy)
Classical clinical triad
Nail dystrophy
Oral leukoplakia
Abnormal (reticulate) skin
pigmentation
In a minority of DC
patients
From Savage and Bertuch, Genetics in Medicine, December 2010.
DC: Diagnostic criteria
Classical triad or one or two of the classical
features + hypoplastic bone marrow + two or
more other DC associated features.
Known deleterious germline mutation
Very short telomeres (<1st %ile) in 3 or more
lymphocyte subsets using flow cytometry.
Telomere measurements
Test is now clinically available
in Canada.
Requires fresh blood sample
from the patient.
Needs to be compared with
aged matched controls.
Flow cytometry allows
separation of the different
types of blood cells and then
telomere length is measured
for each cell type in the blood
sample.
DC: Causes of mortality
Bone marrow failure or immunodeficiency 60
70%
Pulmonary complications 10 15%
Malignancy 20% (including AML and head and
neck cancer in young adults)
Cancer risk is very similar to that described for Fanconi
anemia
Mean age of death 3rd decade
DC: Genetic heterogeneity
DKC1 (Dyskerin) 30% XLR
From Savage and Bertuch, Genetics in Medicine, December 2010.
Pleuro Pulmonaryblastoma (PPB)
Rare developmental tumor disorder associated
with lung cysts and PPB
Other tumors include (Slade, JMG, 2011):
Multicystic goiter
Cystic nephroma
Ovarian Sertoli Leydig type tumors
Wilms tumor
Rhabdomyosarcomas (including ovarian and CNS)
Intraocular medulloepithelioma
Pituitary blastoma and Pineoblastoma
Foulkes et al., Nat Rev Cancer, 2014
DICER1 mutations
Autosomal dominant inheritance with incomplete
penetrance and highly variable expressivity.
Caused by inheriting inactivating mutations in
DICER1
First evidence of a cancer susceptibility gene which
encodes a miRNA processing enzyme.
Second hits are missense mutations specifically
clustered in the RNAse IIIb domain (not LOF
mutations).
Testing now clinically available with screening for
those who are positive mainly focused on
surveillance of the pulmonary cavity
Autosomal Recessive Disorders
Much rarer disorders associated with increased
cancer risk, often during childhood.
Genes involved in either DNA repair or checkpoint
response.
Patients are often sensitive to specific DNA damaging agent
requiring modification of treatmentons (see supplemental
table).
Specific syndromes frequently have founder
mutations in specific ethnic groups, e.g., Bloom
syndrome in the Ashkenazi population.
Ataxia Telangiectasia
Ataxia, telangiectasias (conjunctiva),
immunodeficiency, and lymphomas and
leukemias +/ solid tumors.
Cancer can be the first sign of the disease.
Cells are very sensitive to ionizing radiation.
A T patients with cancer need substantial dose
reduction to avoid life threatening toxicity.
Diagnosis elevated AFP or increased radiation
sensitivity on clonal assay.
Can see t(7;14) translocations in PB.
ATM Gene
The ATM gene encodes a large DNA damage
checkpoint protein which phosphorylates proteins
encoded by cancer susceptibility genes.
Mutations in ATM include truncating alleles and
missense changes in functional domains.
Goldgar et al., Br Cancer Treatment, 2011 estimated
breast cancer risks for heterozygous rare missense
ATM mutations:
Overall, 30% risk of BRCA by age 60 (large CI)
One specific c.7271 C>T p.V2424G mutation in ATM is
associated with a significantly higher risk of breast cancer
similar to BRCA2.
Fanconi Anemia
Autosomal recessive syndrome with 16 different
complementation groups
FA – A, B (X linked), C, D1 (BRCA2), D2, E, F, G, I, J (BRIP1), K, L,
M, N (PALB2), O (RAD51C), P (SLX4)
Associated with varying clinical features:
Congenital anomalies
Bone Marrow Failure resulting in pancytopenia with
typical onset between 5 10 years treated by BMT.
Significantly increased risk of malignancy (Rosenberg et
al. Blood, 2003).
By age 17, 12% FA pts had died from BMF, leukemia or solid
tumor.
Overall, solid tumors much more likely in adulthood.
By age 24, 10% had AML alone.
FA Congenital Anomalies
Skeletal: radial ray, hip,
vertebral
Skin
hypo/hyperpigmentation
Short stature
Microphthalmia
Microcephaly
Renal: unilateral aplasia,
hypoplasia, horseshoe
Genital: hypogenitalia
Cellular Phenotype
Cells from FA patients (both lymphoblasts and
fibroblasts) demonstrate increased sensitivity
and chromosome breakage after exposure to
crosslinking agents:
Diepoxybutane (DEB)
Mitomycin C (MMC)
Used as the gold standard diagnostic test
When in doubt, order the test, particularly prior to
decisions about bone marrow transplant.
FA Breakage Assay
MMC Sensitive Fused Cells are
MMC Sensitive
MMC Sensitive
FA B + FA ?
= FA B/FA ?
MMC Sensitive Retrovirus
Infected FA ? Cells
or FA ?
expressing FANCB = are MMC Resistant
FA ? = Fanconi Type B
Core FA Complex
I D2 RAD51C/O BRCA2/D1
B E
F BRIP1/J
A M
G L I PALB2/N
C D2
Ub XRCC2/?
P
SLX4/P
Ub
ATM
DNA Genes that encode proteins
ATM phosphorylates that play important roles in
FANCD2 after DNA processing of DNA damage are
damage implicated in both FA and
hereditary breast cancer
Summary: Cancer risk of heterozygous carriers
for rare FA subtypes
Gene Type Heterozygous cancer risk
BRCA2 FA D1 High risk breast, ovary, pancreatic…
PALB2 FA N Moderately high risk breast (2 4 fold increased),
pancreatic cancer (familial pancreatic cancer)
RAD51C FA O High grade serous epithelial ovarian cancer; GWAS
hit for testicular germ cell cancer; Breast cancer
risk unclear
BRIP1 FA J Twofold increased risk of breast cancer
SLX4 FA P No clear breast cancer risk from several large
studies
XRCC2 FA ? RAD51 paralog; LOF mutations identified in breast
cancer families and one FA like patient cell line
RecQ Helicase Disorders
Disease Clinical Features Cancer Gene/Chromosome
Predisposition location
Hereditary Breast Autosomal dominant Breast cancer RECQL 12p12
Cancer (AD) non-syndromic (2015)
Center for Advanced Medical Learning and Simulation (CAMLS) • Tampa, Florida