Chapter (1)

Mathematical Modeling of DC Machines

1.1 DC Motor Overview

The direct current (DC) motor is one of the first machines devised to
convert electrical power into mechanical power, and its origins can be
traced to the disc-type machines conceived and tested by Michael
Faraday.

Direct current motors (the subject of this study) convert electrical

energy into mechanical energy through the interaction of two magnetic
fields. One field is produced by a magnet of poles assembly, the other
field is produced by an electrical current flowing in the motor windings.
These two fields result in a torque which tends to rotate the rotor. As the
rotor turns, the current in the windings is commutated to produce a
continuous torque output.

A DC motor can be seen to be comprised of three main parts: current-

carrying conductors called an armature; a circuit for magnetic field
provided by magnets of poles; and a commutator that switches the
direction of current in the armature as it passes a fixed point in space.

Since electric motor design is based upon the placement of conductors

in a magnetic field, a discussion of magnetic circuit principles will help
facilitate the understanding of motor action. If a conductor were wound
into a coil with many turns, the magnetic contribution of each individual
turn would add to the magnetic field intensity which exists in the space
enclosed by the coil. In this way, extremely strong magnetic fields can be
developed. The force which acts to push the magnetic flux through a
space is called variously magnetomotance, manetomotive force, or simply

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mmf. The term magnetic flux is used to describe how much magnetism
there is in the space around a coil or permanent magnet, or in the air gap
of a motor.

Condition assessment of DC motors requires a basic understanding of

the design and operating characteristics of the various types available: the
separately excited DC motor, the PM DC motor, the series motor, the
shunt motor, and the compound motor. Each type has unique operating
characteristics and applications. These characteristics enable the operator
to perform a wide variety of tasks.

1.2 Types of DC Motors

1.2.1 Separately Excited DC Motor
The schematic circuit diagram of separately excited DC motor is
illustrated in following Figure 1.1. When the armature of a DC machine
rotates in the stator field, a voltage is induced in the armature winding. In
a DC motor, it is called counter emf or back emf. In either case, the level
of this voltage can be calculated using Faraday's Law, which states that a
voltage is induced. The field and armature circuits are totally separate.
The field current is supplied from a secondary source.

Figure 1.1 Separately Excited DC Motor

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1.2.2 Permanent Magnets (PM) DC Motor
The magnetic field of (PM) motors is generated by permanent magnets so
no power is used to create the magnetic field structure. The stator
magnetic flux remains essentially constant at all levels of armature
current and, therefore, the speed vs. torque curve of the PM motor is
linear over an extended range. The schematic circuit diagram of a
permanent magnets DC motor is illustrated in following Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 PM DC Motor

1.2.3 Series DC Motor
Components of a series motor include the armature, labeled A1 and A2,
and the field, S1 and S2. The same current is impressed upon the
armature and the series field. The coils in the series field are made of a
few turns of large gauge wire, to facilitate large current flow. This
provides high starting torque, approximately 2 ¼ times the rated load
torque. Series motor armatures are usually lap wound. Lap windings are
good for high current, low voltage applications because they have
additional parallel paths for current flow. Series motors have very poor
speed control, running slowly with heavy loads and quickly with light
loads. A series motor should never drive machines with a belt. If the belt
breaks, the load would be removed and cause the motor to over speed and
destroy itself in a matter of seconds. The schematic circuit diagram of a
series DC motor is illustrated in following Figure 1.3.

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 Figure 1.3 Series DC Motor

Common uses of the series motor include crane hoists, where large heavy
loads will be raised and lowered and bridge and trolley drives on large
overhead cranes. The series motor provides the starting torque required
for moving large loads. Traction motors used to drive trains are series
motors that provide the required torque and horsepower to get massive
amounts of weight moving. On the coldest days of winter the series
motor that starts your car overcomes the extreme cold temperatures and
thick lubricant to get your car going.

1.2.4 Shunt DC Motor

The shunt motor is probably the most common dc motor used in industry
today. Components of the shunt motor are the armature, labeled A1 and
A2, and the field, labeled F1 and F2. The coils in the shunt field are
composed of many turns of small wire, resulting in low shunt field
current and moderate armature current. This motor provides starting
torque that varies with the load applied and good speed regulation by
controlling the shunt field voltage. If the shunt motor loses it’s field it
will accelerate slightly until CEMF rises to a value sufficient to shut off
the torque producing current. In other words, the shunt motor will not
destroy itself if it loses its field, but it won’t have the torque required to
do the job it was designed for. The schematic circuit diagram of a shunt
DC motor is illustrated in following Figure 1.4.

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 Figure 1.4 Shunt DC Motor

Some of the common uses of the shunt motor are machine shop lathes,
and industry process lines where speed and tension control are critical.

1.2.5 Compound DC Motor

When comparing the advantages of the series and shunt motors, the
series motor has greater torque capabilities while the shunt motor has
more constant and controllable speed over various loads. These two
desirable characteristics can be found in the same motor by placing both a
series field and shunt field winding on the same pole. Thus, we have the
compound motor. The schematic circuit diagram of a compound DC
motor is illustrated in following Figure 1.5.
The compound motor responds better to heavy load changes than a
shunt motor because of the increased current through the series field coils.
This boosts the field strength, providing added torque and speed.
If a shunt coil is added to a series motor at light loads (when a series
motor tends to over speed) the added shunt field flux limits the top speed,
eliminating self-destruction.

Figure 1.5 Compound DC Motor

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 Common uses of the compound motor include elevators, air
compressors, conveyors, presses and shears. Compound motors can be
operated as shunt motors by disconnecting the series field. Many
manufacturing process lines are designed this way. The reason being that,
most off the shelf motors are compound motors, and the series field can
always be connected later to provide additional torque, if needed.
Compound motors can be connected two ways, cumulatively and
differentially. When connected cumulatively, the series field is connected
to aid the shunt field, providing faster response than a straight shunt
motor. When connected differentially, the series field opposes the shunt
field. Differentially connected compound motors are sometimes referred
to as “suicide motors,” because of their penchant for self-destruction. If
perhaps, the shunt field circuit were to suddenly open during loading, the
series field would then assume control and the polarity of all fields would
reverse. This results in the motor stopping, and then restarting in the
opposite direction. It then operates as an unloaded series motor and will
destroy itself. Differentially connected motors can also start in the
opposite direction if the load is too heavy. Therefore, it is seldom used in
industry.

1.3 Separately Excited DC Motor Differential Equations

The DC machine as dynamic system , including the interactions of the
electromagnetic and the mechanical effect, is dealing within the following
section. The equivalent circuit of the separately exited dc machine can be
represented in schematic from as shown in Fig. 1.1. The electrical
equation of a DC motor is derived from the simple motor circuit
illustrated in Figure 1.1. The electrical relation between these variables is
given by equations (1.1-1.6) where Eb, the internally generated voltage, is
proportional to the motor velocity.

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 The motor back emf constant, Kv, is a measure of the voltage per unit
speed generated when the rotor is turning. The magnitude and polarity of
Kv are functions of the shaft angular velocity, r, and direction of rotation
respectively. Also Kv is the motor torque constant that is a measure of
the torque-per-unit-current produced by the motor. The dynamic
equation of a motor is given by:
di a
V a  i a R a  La  Eb (1.1)
dt
Eb  Laf i f  r (1.2)

K   Laf i f (1.3)
di f
Vf  if Rf  Lf (1.4)
dt
Te  K  i a (1.5)
d r
Te  J   r  TL (1.6)
dt

Va: applied voltage

Ia: motor current
Eb: induced back emf voltage
La: armature winding inductance
Ra: armature resistance
Te: motor output torque
r: motor output speed

1.4 Block Diagram and Transfer Function of Separately Excited DC

Motor
It is necessary to depict the voltage and torque equations of DC
machine in block diagram form when considering the machine as a part
of an overall system. Accurately, the equations which we have already

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derived for the separately excited DC motor which we will put into block
diagram form. From the block diagrams we can derive the transfer
function of the DC motor which are used in the design of current and
speed controllers.

1.4.1 Time Domain Block Diagram of Separately Excited DC Motor

Block diagram, which portray the interconnection of the system
equations is used extensively in control system design . we shall work
with time-domain equations using the p operator to denote
differentiation with respect to time d / dt and the operator 1 / p denote
integration ion. Therefore, we will have no trouble converting the time-
domain block diagram , so transfer functions by using the Laplace
operator,  dt . Arranging the equation of the separately excited DC

machine into a block diagram representation is straight forward. The

field and armature voltage equations and the relationship between torque
and rotor speed (1.1-1.6) may be Combined produces the armature
current, torque, field current and motor speed as follows:

1 / Ra
i a  (Va  E a ). (1.7)
(1   a p)
1
 r  (Te  TL ). (1.8)
( Jp   )
1/ R f
if Vf . (1.9)
(1   f p)

Where,  a  La / Ra and  f  L f / R f

From equations. (1.1-1.9), the time-domain block diagram is obtained as

shown in Fig. 1.6.

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 TL
Va ia
Te r
1 / Ra 1
Laf
(1  ap) ( Jp   )

Eb
Vf if
1/ R f
(1  f p)

Fig. 1.6 Time domain block diagram of separately excited DC motor

1.4.2 State Equation of Separately Excited DC Motor

The so-called state equations of the system represent the formulation
of the state variables into a matrix form convention for computer
implementation. The state variable of a system are define as a minimal
set of variables such that knowledge of these variables at any initial
condition time t  plus information on the input excitation subsequently
applied is sufficient to determine the state of the system at any time tt  .
In the case of DC machine, the field current i f , armature current i a and

the rotor speed  r . The formulation of the state equations for the
separately excited dc machine can be achieved by straight forward
manipulation of the field and armature voltage equations given by (1.1-
1.4) and the equation relating torque and rotor speed given by (1.5-1.6).
di a di f d r
In particular, solving equations (1.1, 1.4, 1.6) for , and
dt dt dt
yields:
d 1 Laf 1
ia   ia  i f  r  Va (1.10)
dt a La La

d 1 1
if   if  Vf (1.11)
dt f Lf

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 d  Laf T
r   r  i f ia  L (1.12)
dt J J J
These equations can be written in matrix form as follows:
 1     1 
  0 0  0   L 0 0
i f   f  i f     f
 V f 
d    1     Laf   1  
ia   0  0  i a    i f r    0  0  V a 
dt    a     L a   La  T 
 r 
        Laf
r
  1  
L

 0 0    i f ia   0 0  
 J  J   J

(1.13)

1.4.3 Time Domain Transfer Functions of Separately Excited DC

Motor
After identified all the major components in the block diagram, the transfer
functions of all parts in the diagram have been defined. An open loop
represents the single direction of flow in a system with no knowledge of
the response. On the other hand, we have a closed loop system. The
output of the system is being measured and fed back to the input to form
a close loop system. All these explanation can be summarized by a
complete transfer function representation made up of all the block
diagrams defined in the previous sections. The closed loop transfer
function is easily obtained from all blocks in the block diagram shown in
Fig. 1.7 as follows.
 r (t ) (1 / K   a m )
 (1.14)
Va (t ) TL  0
p  (1 /  a   / J ) p  (1 /  a ).(1 /  m   / J )
2

Ra J
Where,  m 
K 2

 r (t ) (1 / J ).( p  1 /  a )
 (1.15)
 TL Va  0
p  (1 /  a   / J ) p  (1 /  a ).(1 /  m   / J )
2

i a (t ) (1 / K   a m )
 (1.16)
 TL V
a 0
p  (1 /  a   / J ) p  (1 /  a ).(1 /  m   / J )
2

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 i a (t ) (1 /  a Ra ).( p   / J )
 (1.17)
Va (t ) T
L 0
p  (1 /  a   / J ) p  (1 /  a ).(1 /  m   / J )
2

TL
Va ia
Te r
1 / Ra 1
(1  ap) K
( Jp   )
Eb

Fig. 1.7 Time domain block diagram of separately excited DC motor at

constant flux

1.4.4 S-Domain Block Diagram of Separately Excited DC Motor

Block diagram, which portray the interconnection of the system
equations is used extensively in control system design . we shall work
with S-domain equations using the s operator to denote differentiation
with respect to time d / dt and the operator 1 / s denote integration ion.
Therefore, we will have no trouble converting the time-domain block
diagram, so transfer functions by using the Laplace operator. Arranging
the equation of the separately excited DC machine into a block diagram
representation is straight forward. The field and armature voltage
equations and the relationship between torque and rotor speed (1.1-1.6)
may be Combined produces the armature current, torque, field current
and motor speed as follows:
1 / Ra
i a  (Va  E a ). (1.18)
(1   a s)

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 1
 r  (Te  TL ). (1.19)
( Js   )
1/ R f
if Vf . (1.20)
(1   f s)

From equations. (1.18-1.20), the S-domain block diagram is obtained as

shown in Fig. 1.8.

1.4.5 S-Domain Transfer Functions of Separately Excited DC Motor

After identified all the major components in the block diagram, the transfer
functions of all parts in the diagram have been defined. An open loop
represents the single direction of flow in a system with no knowledge of
the response. On the other hand, we have a closed loop system. The
output of the system is being measured and fed back to the input to form
a close loop system. All these explanation can be summarized by a
complete transfer function representation made up of all the block
diagrams defined in the previous sections. The closed loop transfer
function is easily obtained from all blocks in the block diagram shown in
Fig. 1.9 as follows.

 r ( s) (1 / K   a m )
 (1.21)
Va ( s) TL  0
s  (1 /  a   / J ) s  (1 /  a ).(1 /  m   / J )
2

 r ( s) (1 / J ).(s  1 /  a )
 (1.22)
 TL Va  0
s  (1 /  a   / J ) s  (1 /  a ).(1 /  m   / J )
2

i a (s) (1 / K  a m )
 (1.23)
 TL V
a 0
s  (1 /  a   / J ) s  (1 /  a ).(1 /  m   / J )
2

i a ( s) (1 /  a Ra ).(s   / J )
 (1.24)
Va ( s) T
L 0
s  (1 /  a   / J ) s  (1 /  a ).(1 /  m   / J )
2

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 TL
Va ia
Te r
1 / Ra 1
Laf
(1  as) ( Js   )

Eb
Vf if
1/ R f
(1  f s)

Fig. 1.8 S-domain block diagram of separately excited DC motor

TL
Va ia
Te r
1 / Ra 1
K
(1  as) ( Js   )
Eb

Fig. 1.9 S-domain block diagram of separately excited DC motor at

constant flux

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 Chapter (2)
Performance Characteristics of Separately Excited
DC Motor
2.1 Operation of the Separately Excited DC Motor

The operation of a DC motor is described briefly at first. A symbolic

representation of a separately-excited DC motor is shown above. The
resistance of the field winding is Rf and its inductance is Lf, whereas the
resistance of the armature is Ra and its inductance is La. In the
description of the motor, the armature reaction effects are ignored. It is
justifiable since the motor used has either interpoles or compensating
winding to minimize the effects of armature reaction. The field current is
described by equation (2.1). If a steady voltage Vf is applied to the field,
the field current settles down to a constant value, as shown in equation
(2.2). When the field current is constant, the flux induced by the field
winding remains constant, and usually it is held at its rated value . If
the voltage applied to the armature is Va, then the differential equation
that is to be applied to the armature circuit is shown in equation (2.3). In
steady-state, equation (2.4) applies. The voltage, ea, is the back emf. in
volts. In a separately-excited DC motor, the back emf is proportional to
the product of speed of motor  r (rad/s) and the field  ( webers), as
shown by equation(2.5).
di f
Vf  if Rf  Lf (2.1)
dt
if Vf / Rf (2.2)
di a
V a  i a R a  La  Eb (2.3)
dt
Va  ia Ra  Eb (2.4)
Eb  K r (2.5)

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In equation (2.5), K is a coefficient and its value depends on the armature
winding. If the armature current in steady-state be Ia, then the power P
that is supplied to the armature is EbIa. This electric power is converted to
mechanical power by the armature of the DC motor. Let the torque
developed by the armature be Te, the unit for torque being Nm (Newton-
metre). Then power and torque can be related as shown in equation (2.6-
2.8). On canceling the common term on both sides, the torque Te
developed by the armature is obtained as presented in equation (2.9). If
the instantaneous armature current is ia, then equation (2.8) applies.
Torque has been denoted by Te in both equations.
Pa  Eb I a (2.6)
Eb  K  r (2.7)
Pa  K I a  r (2.8)
Te  K I a (2.9)
Speed of the motor can be controlled by varying Va and holding Vf
constant at its rated value. Then as the voltage applied to the armature is
raised, the armature current increases first. As the armature current
increases, the torque developed by motor increases and hence speed of
the motor increases. The drop across the armature resistance tends to be
small and hence the motor speed rises almost proportionately with the
voltage applied to the armature. But there is a limit to the voltage that
can be applied to the armature and that limit is the rated voltage of the
armature voltage. The speed of the motor corresponding to the rated
armature voltage and the rated field voltage is its rated speed. Thus the
speed of a motor can be varied below its rated speed by controlling the
armature voltage. It would be desirable that the motor should be able to
develop as high as a torque as possible and hence the voltage rated
applied to the field is held at its rated value. Applying higher than the

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rated voltage to either the field or the armature is not recommended.
When the rated voltage is applied to the field, the flux would be near the
saturation level in the poles. If a voltage higher than its rated voltage is
applied to the field, the flux would saturate and there would not be any
significant increase in the torque that the motor can deliver. On the other
hand, this would only result in increased losses in the winding. Since the
total heat which the DC motor can dissipate is fixed due to its surface
area and cooling system, increased losses from the excitation system
would mean that the other losses would have to reduce, implying that the
armature current cannot be at its rated level and the maximum torque that
the motor can deliver may reduce. Increasing the armature voltage above
its rated value is not recommended because the insulation of the armature
is designed for operation of the motor with the rated voltage applied to its
armature. Moreover, the torque that the motor can deliver depends on the
armature current and the field current. If the motor is operated
continuously, the maximum armature current should not be higher than
its rated value. When the armature current and the field voltage are at
their rated level, the motor generates the rated torque. Hence the
maximum torque the motor can deliver continuously over a long period
of time is its rated torque when its speed is varied from a low value to its
rated speed.
If the speed of the motor is to be increased beyond its rated value, the
voltage applied to the armature can be held at its rated value and the field
can be weakened by reducing the voltage applied to it. When the speed
of the motor is varied in this manner, the maximum power that can be
supplied to the armature is fixed, since both the voltage applied to the
armature and the armature current cannot exceed the rated level over a
long period.

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2.2 Dynamic Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Motor
The separately-excited DC motor are widely used and therefore, the
dynamic performance of a typical DC motor is illustrated. Two modes of
dynamic operation are of interest-starting from stall and changes in load
torque with the machine supplied from a constant voltage source.

2.2.1 Dynamic Performance During Starting From a Constant DC

Source
This block implements a separately excited DC machine using
SIMULINK/MATLAB as shown in Fig. 2.1. An access is provided to
the field connections so that the machine model can be used as a shunt-
connected or a series-connected DC machine.

Fig. 2.1 Separately excited DC machine using SIMULINK/MATLAB

The details of the SIMULINK diagram is shown in Fig. 2.2. The first
d
block simulate the equation ia , the second block simulate the equation
dt
d
i f , the third block simulate the equation Te  K ia and the fourth block
dt
1
simulate the equation  r  (Te  TL ).
( Js   )

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 Fig. 2.2 Details of Separately excited DC motor SIMULINK diagram

The no load starting characteristics of separately excited DC motor are

shown in Fig. 2.3. The armature voltage, the armature current and the
rotor speed are plotted. Initially the motor is stall and at time zero, 240 V

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is applied to the armature terminals. The peak transient current reaches to
500 A and rotor speed has an overshoot of 60 rad/sec (large) .

Fig. 2.3 No load starting characteristics of separately excited DC motor

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2.2.2 Dynamic Performance During Sudden Change in Load Torque
The dynamic characteristics following a step change in load torque from
zero to 25 N.m are shown in Fig. 2.4. The armature current and rotor
speed are plotted. It is noted that the change in steady state rotor speed is
quite large.

Fig. 2.4 Dynamic performance of separately excited DC motor following

a sudden change in load torque.

2.2.3 Dynamic Performance Using Starting Resistance

As the DC motor starts to turn, the interaction of the magnetic fields
inside it causes it to generate a voltage internally. This "back voltage"
opposes the applied voltage and the current that flows is governed by the
difference between the two. So, as the motor speeds up, the internally
generated voltage rises, the effective voltage falls, less current is forced

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through the motor and thus the torque falls. The motor naturally stops
accelerating when the drag of the train matches the torque produced by
the motors. To continue accelerating the train, resistors are switched out
in steps, each step increasing the effective voltage and thus the current
and torque for a little bit longer until the motor catches up. This can be
heard and felt in older DC trains as a series of clunks under the floor,
each accompanied by a jerk of acceleration as the torque suddenly
increases in response to the new surge of current. When no resistor is left
in the circuit, the full line voltage is applied directly to the motor. The
train's speed remains constant at the point where the torque of the motor,
governed by the effective voltage, equals the drag - sometimes referred to
as balancing speed. If the train starts to climb a grade, the speed reduces
because drag is greater than torque. But the reduction in speed causes the
back voltage to decline and thus the effective voltage rises - until the
current forced through the motor produces enough torque to match the
new drag.
On an electric train, the driver originally had to control the cutting out
of resistance manually. This was achieved by an accelerating relay, often
called a notching relay in the motor circuit as shown in Fig. 2.5 which
monitored the fall of current as each step of resistance was cut out. All
the driver had to do was select low, medium or full speed called "shunt",
"series" and "parallel" from the way the motors were connected in the
resistance circuit) and the equipment would do the rest.
As we have seen, DC motors are controlled by a "notching relay" set
into the power circuit. But there are other relays provided for motor
protection. Sharp spikes of current will quickly damage a DC motor so
protective equipment is provided in the form of an "overload relay",
which detects excessive current in the circuit and, when it occurs,
switches off the power to avoid damage to the motors. Power is switched

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off by means of Line Breakers, one or two heavy-duty switches similar to
circuit breakers which are remotely controlled. They would normally be
opened or closed by the action of the driver's controller but they can also
be opened automatically by the action of the overload relay.
On a historical note, early equipment had a huge fuse instead of an
overload relay. Some of these lasted into the 1970s and recall the
complications of changing one, which involved inserting a wooden board
(called a "paddle") between the shoes and the current rail. This was to
isolate the current from the locomotive while you changed the fuse.
A further protective device is also provided in the classic DC motor
control circuit. This is the "no-volt" relay, which detects power lost for
any reason and makes sure that the control sequence is returned to the
starting point (i.e. all the resistances are restored to the power circuit)
before power could be re-applied. This is necessary to ensure that too
much current is not applied to a motor which lost speed while current was
off. The following circuit illustrates the starting of a 5 HP 240 V DC
Machine with a three-step resistance starter, Figure 2.5.

Fig. 2.5 Starting of a separately excited DC motor with a three-step

resistance starter

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 The block implements a separately excited DC machine. An access is
provided to the field connections so that the machine model can be used
as a shunt-connected or a series-connected DC machine. The armature
circuit and the field circuit of the DC machine model are built with blocks
from SIMULINK library. It is represented by a DC motor block created
in series with a Controlled Voltage Source and a Current Measurement
block.
Four internal signals are multiplexed on the SIMULINK measurement
output vector (third block output) returning:
 Rotor speed in rad/s
 Armature current in A
 Field current in A
 Electromechanical torque in N.m.
The following circuit illustrates the starting of a 5 HP 240 V DC Machine
with a three-step resistance starter using SIMULINK as shown Fig. 2.6.
The Motor Starter subsystem is shown in Figure 2.7:

Figure 2.6 Starting DC motor SIMULINK diagram

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 Figure 2.7 Starter SIMULINK diagram

The DC motor current, voltage, torque and speed waveforms obtained at

the end of the starting test are shown in Figure 2.8.

Fig. 2.8 Starting performance of DC motor using starter

It is noted from this Figure that the starting current reaches to 50 A

instead of 500 A as mentioned before but the response time is very long.

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 Chapter (3)
Open Loop Speed Control of DC Motor Drive Using Solid
State Power Devices
3.1 Rectification
Rectifiers can be classified as uncontrolled and controlled rectifiers,
and the controlled rectifiers can be further divided into semi-controlled
and fully-controlled rectifiers. Uncontrolled rectifier circuits are built
with diodes, and fully-controlled rectifier circuits are built with SCRs.
Both diodes and SCRs are used in semi-controlled rectifier circuits.
There are several rectifier circuits rectifier configurations. The popular
rectifier configurations are listed below.
 Single-phase semi-controlled bridge rectifier,
 Single-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier,
 Three-phase three-pulse, star-connected rectifier,
 Three-phase semi-controlled bridge rectifier,
 Three-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier and
For low voltage, high current applications, a pair of three-phase, three-
pulse rectifiers interconnected by an inter-phase transformer(IPT) is used.
For a high current output, rectifiers with IPT are preferred to connecting
devices directly in parallel. There are many applications for rectifiers.
Some of them are:
 Variable speed dc drives,

3.2 AC to DC Conversion
3.2.1 Full Wave Rectification
A thyristor controlled rectifier, employs four thyristors to achieve full
wave rectification. If we a DC machine as a load, this has both L and R
and generates a back emf as shown in Fig. 3.1.

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 Assuming that there is sufficient inductance to ensure the motor
current is continuous, with the lag associated the waveforms are as above.
We can see that Io and Vo are both positive, therefore power is being
delivered from the supply to the motor. This is normal rectification mode.
If the firing angle is delayed to say 135O then the waveforms change.

Fig. 3.1 Schematic and waveforms diagrams of full wave converter

fed DC motor

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We now see that Vo is –ve and Io +ve. This means that the power flow is
into the supply. This is called INVERSION MODE. In both cases we can
see that as S3 and S4 turn on, the reverse voltage appears across S1 and S2
this is called LINE COMMUTATION.
In both cases the average value of the output voltage is:
2 2V
V  cos  (3.1)


Fig. 3.2 Schematic and waveforms diagrams of full wave converter

fed DC motor in inversion mode
The variation of the converter output, Vo, as defined by (3.1) is shown in
Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Output voltage variations of full wave converter

fed DC motor

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3.2.2 The semi-converter
In the semi-converter, two of the thyristors are replaced with diodes. The
operation is the same as the full bridge converter except that the diodes
do not allow any negative voltage to the load as shown in Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4 Schematic and waveforms diagrams of full wave semi-converter

fed DC motor

The average output voltage is now given by,

2V
V  (1  cos  ) (3.2)


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3.2.3 Three Phase Circuits.
Higher power applications, above several kW, are best met using 3 phase
rectifiers. Various configurations of rectifier are available.
a- The Half Wave Rectifier
In the case of an uncontrolled diode circuit we have the following
diagram as shown in Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.5 Schematic and waveforms diagrams of full wave converter

At any time the diode whose voltage is the most +ve will conduct. We
can see that each diode conducts for a span of 120O; also when D1
conducts, the voltage across D2 is vBA, and across D3 is vCA. During this
time, D2 and D3 are reverse biased. Using D1 we can also say.
3 6V
V  (3.4)

The thyristor controlled versions is shon in Fig. 3.6.

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 Fig. 3.6 Schematic and waveforms diagrams of full wave converter

The output voltage waveform is given by:

3 6V
V  (1  cos  ) (3.5)

b- The Thyristor Full Wave Converter
This is by far the most common controller rectifier circuit. It has the
following configuration. Both diagrams represent the same format. This
is the 3 phase equivalent of the full bridge rectifier, S1,2,3 are fired during
the +ve half cycles of the phases to which they are connected and S 4,5,6
are fired during the –ve half cycles of the respective phases. Again let us
assume that the load has significant inductance to maintain constant
current such as the DC machine examined earlier. The output current will
be continuous and operation will be as follows.

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It should be noted that each device conducts for 120O per cycle but the
average output voltage can be expressed as:
3 6V
V  cos  (3.6)

This gives us waveforms as follows.

Fig. 3.7 Schematic and waveforms diagrams of full wave converter

Similarly to the single phase converters, firing angles of 0 <  < 90 give
+ve Vo, but firing angles of 90 <  < 180 cause vo to go –ve and the
converter works in inversion mode, this gives us Vo vs  for continuous
current,

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 Fig. 3.8 Output voltage variations of full wave converter
fed DC motor

3.3 DC-to-DC Conversion

When the SCR came into use, a dc-to-dc converter circuit was called a
chopper. Nowadays, an SCR is rarely used in a dc-to-dc converter. Either
a power BJT or a power MOSFET is normally used in such a converter
and this converter is called a switch-mode power supply. A switch-mode
power supply can be of one of the types listed below:
 Step-down switch-mode power supply,
 Step-up chopper,
 Fly-back converter and
 Resonant converter.
The typical applications for a switch-mode power supply or a chopper
are:
 DC drive
 Battery charger and
 DC power supply.

3.3.2 Description of the Open Loop Drive System

In this section illustrates application of the SIMULINK/MATLAB to
the operation of a DC motor drive in which the armature voltage is

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controlled by a GTO thyristor chopper. The objective of this section is to
demonstrate the use of electrical blocks, in combination with SIMULINK
blocks, in the simulation of an electromechanical system with a control
system. The electrical part of the DC motor drive including the DC
source, the DC motor, and the chopper is built using blocks from the
SIMULINK and Power Electronics libraries. The DC Machine block of
SIMULINK models both electrical and mechanical dynamics. The load
torque-speed characteristic and the control system are built using
SIMULINK blocks.
A simplified diagram of the drive system is shown in Figure 3.9. The
DC motor is fed by the DC source through a chopper that consists of the
GTO thyristor, Th1, and the free-wheeling diode D1. The DC motor
drives a mechanical load that is characterized by the inertia J, friction
coefficient B, and load torque TL (which can be a function of the motor
speed).

Figure 3.9: Chopper-Fed DC Motor Drive

In this diagram, the DC motor is represented by its equivalent circuit

consisting of inductor La and resistor Ra in series with the counter
electromotive force (emf) E.

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Thyristor Th1 is triggered by a pulse width modulated (PWM) signal to
control the average motor voltage. Theoretical waveforms illustrating the
chopper operation are shown in Fig. 3.10.
The average armature voltage is a direct function of the chopper duty
cycle  .
Va  Vdc (3.7)
Note that this relation is valid only when the armature current is
continuous. In steady-state, the armature average current is equal to:
Va  Eb
Ia  (3.8)
Ra

The peak-to-peak current ripple is:

Vdc (1  e  e  e (1 ) )
i  . (3.9)
Ra (1  e )

where  is the duty cycle and r is the ratio between the chopper period
and the DC motor electrical time constant.
T
 (3.10)
( La / Ra )

Figure 3.10 Waveforms Illustrating the Chopper Operation

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3.4 Steady-State Voltage and Current Waveforms
When the steady-state is attained, you can stop the simulation and plot the
current and voltage waveforms using the variables Va and Ia sent back in
MATLAB workspace by the scope. The DC motor current and voltage
waveforms obtained at the end of the starting test are shown in Fig. 3.11.

Figure 3.11 Steady-State Motor Current and Voltage Waveforms

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 Chapter (4)
Design and Simulation for Current & Speed Controllers
of Separately Excited DC Motor Drive

4.1 Introduction
This chapter describes how a separately-excited DC motor can be
controlled in closed-loop with a Chopper-controlled supplying DC source
to its armature. In a control system, the system dynamics is often
described by differential equations. By applying Laplace transformation
to the system differential equations, the system output variables can be
related to the input variables in an algebraic form. In our single input/
single output system (SISO) where one input position expect one
corresponding output position. We use a transfer function to model the
input/output relationship. System Transfer Function = Ratio of the output
over the input to a control system. Hence, every component in a control
circuit will have a transfer function. This is obvious because every
component in a control /system will receive some input signal and
manipulate this signal to provide a required output. Therefore, we have a
series of transfer functions within the system. We can relate these systems
together by a block diagram representation where the transfer functions of
each component is put into representative blocks.
A separately-excited dc motor can be controlled, either by varying the
voltage applied to the field winding or by varying the voltage applied to
the armature. This Chapter describes how the motor can be controlled by
varying the armature voltage and it is assumed that the field is excited by
a constant voltage, equaling the rated voltage of the field winding. It
means that the discussion to follow assumes that the field current remains
steady at its rated value.

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4.2 Control System Design
Classical Feedback Control describes design and implementation of high-
performance feedback controllers for engineering systems. This Chapter
emphasizes the pole placement and root locus approaches which is widely
used in practical engineering. It presents the design methods for high-
order SISO, linear and nonlinear, analog and digital control systems.
Modern technology allows implementation of high-performance
controllers at a very low cost. Conversely, several analysis tools which
were previously considered an inherent part of control system courses
limit the design to low-order (and therefore low-performance)
compensators. Among these are the root-locus method, the detection of
right-sided polynomial roots using the Routh-Hurwitz criterion, and
manual calculations using the Laplace and Fourier transforms. These
methods have been rendered obsolete by structural simulation of complex
systems, multi-loop systems and nonlinear controllers, all of which are
essential for good design practice.
Nonlinear dynamic compensation is employed to provide global and
process stability, and to improve transient responses. The nearly-optimal
high-order compensators are then economically implemented using
analog and digital technology.

4.3 Current Controller Design Using Pole Placement

With approximate model of the current loop, the transfer function is given
by:
ia ( s) (1 / Ra )
 (4.1)
Va ( s) T (1   a sa )
L 0

If we use the desired response,

C (s) n2
 (4.2)
R( s) s 2  2 n  n2

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We can design the current controller as follows:

i a* ia
K ip s  K ii 1 / Ra
s (1  as)

Fig. 4.1 Block diagram of the current control loop

The closed loop transfer function can be deduced as:

I a ( s) (1 /  a Ra ).( K ip s  Kii )
 (4.3)
I a* ( s) T s 2  (1 /  a  K ip / Ra a )  Kii / Ra a
L 0

By comparing equations (4.2, 4.3) yields the controller parameters:

K ip   a Ra (2 n  1/  a ) (4.4)

Kii   a Ran2 (4.5)

Now, we can select the damping ratio  and then, we can calculate n as
follows:
1
For R( s)  , therefore,
s
1 n2
C ( s)  . 2 (4.6)
s s  2 n  n2

The inverse Laplace Transform for equation (4.6) will yield:

C (t )  1  en t (1  nt ) (4.7)
From this equation we can calculate n at the rise time tr and C (tr )  0.9 .

4.4 Speed Controller Design Using Pole Placement

With approximate model of the current loop, the transfer function is given
by:

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 r ( s ) K / J
 (4.8)
Va ( s) T 0
(s   / J )
L

We can design the current controller as follows:

r* a
K p s  K i K / J
s (s   / J )

Fig. 4.2 Block diagram of the speed control loop

The closed loop transfer function can be deduced as:

r ( s) ( K / J ).( K p s  Ki )
 (4.9)
r* ( s) T s 2  (  / J  K p K / J ) s  ( K Ki / J )
L 0

By comparing equations (4.2, 4.9) yields the controller parameters:

K p  (2 n   / J ) (4.10)

Ki  n2 J / K (4.11)

Now, we can select the damping ratio  and then, we can calculate n as
before.

4.5 Operation of the Current Controller of DC Motor

The current controller has two inputs, the reference current signal
which is the output of the speed controller and a feedback signal
proportional to armature current. The feedback corresponding to
armature current signal can be obtained in several ways. A current
transformer can be introduced in the path of ac current from the ac
supply. Another option would be to use a DC current transducer that
makes use of a Hall-effect sensor or an isolated opamp. The transducer
used produces a voltage proportional to current in the armature. The

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difference between these two signals is processed by another PI controller
and its output is also limited to correspond to 0o and 180o firing angle.
Output of the current controller may vary between 0 V and 10 V, with 0
V corresponding to 180o firing angle and 10 V corresponding 0o firing
angle. If the firing angle be  and the output of current controller VC,
then:
  180 * (10  Vc ) (4.12)
As output voltage of the current controller increases due to the
difference between the reference signal and the current feedback signal,
the firing angle is advanced towards 0o and average output voltage of the
bridge rectifier increases. This in turn leads to increased torque
generation and the motor accelerates.
If the speed reference is brought down suddenly, the current in the
motor cannot be reversed and hence the motor slows down due to friction
and the load. This process can be slow.
The question that can be raised is whether we need the current loop.
The answer is that it improves the performance. If there is a change in
the supply voltage even by a small amount, output of the bridge circuit
tends to a fall a bit for the same firing angle. The reduction in output
voltage causes a large change in armature current, with speed remaining
more or less constant. Then the current loop comes into action,
correcting firing angle to the required value. The time constant of the
armature, due to its inductance and resistance, tends to be of the order of
a few tens of ms and the mechanical time constant, due to the moment of
inertia of motor and load and the friction, is of the order of a few tenths of
a second. If a current controller is not used, speed would have to change
before the speed controller can come into action. Since the mechanical
time constant is about at least 10 times greater, there would be a
significant change in speed if there be no current controller.

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Normally a filter may be necessary in the feedback circuit for speed. The
tacho signal usually contains a small ripple superimposed on its dc
content. The frequency of the ripple is usually dependent on the speed
and the lower the speed is, the lower is the frequency of this ripple.
Hence the time constant of the filter may have to be set to correspond to
the lowest speed at which the motor would be required to run. Since
power output varies proportionately with speed, there is usually no
justification to run the motor at an extremely low speed. The next section
describes how the simulation is carried out.

4.6 Operation of Speed Controller of DC Motor

The block diagram of a dc drive is shown above. It does not show all
details. The DC motor has not been represented in the form of a block
diagram and the details of the load the motor drives have also not been
shown. The block diagram functions as follows.
For the system described here, output of the system is speed of the motor.
Hence when this system is to be controlled in closed-loop, the parameter
that is to be set is what that speed should be. It is denoted to be r* . In
order to control speed in closed-loop, we need a feedback signal that
corresponds to speed. It can be obtained in several ways. A digital tacho
or an analogue tachogenerator can be used. It is assumed that an
analogue tachogenerator is used here. It is coupled to the motor shaft and
its output voltage varies linearly with its speed. Let the speed feedback
signal be r* . This signal can be compared with the speed reference
signal and the error can be processed by the speed controller. The
controller can be of one of several types. It can be an integral (I)
controller, or a proportional (P) controller controller or a derivative (D)
controller or PI or PD or PID controller. Here both the controllers used

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are PI (proportional plus integral) controllers. A PI controller can lead to
fast response and zero-error for a step input.
The PI controller for speed has as its input the error between the two
signals, r* and r . If the speed feedback signal r is lower than the
reference signal r* , it means that the DC motor speed is below the set
speed and the motor needs to be accelerated. In order to accelerate the
motor, it should develop greater torque. To develop greater torque, its
armature current has to increase. Hence the output of speed controller is
set to function as the reference signal for armature current. It will be a
voltage corresponding to armature current with an appropriate coefficient
linking the two quantities. When r < r* , the difference causes output
of the speed controller to increase. Since output of speed-controller is set
to function as the armature current reference signal, an increase in the
value of speed-controller output would in turn lead to an increase in
armature current.

4.7 Operation of DC Chopper Fed of DC Motor

The rectifier circuit is made up of SCRs and the SCRs have a current
rating. Hence it is necessary to ensure that current through the SCRs
remains within a safe level. Hence output of the speed controller is
limited at both ends. Its maximum value corresponds to the safe level for
SCRs. It is not normally the rated current of the motor and it is usually
set at a value ranging from 1.5 times to 2 times the rated armature current.
The reason is that the motor may have to develop more than the rated
torque under transient conditions to achieve fast response. In order to
ensure that the motor armature current remains within its rated value,
another supervisory loop may be used. Another option is to use a circuit-
breaker. The instantaneous trip action in the circuit breaker can be due to

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magnetic effect and the overload trip can be due to thermal action. A bi-
metallic strip within the circuit-breaker expands due to temperature and
would trip the circuit-breaker. The lower limit on the output of speed-
controller would correspond to zero current in the armature, since the
motor current in this scheme cannot be in the reverse direction.

4.8 Simulation of the Separately Excited DC Motor Drive Using

SIMULINK/MATLAB
In this section, we consider a variable-speed DC motor drive using a
cascade control configuration. A block diagram of this drive is shown in
Figure 4.3. The motor torque is controlled by the armature current Ia,
which is regulated by a current control loop. The motor speed is
controlled by an external loop, which provides the current reference Ia*
for the current control loop.

Figure 4.3 Variable-Speed DC Motor Drive

The drive system diagram is built using electrical blocks contained in the
SIMULINK library. Voltage Measurement and Current Measurement
blocks are used as the interface between the two block types. The system
diagram of the DC motor using SIMULINK. is shown in Fig. 4.4

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 Figure 4.4 DC Motor Drive Using SIMULINK/MATLAB

The DC machine parameters are set to the desired values by using the
dialog mask of the DC Machine block.
The load torque-speed characteristic can be implemented by a
SIMULINK Function block.
The motor used in this case study is a separately excited 5 HP/240 V DC
motor having the following parameters: Ra = 0.5 , La = 10 mH, Kv
=1.23 V/(rad/s), Kv = 1.23 N.m/A.
A 10mH inductor (Ls) is connected in series with the DC motor to
smooth out the armature current. The constant excitation is implemented
by connecting a DC Voltage Source block to the field winding.
The required trigger signal for the GTO thyristor is generated by a
hysteresis current controller, which forces the motor current to follow the
reference within +h/2 and -h/2 limits (h is the hysteresis band) as shown
in Fig. 4.5.
The current controller is a masked block that contains

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 Figure 4.5 The hysteresis current controller
The speed control loop uses a proportional-integral (PI) controller, which
is implemented by SIMULINK blocks as shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6 The PI speed controller

4.9 Simulation Results of the DC Drive

Run the simulation by selecting Start from the Simulation menu in
Simulink. Set the simulation parameters in the Simulation Parameters
menu as follows.
Simulation time: Start Time:0, Stop time: 1.2
Solver Type: Variable-step ode23tb (stiff/TR-BDF2)
Max Step Size: auto
Initial Step Size: auto
Relative Tolerance: 1e-3
Absolute Tolerance: 1e-3
The motor voltage, current waveforms and motor speed are displayed on
three axes of the scope connected to the variables V d, Ia and .

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Once the simulation is completed, you can return to the MATLAB
command window to examine the results with more details by using the
plot function.

4.9.1 Drive Performance at No Load

In this test, we simulate the starting transient of the DC drive. The
inertia of the mechanical load is small in order to bring out the details of
the chopper commutation details. The speed reference is stepped from 0
to 120 rad/s at t=0.0 s and we observe the DC motor speed and current.
The transient responses for the starting of the DC motor drive are shown
in Figure 4.7. Note that the final system state vector x Final can be saved
by selecting Workspace I/O/Save to workspace/Final state in the
Simulation Parameters window. It can be used as initial state in
subsequent simulation so that the simulation can start under steady-state
conditions.

4.9.2 Speed Regulation Dynamic Performance

We can study the drive dynamic performance, (speed regulation
performance versus reference and load torque changes), by applying two
successive changing operating conditions to the DC drive: a step change
in speed reference and a step change in load torque.
Replace the block named r* (rad/s) and the block named Load_torque
(N.m) in the diagram by two SIMULINK step blocks with different
starting times. The speed reference steps from 120 rad/s to 160 rad/s at t =
0.4 s and the load torque steps from 5 N.m to 25 N.m at t = 1.2 s. The
final state vector obtained with the previous simulation can be used as
initial condition so that the simulation will start from steady-state. Select
Workspace I/O/Load from workspace/Initial state in the Simulation
Parameters window and restart the simulation.

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The obtained response of the DC motor drive to successive changes in
speed reference and load torque is shown in Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.7: Starting of the DC Motor Drive

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Figure 4.8 Dynamic Transient of the DC Motor Drive

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 Chapter (5)
Implementation of the Open Loop Control for Separately
Excited DC Motor

5.1 Introduction
In this Chapter the implementation of the DC Chopper feeding DC
motor is presented. Power supply circuits, driving circuits of IGBT
transistor and control circuit that generate the control signal of the
Chopper are designed and implemented.

5.2 Experimental Setup

5.1.1 The Power Supply with Voltage Regulator Circuit
Power is supplied to the control circuit through a +5, -5, -15, +15 volt
DC power supply. Power form the output of the bridge rectifier is
applied to a voltage regulators circuits that steps the voltage down to -5,
+5, +15, -15 volt pure DC. This circuit is fairly simple to build because
the support circuitry for the LM7805 (5-Volt voltage regulator IC),
LM7905, LM7815 and LM7915 require very few components. Each
circuit consists of step down transformer, an input jack, a power switch, a
resistor, one LED, a voltage regulator IC and two capacitors. The out of
the bridge rectifier is brought in through the input jack and then routed to
a double pole double throw switch (DPDT). This switch is used to turn
the power to the microcontroller on and off. The reason for using the
DPDT switch is to allow for disconnecting both the hot and neutral lines.
The LED is used to indicate whether power to the circuit is on or off.
The tantalum capacitors are used to filter the input and output voltages of
the all voltage regulators. Once this testing is completed, power is

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applied to the circuit. The student then checks the voltage regulator for
overheating. Figure (5.1) displays the voltage regulator circuit.

Fig. 5.1 The voltage regulator circuit

5.2.2 Linear Control of Phase Angle 

In this scheme illustrated in Fig. 5.2, a control voltage Ec changes linearly
the phase angle  . The voltage V1 is converted to a square voltage e1 and
then to a ramp voltage e2 . which is then compared with a control voltage
Ec. If e2 is higher than Ec, a signal ea is obtained at the output of the
comparator. The time at which the rising edge of ea occurs is proportional
to Ec and defines the firing angle α. This signal ea is next fed to a pulse
amplifier circuit and is used to fire IGBT. The firing angle is given by:
  kEc (5.1)
This circuit was used to generate a ramp that is synchronized with the
line voltage. Each comparator compares the line voltage with zero and
the RC circuit integrates the resulting square wave. The reverse diode
resets the ramp to zero at each zero crossing and the series diode circuit
ORs the ramp outputs to achieve an increasing ramp which resets at each
zero crossing of the source voltage. The final comparator stage is used to
dial the firing angle,  , and the transistor drive circuit bias the IGBT.

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The ramp waveform and the pulse waveform for  degrees were plotted.
The circuit was constructed, powered by a DC power supply (15V), and
its operation was confirmed. The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.2 Linear control of phase angle

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 Fig. 5.3 Circuit diagram phase angle control

5.2.3 Pulse Amplifier Circuit (Driving Circuit)

The pulses ei or ej in Fig. 5.4 may not be strong enough to bias an IGBT.
Besides, the gate and emitter terminals of the IGBT are at higher
potentials of the power circuit, and the control circuit should not be
directly connected to the power circuit. An optical isolation or pulse-
transformer isolation is commonly used in practice to provide physical
isolation between the control circuit and the power circuit. Figure 5.4
shows a pulse amplifier circuit using a pulse transformer isolation. A
Darlington transistor is used to amplify the pulse-current. If the pulses are
long (ex has a long width ), they may saturate the pulse-transformer and
the whole width of the pulse may not be transmitted. The whole pulse-
width may not be necessary. In such a case, the pulse is modulated at a
high frequency (10-1 MHz) as shown in Fig. 5.4, using a 555 timer or any
oscillator. The duly cycle of the timer should be less than 50% so that the
flux in the transformer can reset. A modulated pulse also reduces gate
dissipation in the IGBT. Processing of the pulse signal, (obtained from
the firing or driving circuit) at various stages is illustrated by the timing
diagram in Fig. 5.4.

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 Fig. 5.4 A typical pulse amplifier circuit

5.2.4 Chopper Control

Chopper converters in general require firing pulses to turn on a main SCR
and a commutating IGBT. The time interval between the firing of the
two IGBTs determines the duty cycle and hence the output voltage. A
control voltage is used to control the duty cycle of the chopper. Figure
5.5 shows a chopper firing circuit that consists mainly of four parts: a
triangular wave generator, a voltage comparator, edge detection and pulse

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amplifiers. The waveforms at various parts of the circuit are also shown
in Fig. 5.5.
The three operational amplifiers Q1, and Q2, together form a triangular
wave generator that generates the triangular wave ea, shown in Fig. 5.5b.
As the voltage ea decreases below 0.6 V (which is the forward bias
voltage of the diode D2), the output of Q2 changes from 13.5 V to -13.5
V, and it in turn triggers Q3 to change state. The output of Q3, which is
now negative (-13.5 V), makes D1 forward biased, and the 2.2 k path
takes control of the integrator input summing junction. The output of Q1
quickly rises to 13.5 V, which in turn triggers Q2 and Q3 and changes
their outputs to positive voltages. Now the diode D1 is reverse biased, the
feedback loop through D1 is reverse biased, and the feedback loop
through D1 is open. With the diode D1 reverse biased, control of the
integrator Q1 reverts to the 200 k path, and the output voltage e, has a
constant slope that depends on the values of the capacitor C, the input
resistor R, and the input voltage Vi . In fact, this oscillator can be used as
a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The purpose of using Q2 is to
introduce a time delay so that there is enough lime to charge up the
capacitor so that ea rises to 13.5 V. The diode D2 is used for the offset
adjustment so that ea is always above zero voltage.
The operational amplifier Q4 is used as a voltage comparator. If the
control voltage Ec exceeds the voltage ea the output of Q4 changes as
shown by waveform ea in Fig. 5.5.
The two monostable multivibrators are connected in such a way that
one of them is triggered by the rising edge and the other by the falling
edge of the signal. On receiving the rising or falling edge, the
monostable multivibrators produce two output signals whose width can
be adjusted. A pulse-width in the range of 20 to 200  sec is sufficient
for firing IGBT.

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 Fig. 5.5 Chopper driving circuit

5.2.5 OPEN-LOOP AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL

The control voltage Ec in Figs. 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and 5.5 changes the output
voltage of the converter. In an open-loop control as shown in Fig. 5.6, the
control voltage Ec is varied by using a potentiometer. In a closed-loop
control, the control voltage is obtained from the difference between a
reference and the quantity to be controlled. For example, if the dc motor
armature current is to be controlled in a closed-loop feedback control
system, as shown Fig. 5.6, the control voltage is derived from the
difference between the reference current and the actual motor current.

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The Opamp comparator is used to compare values of 2 input voltages. In
this control system, the Opamp received voltage signal from the
potentiometer. Then the Opamp amplifies the system's error voltages so
that the output voltage is enough to drive the motor. For example, the
input signal may be the order of a few miliamperes. This is hardly
enough to actuate the motors. This illustrates the need for an increase
gain. It is worth mentioning that this amplifier compares the values of the
input and feedback voltage and then amplify this voltage to a magnitude
suitable to be transmitted

Fig. 5.6 Open loop and closed loop control circuit

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5.3 Experimental Results
We test the practical system using a resistive load and a small DC motor.
Fig. 5.7 shows the steady state voltage and current waveforms.

Fig. 5.7 Steady state voltage and current waveforms

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