Professional Documents
Culture Documents
To cite this article: James H. Turner , Phil A. Lawless , Toshiaki Yamamoto , David W. Coy , Gary
P. Greiner , John D. McKenna & William M. Vatavuk (1988) Sizing and Costing of Electrostatic
Precipitators, JAPCA, 38:4, 458-471, DOI: 10.1080/08940630.1988.10466396
458 JAPCA
HIGH VOLTAGE SUPPORT INSULATOR
SIDEWALL
SIDEWALL DOOR
COLLECTING SURFACE
DISCHARGE ELECTRODE
GAS DISTRIBUTION DEVICE
The power supplies for the ESP con- ions, and large particles (>10 jum diam- amounts to 5-10 percent of the total
vert the industrial AC voltage (220- eter) can absorb tens of thousands. The flow. Antisneakage baffles usually are
480 V) to pulsating DC voltage in the electrical forces are therefore much placed to force the sneakage flow to
range of 20,000-100,000 V as needed. stronger on the large particles. mix with the main gas stream for col-
The supply consists of a step-up trans- As the particles pass each successive lection in later sections. But, again, the
former, high-voltage rectifiers, and wire, they are driven closer and closer sneakage flow around the last section
sometimes filter capacitors. The unit to the collecting walls. The turbulence has no opportunity to be collected.
may supply either half-wave or full- in the gas, however, tends to keep them These losses play a significant role in
wave rectified DC voltage. There are uniformly mixed with the gas. The col- the overall perforntance of an ESP. An-
auxiliary components and controls to lection process is therefore a competi- other major factor is the resistivity of
allow the voltage to be adjusted to the tion between the electrical and disper- the collected material. Because the
highest level possible without excessive sive forces. Eventually, the particles particles form a continuous layer on
sparking and to protect the supply and approach close eough to the walls so the ESP plates, all the ion current must
electrodes in the event a heavy arc or that the turbulence drops to low levels pass through the layer to reach the
short-circuit occurs. and the particles are collected. ground plates. This current creates an
The voltage applied to the electrodes If the collected particles could be dis- electric field in the layer, and it can
causes the gas between the electrodes lodged into the hopper without losses, become large enough to cause local
to break down electrically, an action the ESP would be extremely efficient. electrical breakdown. When this oc-
known as a "corona." The electrodes The rapping that dislodges the accu- curs, new ions of the wrong polarity are
usually are given a negative polarity mulated layer also projects some of the injected into the wire-plate gap where
because a negative corona supports a particles (typically 12 percent for coal they reduce the charge on the particles
higher voltage than a positive corona fly ash) back into the gas stream. These and may cause sparking. This break-
before sparking occurs. The ions gener- reentrained particles are then pro- down condition is called "black coro-
ated in the corona follow electric field cessed again by later sections, but the na."
lines from the wires to the collecting particles reentrained in the last section Back corona is prevalent when the
plates. Therefore, each wire establishes of the ESP have no chance to be recap- resistivity of the layer is high, usually
a charging zone through which the par- tured and so escape the unit. above 2 X 1011 ohm-cm. For lower resis-
ticles must pass. Practical considerations of passing tivities, the operation of the ESP is not
Particles passing through the charg- the high voltage into the space between impaired by back corona, but resistivi-
ing zone intercept some of the ions, the lanes and allowing for some clear- ties much higher than 2 X 1011 ohm-cm
which become attached. Small aerosol ance above the hoppers to support and considerably reduce the collection abil-
particles (<1 nm diameter) can absorb align electrodes leave room for part of ity of the unit because the severe back
tens of ions before their total charge the gas to flow around the charging corona causes difficulties in charging
becomes large enough to repel further zones. This is called "sneakage" and the particles. At resistivities below 108
Plan view of McGill EP electrodes with Plan view of Conventional EP electrodes with typical dimensions.
typical dimensions.
Figure 2. Flat-plate and plate-wire ESP configurations. Source: United McGill Corporation.
ohm-cm, the particles are held on the trodes are placed ahead of and some- lack of current in the collected layer
plates so loosely that rapping and non- times behind the flat plate collecting causes an electrical force that tends to
rapping reentrainment become much zones. These electrodes may be sharp- remove the layer from the collecting
more severe. Care must be taken in pointed needles attached to the edges surface; this can lead to high rapping
measuring or estimating resistivity be- of the plates or independent corona losses.
cause it is strongly affected by vari- wires. Unlike plate-wire or tubular Flat plate ESPs seem to have wide
ables such as temperature, moisture, ESPs, this design operates equally well application for high-resistivity parti-
gas composition, particle composition, with either negative or positive polari- cles with small (1-2 fim) mass median
and surface characteristics. ty. The manufacturer has chosen to use diameters (MMDs). These applica-
positive polarity to reduce ozone gener- tions especially emphasize the
Flat Plate Precipitators ation. strengths of the design because the
A flat plate ESP operates with little electrical dislodging forces are weaker
A significant number of smaller pre- or no corona current flowing through for small particles than for large ones.
cipitators (100,000-200,000 acfm) use the collected dust, except directly un- Fly ash has been successfully collected
flat plates instead of wires for the high- der the corona needles or wires. This with this type of ESP, but low-flow ve-
voltage electrodes. The flat plates has two consequences. The first is that locity appears to be critical for avoiding
(United McGill Corporation patents) the unit is somewhat less susceptible to high rapping losses.
increase the average electric field that back corona than conventional units
can be used to collect the particles, and are because no back corona is generat- Tubular Precipitators
they provide an increased surface area ed in the collected dust, and particles
for the collection of particles. Corona charged with both polarities of ions The original ESPs were tubular like
cannot be generated on flat plates by have large collection surfaces available. the smokestacks they were placed on,
themselves, so corona-generating elec- The second consequence is that the with the high-voltage electrode run-
460 JAPCA
ning along the axis of the tube. Tubular reentrainment or with back corona. Auxiliary Equipment
precipitators have typical applications The disadvantage is the increased com-
in sulfuric acid plants, coke oven by- plexity of the wash and the fact that Typical auxiliary equipment associ-
product gas cleaning (tar removal), the collected slurry must be handled ated with an ESP system is shown
and, recently, iron and steel sinter more carefully than a dry product, add- schematically in Figure 3. Along with
plants. Such tubular units are still used ing to the expense of disposal. the ESP itself, a control system usually
for some applications, with many tubes includes the following auxiliary equip-
operating in parallel to handle in- ment: a capture device (i.e., hood or
creased gas flows. The tubes may be Two-Stage Precipitators direct exhaust connection); ductwork;
formed as a circular, square, or hexago- dust removal equipment (screw con-
nal honeycomb with gas flowing up- The previously described precipita- veyor, etc.); fans, motors, and starters;
ward or downward. The length of the tors are all parallel in nature; i.e., the and a stack. In addition, spray coolers
tubes can be selected to fit conditions. discharge and collecting electrodes are and mechanical collectors may be
A tubular ESP can be tightly sealed to side by side. The two-stage precipitator needed to precondition the gas before
prevent leaks of material, especially invented by Penney is a series device it reaches the ESP. Capture devices are
valuable or hazardous material. with the discharge electrode, or ionizer, usually hoods that exhaust pollutants
A tubular ESP is essentially a one- preceding the collector electrodes. For into the ductwork or are direct exhaust
stage unit and is unique in having all indoor applications, the unit is operat- couplings attached to a combustor or
the gas pass through the electrode re- ed with positive polarity to limit ozone process equipment. These devices are
gion. The high-voltage electrode oper- generation. usually refractory lined, water cooled,
ates at one voltage for the entire length Advantages of this configuration in- or simply fabricated from carbon steel,
of the tube, and the current varies clude more time for particle charging, depending on the gas-stream tempera-
along the length as the particles are less propensity for back corona, and tures. Refractory or water-cooled cap-
removed from the system. No sneak- economical construction for small ture devices are used where the wall
age paths are around the collecting sizes. This type of precipitator is gener- temperatures exceed 800°F; carbon
region, but corona nonuniformities ally used for gas flow volumes of 50,000 steel is used for lower temperatures.
may allow some particles to avoid acfm and less and is applied to submi- The ducting, like the capture device,
charging for a considerable fraction of crometer sources emitting oil mists, should be water cooled, refractory, or
the tube length. smokes, fumes, or other sticky particu- stainless steel for hot processes and
Tubular ESPs comprise only a small lates because there is little electrical carbon steel for gas temperatures be-
portion of the ESP population and are force to hold the collected particulates low approximately l,150°F (duct wall
most commonly applied where the par- on the plates. Modules consisting of a temperatures <800°F). The ducts
ticulate is either wet or sticky. These mechanical prefilter, ionizer, collect- should be sized for a gas velocity of
ESPs, usually cleaned with water, have ing-plate cell, after-filter, and power approximately 4,000 ft/min for the av-
reentrainment losses of a lower magni- pack may be placed in parallel or se- erage case to prevent particle deposi-
tude than do the dry particulate pre- ries-parallel arrangements. Precondi- tion in the ducts. Large or dense parti-
cipitators. tioning of gases is normally part of the cles might require higher velocities, but
system. Cleaning may be by water wash rarely would lower velocities be used.
Wet Precipitators of modules removed from the system Spray chambers may be required for
up to automatic, in-place detergent processes where the addition of mois-
Any of the precipitator configura- spraying of the collector followed by ture, or decreased temperature or gas
tions discussed above may be operated air-blow drying. volume, will improve precipitation or
with wet walls instead of dry. The wa- Two-stage precipitators are consid- protect the ESP from warpage. For
ter flow may be applied intermittently ered to be a separate and distinct type combustion processes with exhaust gas
or continuously to wash the collected of device compared to large, high-gas- temperatures below approximately
particles into a sump for disposal. The volume, single-stage ESPs. The small- 700°F, cooling would not be required,
advantage of the wet wall precipitator er devices are usually sold as pre-engi- and the exhaust gases can be delivered
is that it has no problems with rapping neered package systems. directly to the precipitator.
Hood
Ductwork
Direct Exhaust
Mechanical Collector
Screw Conveyor
Figure 3. ESP control system and typical auxiliary equipment.
When much of the pollutant loading of the desired compound. A hopper or Ec = 3.126 X 106[dr + 0.0301 (djrj]
consists of relatively large particles, storage tank is often positioned over
mechanical collectors, such as cyclones, the conveyor for this purpose. (1)
may be used to reduce the load on the where Ec = corona onset field at the
ESP, especially at high inlet concentra- Electrostatic Precipitation Theory wire surface (V/m)
tions. The fans provide the motive dT = relative gas density,
power for air movement and can be The theory of ESP operation re- referred to 1 atm pressure
mounted before or after the ESP. A quires many scientific disciplines to de- and 20° C
stack, normally used, vents the cleaned scribe it thoroughly. The ESP is basi- rw = radius of the wire (m).
stream to the atmosphere. Screw con- cally an electrical machine. The princi-
pal actions are the charging of particles This is the field required to produce
veyors or pneumatic systems are often "glow" corona, the form usually seen in
used to remove captured dust from the and forcing them to the collector
plates. The amount of charged particu- the laboratory on smooth, clean wires.
bottom of the hoppers. The glow appears as a uniform, rapidly
late matter affects the electrical oper-
Wet ESPs require a source of wash ating point of the ESP. The transport moving diffuse light around the elec-
water to be injected or sprayed near the of the particles is affected by the level trode. After a period of operation, the
top of the collector plates either contin- of turbulence in the gas. The losses movement concentrates into small
uously or at timed intervals. The water mentioned earlier, sneakage and rap- spots on the wire surface, and the coro-
flows with the collected particles into a ping reentrainment, are major influ- na assumes a tuftlike appearance. The
sump from which the fluid is pumped. ences on the total performance of the field required to produce "tuft" corona,
A portion of the fluid may be recycled system. The particle properties also the form found in full-scale ESPs, is 0.6
to reduce the total amount of water re- have a major effect on the operation of times the value of Ec.
quired. The remainder is pumped di- the unit. The voltage that must be applied to
rectly to a settling pond or passed the wire to obtain this value of field, Vc,
through a dewatering stage, with sub- The following subsections will ex-
plain the theory behind (1) electrical is found by integrating the electric field
sequent disposal of the sludge. from the wire to the plate. The field
operating points in the ESP, (2) parti-
Gas conditioning equipment to im- cle charging, (3) particle collection, arid follows a simple 1/r dependence in cy-
prove ESP performance by changing (4) sneakage and rapping reentrain- lindrical geometry. This leads to a loga-
dust resistivity is occasionally used as ment. General references for these top- rithmic dependence of voltage on elec-
part of the original design, but more ics are White1 or Lawless and Sparks.2 trode dimensions. In the plate-wire ge-
frequently it is used to upgrade exist- ometry, the field dependence is
ing ESPs. The equipment injects an Electrical Operating Point somewhat more complex, but the volt-
agent into the gas stream ahead of the age still shows the logarithmic depen-
ESP. Usually, the agent mixes with the The electrical operating point of an dence. Vc is given by:
particles and alters their resistivity to ESP section is the value of voltage and
promote higher migration velocity, and current at which the section operates. = £ c r w ln(d/r w ) (2)
thus higher collection efficiency. How- As will become apparent, the best col- where Vc = corona onset voltage (V)
ever, electrical properties of the gas lection occurs when the highest electric d = outer cylinder radius in a
may change, rather than dust resistiv- field is present, which roughly corre- tubular ESP (m), or
ity. For instance, cooling the gas will sponds to the highest voltage on the d = 4/TT • wire-plate separation
allow more voltage to be applied before electrodes. for plate-wire ESP (m).
sparking occurs. Significant condition- In this work, the term "section" rep-
ing agents that are used include SO3, resents one set of plates and electrodes No current will flow until the voltage
H2SO4, sodium compounds, ammonia, having a common power source. In the reaches this value, but the amount of
and water, but the major conditioning direction of flow, this unit is commonly current will increase steeply for volt-
agent by usage is SO3. A typical dose called a "field," and a section or "bus ages above this value. The maximum
rate for any of the gaseous agents is 10- section" represents a subdivision of a current density (A/m2) on the plate or
30 ppm by volume. field perpendicular to the direction of cylinder directly under the wire is given
The equipment required for condi- flow. In an ESP model, and in sizing by:
tioning depends on the agent being applications, the two terms section and j = fie V*/L* (3)
used. A typical SO3 conditioner re- field are used equivalently because the
quires a supply of molten sulfur. It is subdivision into bus sections should where j = maximum current density
stored in a heated vessel and supplied have no effect on the model. This ter- (A/m2)
to a burner, where it is oxidized to SO2. minology has probably arisen because \i — ion mobility (m2/V s)
The SO2 gas is passed over a catalyst of the frequent use of the word field to € = free space permittivity
for further oxidation to SO3. The SO3 refer to the electric field. (8.845 X 10"12 F/m)
gas is then injected into the flue gas The lowest acceptable voltage is the V = applied voltage (V)
stream through a multi-outlet set of voltage required for the formation of a L = shortest distance from wire
probes that breach a duct. In place of a corona, the electrical discharge that to collecting surface (m).
sulfur burner to provide SO2, liquid produces ions for charging particles. For tuft corona, the current density
SO2 may be vaporized from a storage The (negative) corona is produced is zero until the corona onset voltage is
tank. Although more expensive in ah- when an occasional free electron near reached, when it jumps almost to this
nualized cost, such systems have lower the high-voltage electrode, produced value of j within a few hundred volts.
capital cost and are easier to operate. by a cosmic ray, gains enough energy The region near the wire is strongly
Water or ammonia injection requires from the electric field to ionize the gas influenced by the presence of ions
a set of spray nozzles in the duct, along and produce more free electrons. The there, and the corona onset voltage
with pumping and control equipment. electric field for which this process is magnitude shows strong spatial varia-
Sodium conditioning is often done self-sustained has been determined ex- tions. Outside the corona region, it is
by coating the coal on a conveyor with a perimentally. For round wires, the field quite uniform.
powder compound or a water solution at the surface of the wire is given by: The electric field is strongest along
462 JAPCA
the line from wire to plate and is ap- sults from the thermal kinetic energy of The saturation charge is proportion-
proximated very well, except near the the ions overcoming the repulsion of al to the square of the radius, which
wire, by: the ions already on the particle. Field explains why field charging is the dom-
charging occurs when ions follow elec- inant mechanism for larger particles.
£ m a x = V/L (4) tric field lines until they terminate on a The field charging time constant is giv-
whereEmax = maximum field strength. particle. In general, both mechanisms en by:
(V/m), are operative for all sizes of particles. T' = At/Neii (11)
Field charging, however, adds a larger
When the electric field throughout the percentage of charge on particles great- where n = ion mobility (all other terms
gap between the wire and the plate be- er than about 2 jum in diameter, and are as defined previously).
comes strong enough, a spark will oc- diffusion charging adds a greater per-
cur, and the voltage cannot be in- Strictly speaking, both diffusion and
centage on particles smaller than about field charging mechanisms operate at
creased without severe sparking occur- 0.5 ju.m.
ring. The field at which sparking occurs the same time on all particles, and nei-
is not sharply defined, but a reasonable Diffusion charging, as derived by ther mechanism is sufficient to explain
value is given by: White,1 produces a logarithmically in- the charges measured on the particles.
creasing level of charge on particles, It has been found empirically that a
Ea = 6.3 X 105 X (273/T X P)1-65 (5) given by: very good approximation to the mea-
q(t) = rkT/e ln(l + r) (7) sured charge is given by the sum of the
where EB = sparking field strength charges predicted by Equations 7 and 9
(V/m) where q(t) = particle charge (C) as independently of one another:
T = absolute temperature (K) function of time (s)
P = gas pressure (atm). r = particle radius (m) <7tot(0 = QdW + 9f(*) (12)
This field would be reached at a voltage k = Boltzmann's constant where gtot = particle charge due to
of, for example, 35,000 V for a wire- (J/K) both mechanisms
plate spacing of 11.4 cm (4.5 in.) at a T = absolute temperature (K) <?d = particle charge due to
temperature of 149°C (300°F). The e = electron charge diffusion charging
ESP will generally operate near this (1.67 X 10"19 C) Qf = particle charge due to field
voltage in the absence of back corona. r = dimensionless time given charging.
^max will be equal to or less than E&. . by:
Instead of sparking, back corona T = irrvNe26/(kT) (8) Particle Collection
may occur if the electric field in the where v = mean thermal speed of the
dust layer, resulting from the current The electric field in the collecting
ions (m/s) zone produces a force on a particle pro-
flow in the layer, reaches a critical val- N = ion number concentration
ue of about 1 X 106 V/m. Depending on near the particle (No./m3)
portional to the magnitude of the field
conditions, the back corona may en- and to the charge:
d = real time (exposure time in
hance sparking or may generate so the charging zone) (s). F e = qE (13)
much current that the voltage cannot
be raised any higher. The field in the Diffusion charging never reaches a where Fe = force due to electric field
layer is given by: limit, but it becomes very slow after (N)
77i ; w /r>\ about three dimensionless time units. q = charge on particle (C)
-&1 ~ J X P (V) For fixed exposure times, the charge on E = electric field (V/m).
where E\ = electric field in dust layer a particle is proportional to its radius. Because the field charging mecha-
(V/m) Field charging also exhibits a charac- nism gives an ultimate charge propor-
p = resistivity of the collected teristic time-dependence, given by: tional to the electric field, the force on
material (ohm-m). large particles is proportional to the
q(t) = qs6/(0 + TO (9)
square of the field, which shows the
Particle Charging where qa = saturation charge (charge at advantage of maintaining as high a
infinite time) (C) field as possible.
Charging of particles takes place 8 = real time (s) The motion of the particles under
when ions bombard the surface of a T' = another dimensionless time the influence of the electric field is op-
particle. Once an ion is close to the par- unit. posed by the viscous drag of the gas. By
ticle, it is tightly bound because of the The saturation charge is given by: equating the electric force and the drag
image charge within the particle. The force component due to the electric
"image charge" is a representation of qs = 12irer2E (10)
field (according to Stokes' law), we can
the charge distortion that occurs when where e = free space permittivity obtain the particle velocity:
a real charge approaches a conducting (F/m)
surface. The distortion is equivalent to v(q,E,r) = q(E,r)EC(r)/(6rvr) (14)
E = external electric field
a charge of opposite magnitude to the applied to the particle where v = particle velocity (m/s)
real charge, located as far below the / q = particle charge (C)
surface as the real charge is above it.
The motion of the fictitious charge is
similar to the motion of an image in a Table I. Small, medium, and large SCAs as expressed by various
units.
mirror, hence the name. As more ions
accumulate on a particle, the total Units8 Small Medium Large
charge tends to prevent further ionic
bombardment. rWkacfm 100 400 900
There are two principal charging s/m 19.7 78.8 177
mechanisms: diffusion charging and s/ft 6 24 54
a
field charging. Diffusion charging re- ftVkacfm = (s/m) X 5.079.
y
\
v\ same magnitude as the particles' veloci-
\ O
tion of particles toward the collecting
1-fractional efficiency
\ O
with an average component imparted
migration ve ocity
\ \
>,
N(r) = N0(r) exp(-u(r)/i/0) (15)
p =
p =
JO
we =
cm/s
t)OA
where:
\ \ \
v\ c
size r at the exit of the
collecting zone (No./m3).
\
\ \ , \ NQ = particle concentration at
y
\
\
\
\
\
\ \
\
\
\
V
\
o E
*•£
o
o
o
the entrance of the zone
(No./m3)
v = size-dependent particle
velocity (m/s)
\ ^ \
\
\
\ \\ o Z VQ = characteristic velocity
N
\
\
\
s
\
\
\
V
\ *
\
\
\
\
k < I
V
1« -
. _ — i—
O
f
0)
o
a.
•a
2
of the ESP (m/s), given by:
v0 = Q/A = 1/SCA
where Q = volume flow rate of the gas
(m3/s)
(16)
k *». o o
\
V A = plate area for the ESP
\
•\
•e
* in 0)
"s, \
\
\ s 9
•a
\ \
O) collecting zone (m2),
SCA = specific collection area (area
\
). \
s S
A.
\
\ \
\
\ \
y \
ft
0
per unit volume) (s/m).
When this collection equation is av-
\ > W
\ 1 eraged over all the particle sizes and
!\ A
<•.-
0 \
ss \ \ V
\\ \
weighted according to the concentra-
s
\
5*-
\
V tion of each size, the Deutsch equation
'/
\
>
\ 1 Si
rs
- « •
<?/
s s s
s
%
!p \\ s \
y
results, with the penetration (fraction
of particles escaping) given by:
s P- S
\\ \
h p = exp(-we SCA) (17)
s \
•».
s. V s
M
t L^
V where p = penetration (fraction)
%
•N
- J
V,
*>
V s \ ^ ^ s \y \ we = effective migration velocity
-
>v
}. •s
for the particle ensemble
^
°i \
ss \^\ S
s
6 «e
(m/s).
°9-
*4
s
• ^
s The efficiency is given by:
a s
s s V•\ ^ \ \
FT/SEC
<sS
s
S^
's
N^ ^s \
Eff = 100 X (1 - p) (18)
•V •v s ^ This is the number most often used to
^.
** «s
^s
*s
s\ describe the performance of an ESP.
SSS
is\ Sneakage and Rapping Reentrainment
Si
s
Sneakage and rapping reentrain-
ment are best considered on the basis
of the sections within an ESP. Sneak-
age occurs when a part of the gas flow
bypasses the collection zone of a sec-
CO
tion. Generally, the portion of gas that
o en en
co
0)
t-
0)
& m
0> 0>
o o bypasses the zone is thoroughly mixed
0 at at at 00 N with the gas that passes through the
zone before all the gas enters the next
464 JAPCA
section. This mixing cannot always be Fly ash precipitators analyzed in this
assumed, and when sneakage paths ex- way have an average SN of 0.07 and an
ist around several sections, the perfor- RR of 0.12. These values are the best
mance of the whole ESP is seriously available at this time, but some wet
affected. To describe the effects of ESPs, which presumably have no rap-
sneakage and rapping reentrainment ping losses, have shown SN values of
mathematically, we first consider 0.05 or less. These values offer a means
sneakage by itself and then consider for estimating the performance of
the effects of rapping as an average ESPs whose actual characteristics are
over many rapping cycles. not known, but about which general
On the assumption that the gas is statements can be made. For instance,
well mixed between sections, the pene- wet ESPs would be expected to have
tration for each section can be ex- RR = 0, as would ESPs collecting wet
pressed as: or sticky particles. Particulate materi-
p s = S N + (l-S N )p c (Q') (19) als with a much smaller MMD than fly
ash would be expected to have a lower
where p s = section's fractional RR factor because they are held more
penetration tightly to the plates and each other.
SN = fraction of gas bypassing Sneakage factors are harder to account
the section (sneakage) for; unless special efforts have been
Pc(Q') = fraction of particles made in the design to control sneakage,
penetrating the collection the 0.07 value should be used.
zone, which is functionally
dependent on Q', the gas ESP Design Procedure
volume flow in the collec-
tion zone, reduced by the
sneakage (m3/s).
Specific Collecting Area Juick
The penetration of the entire ESP is
the product of the section penetrations.
Specific collecting area (SCA) is a
parameter used to compare ESPs and Report
The sneakage sets a lower limit on the
penetration of particles through the
roughly estimate their collection effi-
ciency. SCA is the total collector plate
area divided by gas volume flow rate
Could Have
section.
To calculate the effects of rapping,
we first calculate the amount of materi-
and has the units of s/m or s/ft. It is
often expressed as m2/(m3/s) or ft2/ A Few
al captured on the plates of the section.
The fraction of material that was
caught is given by:
kacfm (thousand acfm). SCA is also
one of the most important factors in
determining the capital and several of
Holes In It.
the annual costs (for example, mainte- I n a world where a single,
m/mQ = 1 — p s = 1 — «SN nance and dust disposal costs) of the small item missed is enough
-(l-SN)pc(Q') (20) ESP because it determines the size of to reduce an entire com-
the unit. Because of the various ways in pany's profits to ashes, fast
where m/mQ = mass fraction collected which SCA can be expressed, Table I
from the gas stream. results just might be the
gives equivalent SCAs in the different last results. It takes nothing
This material accumulates until the units for what would be considered a less than accurate laboratory
plates are rapped, whereupon most of small, medium, and large SCA. analysis to keep a company
the material falls into the hopper for The design procedure is based on the
disposal, but a fraction of it is reen- loss factor approach of Lawless and and its employees from
trained and leaves the section. Experi- Sparks2 and considers a number of pro- getting burned. At DataChem
mental measurements have been con- cess parameters. It can be calculated by our expertise is reliable
ducted on fly ash ESPs to evaluate the hand, but it is most conveniently used environmental and industrial
fraction reentrained, which averages with a spreadsheet program. For many hygiene laboratory analysis.
about 12 percent. uses, tables of effective migration ve- When you want more
The average penetration for a sec- locities can be used to obtain the SCA than quick, you want the
tion, including sneakage and rapping required for a given efficiency. In the accuracy of testing that
reentrainments, is: following subsection, tables have been DataChem provides, no
p s = S N + (l-S N )p c (Q') calculated using the design procedure
for a number of different particle holes delivered.
+ RR{(l-SN)[l-pc(Q')]\ (21) sources and for differing levels of effi-
where RR = fraction reentrained. ciency. If a situation is encountered
that is not covered in these tables, then
This can be written in a more compact the full procedure that appears at the
form as: end of the subsection should be used. DataChem
ps = LF+(l-LF)pc(Q') (22) Call toll-free 1-800-356-9135
Migration Velocity. If the migration 801-266-7700
by substituting LF (loss factor) for £>N velocity is known, then Equation 17
+ RR - S N X RR. These formulas can 970 West LeVoy Drive
can be rearranged to give the SCA: Salt Lake City, UT 84123
allow for variable amounts of sneakage
and rapping reentrainment for each SCA = -ln(p)/u; e (23) 4388 Glendale-Milford Road
section, but there is no experimental A graphical solution to Equation 23 Cincinnati, OH 45242
evidence to suggest that it is necessary. is given in Figure 4. The migration ve- CIRCLE 26 ON READER SERVICE CARD
466 JAPCA
6. Assume values for sneakage, S^, Eavg = 0.7 X £&d/1.75, average 13. Compute a table of particle sizes
and rapping reentrainment, RR, field with severe back corona for sections 1 through n:
from the following table: For flat plate ESPs: Section MMDs
S N = 0.07 Plate-wire ESPs Eavg = Ebd X 5/6.3, average field, 1 MMDI = MMDi
S N = 0.05 Wet wall no back corona, positive polarity 2 MMD2 = {MMDI X S N + [(1 - pc)
S N = 0.10 Flat plate Eavg = 0.7 X Ebd X 5/6.3, aver- X MMDp + pc X MMDI]
ESP type RR age field, severe back corona, X pc}/D + MMDrp
Coal fly ash, or not positive polarity 3 MMD3 = (MMD2 X S N + [ ( 1 - pc)
known 0.124 LF = S N + RR - S N X RR, loss X MMDp + p c X MMD2]
Wet wall 0.0 X pc)/D + MMDrp
factor (dimensionless)
Flat plate with gas
velocity >1.5 m/s 9. Assume t h e smallest number of
(not glass or cement) 0.15 sections for the ESP, n, such that
Glass or cement 0.10 LF n < p . Suggested values of n are: n MMDn = {MMDn - 1 X S N
+ [(l-pc)MMDp + pc
X MMDn - 1] X pc}/D
7. Assume values for the most pene- + MMDrp
trating size, MMDp (i.e., the MMD <96.5
of the size distribution emerging <99
<99.8 14. Calculate the SCA for sections 1
from a very efficient collecting through n, using MMDn, r\, e, Eavg,
zone), a n d r a p p i n g puff size, <99.9
>99.9 and p c :
MMDr (i.e., the MMD of the size
distribution of rapped/reentrained SCA1 = -(ri/e) X (1 - S N ) X In
material): These values are for an LF of 0.185, (pc)/(Eavg2 X M M D I X I X 10~6)
corresponding to a coal fly ash pre-
MMDp = 2 Mm cipitator. The values are approxi-
MMDr = 5 fim for ash with MMDi mate, but the best results are for
>5 jum, or the smallest allowable n. SCAn = - (t]/e) X (1 - S N ) X In
MMDr = 3 urn for ash with MMDi 10. Compute the average section pene- (pc)/(Eavg2 X MMDn X I X 10~6)
<5/un. tration, p s = plln. where the factor 1 X 10~6 converts
11. Compute t h e section collection micrometers to meters. Note that
8. Use or compute the following fac-
tors for pure air: penetration, p c : = (p s — LF)/(1 —
LF). If the value of n is too small,
eO = 8.845 X 10~12, free space then this value will be negative and
permittivity (F/m) n must be increased.
n = 1.72 X 10" 0 - 5 X ( T k /
12. Compute the particle size change
273)0.7i> g a s viscosity (kg/ms) factors, which are constants used
Ebd = 630,000 X (273/Tk) 0 - 8 , for computing the change of parti-
electric field at sparking (V/m) cle size from section to section, D
For plate-wire ESPs: and MMDrp:
Eavg = Ebd/1.15, average field D = p s = S N + p'c(l ~ S N )
with no back corona + RR(1-SN)(1-Pc)
or MMDrp = RR(1 - S N )(1 - p c )MMDr/D
468 JAPCA
ber of baffles, their protrusion into the
gas stream with respect to electrode-to-
plate distance, and the gas velocity in
the ESP.
The pressure drop of the flat collec-
tion plates is due to friction of the gas
dragging along the flat surfaces and is
so small compared to other factors that
it may usually be neglected in engineer-
ing problems.
Particle Characteristics
I
are supplied with auxiliary heat to pre-
vent the formation of lumps or cakes
A Resource Engineering Company and the subsequent blockage of the
dust-handling system.
470 JAPCA
Construction Features Most ESPs are constructed of mild 22161 [telephone 703-487-4650]. The
steel. ESP shells are constructed typi- NTIS number for the Manual is PB87-
The use of the term "plate-wire geo- cally of 3/i6 or V4 in. mild steel plate. 166583/AS; the price per copy is $18.95
metry" may be somewhat misleading. Collecting electrodes are generally fab- [paper] or $6.50 [microfiche].)
It could refer to three different types of ricated from lighter gauge mild steel. A
discharge electrodes: weighted wires thickness of 18 gauge is common, but it
hung from a support structure at the will vary with size and severity of appli- References
top of the ESP, wire frames in which cation.
wires are strung tautly in a rigid sup- 1. H. J. White, Industrial Electrostatic
Wire discharge electrodes come in Precipitation, Addison-Wesley, Read-
port frame, or rigid electrodes con- varied shapes from round to square or ing, MA, 1963.
structed from a single piece of fabricat- barbed. A diameter of 2.5 mm (0.1 in.) 2. P. A. Lawless, L. E. Sparks, "A review of
ed metal. In recent years, there has is common for weighted wires, but oth- mathematical models for ESPs and com-
been a trend toward using wire frames parison of their successes," in Proceed-
er shapes used have much larger effec- ings of Second International Conference
or rigid discharge electrodes in place of tive diameters, e.g., 64 mm (0.25 in.) on Electrostatic Precipitation, S. Ma^
weighted wire discharge electrodfes square electrodes. suda, ed., APCA, 1984, pp. 513-522.
(particularly in coal-fired boiler appli- Stainless steel may be used for corro- 3. R. L. Bump, "Evolution and Design of
cations). This trend has been stimulat- Electrostatic Precipitator Discharge
sive applications, but it is uncommon Electrodes," presented at the 75th APCA
ed by the user's desire for increased except in wet ESPs. Stainless steel dis- Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, June
ESP reliability. The wire frames and charge electrodes have been found to 1982.
rigid electrodes are less prone to failure be prone to fatigue failure in dry ESPs
by breakage and are readily cleaned by with impact-type electrode cleaning
impulse-type cleaning equipment. systems.3 Biographical information: James
Other differences in construction re- Precipitators used to collect sulfuric H. Turner, Ph.D., P.E., Senior Re-
sult from the choice of gas passage search Engineer, Research Triangle
acid mist in sulfuric acid plants are Institute; Phil A. Lawless, Ph.D., Se-
(flow lane) width or discharge electrode constructed of steel, but the surfaces in nior Physicist, Research Triangle In-
to collecting electrode spacing. Typi- contact with the acid mist are lead- stitute; Toshiaki Yamamoto, Ph.D.,
cally, discharge to collecting electrode lined. Precipitators used on paper mill Research Engineer, Research TrianT
spacing varies from 11 to 19 cm (4.3-7.5 gle Institute; David W. Coy, M.S.,
black liquor recovery boilers are steam- Department Manager, Research Tri-
in.). Having a large spacing between jacketed. Of these two, recovery boilers angle Institute; Gary P. Greiner,
discharge and collecting electrodes al- have by far the larger number of ESP B.S., Executive Vice President, ETS,
lows higher electric fields to be used, applications. Inc.; John D. McKenna, M.S., MBA,
which tends to improve dust collection. President, ETS, Inc.; William M. Va-
tavuk, B.E., P.E., Senior Chemical
To generate larger electric fields, how- The material in this paper is pri- Engineer, U.S. Environmental Pro-
ever, power supplies must produce marily taken from the E.A.B. (Eco- tection Agency. Work was performed
higher operating voltages. Therefore, it nomic Analysis Branch) Control Cost at Research Triangle Institute, P.O.
is necessary to balance the cost savings Manual. (Copies of the Manual may be Box 12194, Research Triangle Park,
NC 27709. This paper was submitted
achieved with larger electrode spacing obtained from the National Technical for peer review January 21,1988; the
against the higher cost of power sup- Information Service [NTIS], U.S. revised manuscript was received
plies that produce higher operating Department of Commerce, 5285 Port March 2, i988.
voltages. Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia
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