Volume 20, Number 4 March 2016 – July 2016

Olympiad Corner
Below are the problems of the 28nd
Inequalities of Sequences
Asian Pacific Math Olympiad, which Kin Y. Li
was held in March 2016.

Problem 1. We say that a triangle ABC In terms of di’s, the required conclusion
There are many math competition
is great if the following holds: for any is the same as dn > 0 ≥ dn+1 for some
problems on inequalities. While most
point D on the side BC, if P and Q are unique n≥1.
symmetric inequalities can be solved by
the feet of the perpendiculars from D to
powerful facts like the Muirhead and
the lines AB and AC, respectively, then Now observe that d1 = (a0+a1) − a1 > 0.
Schur inequalities, there are not many
the reflection of D in the line PQ lies Also the di’s are strictly decreasing as
tools for general inequalities involving
on the circumcircle of the triangle
sequences. Below we will first take a
ABC. Prove that triangle ABC is great if d n 1  d n
look at some relatively easy examples
and only if ∠A=90° and AB=AC. n 1 n
on inequalities of sequences.   ai  (n  1)an 1   ai  nan
Problem 2. A positive integer is called i 1 i 1

fancy if it can be expressed in the form Example 1. (1997 Chinese Math Winter  n(an  an 1 )  0.
Camp) Let a1, a2, a3, … be a sequence of
2  2  2
a1 a2 a100
, nonnegative numbers. If for all positive Finally, from d1 > 0, the di’s are integers
where a1, a2, …, a100 are non-negative integers m and n, an+m ≤ an+am , then and strictly decreasing, there must be a
integers that are not necessarily prove that first non-positive di. So dn > 0 ≥ dn+1 for
distinct. Find the smallest positive n  some unique n≥1.
an  ma1    1am .
integer n such that no multiple of n is a m 
fancy number. Example 3. (1980 Austrian-Polish Math
Solution. Let n = mq + r, where q, r are Competition) Let a1, a2, a3, … be a
Problem 3. Let AB and AC be two integers and 0 ≤ r < m. We have sequence of real numbers satisfying the
distinct rays not lying on the same line, inequality
an  amq  ar  qam  ar
and let ω be a circle with center O that
| ak+m−ak−am | ≤ 1 for all k, m.
is tangent to ray AC at E and ray AB at nr
 am  ar
F. Let R be a point on segment EF. The m Show that the following inequality
line through O parallel to EF intersects n  mr holds for all positive integers k and m,
line AB at P.    1am  am  ar
m  m ak am 1 1
(continued on page 4)    .
n  mr k m k m
   1am  ma1  ra1
Editors: 張 百 康 (CHEUNG Pak-Hong), Munsang College, HK
 m  m
Solution. Observe that multiplying by
高 子 眉 (KO Tsz-Mei) n  km, the desired inequality is the same as
梁 達 榮 (LEUNG Tat-Wing)    1am  ma1.
李 健 賢 (LI Kin-Yin), Dept. of Math., HKUST
m  | mak−kam | < m+k. To get this, we will
吳 鏡 波 (NG Keng-Po Roger), ITC, HKPU prove for a fixed m, | akm−kam | < k holds
Artist: 楊 秀 英 (YEUNG Sau-Ying Camille), MFA, CU Example 2. (IMO 2014) Let a0 < a1 < a2 for all positive integer k by induction.
Acknowledgment: Thanks to Elina Chiu, Math. Dept.,
< ⋯ be an infinite sequence of positive The case k = 1 is |am−am|=0 <1. Suppose
HKUST for general assistance. integers. Prove that there exists a unique the k-th case is true. Then
On-line: integer n ≥ 1 such that
http://www.math.ust.hk/mathematical_excalibur/ | a ( k 1) m  ( k  1) a m |
a  a    an
The editors welcome contributions from all teachers and an  0 1  an 1. | a km  m  a km  a m  a km  ka m |
students. With your submission, please include your name, n
address, school, email, telephone and fax numbers (if | a km  m  a km  a m |  | a km  ka m |
available). Electronic submissions, especially in MS Word, Solution. For n = 1,2,3,…, define  1 | a km  ka m | 1  k .
are encouraged. The deadline for receiving material for the
next issue is August 14, 2016.
d n  ( a0  a1    an )  nan . This completes the inductive step. Now
For individual subscription for the next five issues for the
15-16 academic year, send us five stamped self-addressed interchanging k and m, similarly we also
envelopes. Send all correspondence to: We have
have |akm−mak| < m. Then
Dr. Kin-Yin LI, Math Dept., Hong Kong Univ. of Science nan 1  (a0  a1    an )
and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong | mak  kam || akm  mak |  | akm  kam |
 (n  1)an 1  (a0  a1    an 1 )
Fax: (852) 2358 1643 mk
Email: makyli@ust.hk   d n 1.
and we are done.
© Department of Mathematics, The Hong Kong University
of Science and Technology (continued on page 2)
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 20, No. 4, Mar. 16 – Jun. 16 Page 2

Example 4. (2006 IMO Shortlisted k k k k Example 7. (2006 IMO Shortlisted

Problem) The sequence of real bk  i   ibi   iai   iai 1 Problem) Prove the inequality
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
numbers a0, a1, a2, … is defined k k 1 ai a j n
recursively by   iai   (i  1)ai 
1i  j n ai  a j
  ai a j
2(a1  a2   an ) 1i jn
n i 1 i 2
an  k
a0  1, 
k 0 k  1
 0 for n  1. k
  ai  kak 1   ai  1.
k for positive real numbers a1, a2, …, an.
i 1 i 1
Show that an > 0 for n ≥ 1. Solution. Let S be the sum of the n
Therefore, numbers. Let L and R be the left and
Solution. Setting n=1, we find a1=1/2. k
2 2 the right expressions in the inequality.
For n≥1, reversing the order of the bk  1  i  k (k  1)  k
i 1
2
. Observe that
terms in the given sum, we have n

n
ak n 1
ak  (ai  a j ) (n  1) ak  (n  1)S
 n  k 1  0 and  n  k  2  0. Example 6. (1970 IMO) Let 1 = a0 ≤ a1 ≤ 1i  j  n k 1

k 0 k 0 a2 ≤ ⋯ ≤ an ≤ ⋯ be a sequence of real and

numbers. Consider the sequence defined by
Suppose a1 to an are positive. Then ai a j
 a  1 n L  
ai  a j
n 1
ak n
ak bn   1  k 1  . 1i  j  n
0  (n  2)  (n  1)
k 0 n  k  2 k 0 n  k 1 k 1  ak  a k
1
   ai  a j 
ai  a j 2 
 n2 n 1  Prove that :  ai  a j 
1i  j  n 4 
n
 (n  2)an 1    ak .
k 0  n  k  2 n  k 1 (a) For all positive integers n, 0≤bn≤2.

n 1
S 
1 ai  a j 2 .
Notice the k=0 term in the last sum is 0. (b) Given an arbitrary 0 ≤ b < 2, there is a 4 4 1i j  n ai  a j
Solving for an+1, we get sequence a0, a1, …, an, … of the above type
such that bn > b is true for infinitely many Next we will write the expression R in
1 n  n 1 n2 
an 1     ak
n  1 k 1  n  k  1 n  k  2 
natural numbers n. two ways. On one hand, we have

1 n k Solution. (a) For all k, we have n n  2 n 2

 
n  2 k 1 (n  k  1)(n  k  2)
ak R  ai a j   S   ai .
2 S 1i j n 4S  i 1 
 a  1
is positive as a1 to an are positive. 0  1  k 1 
 ak  ak On the other hand,

( a k  a k 1 )( a k  a k 1 )
Next we will study certain examples
that require more observation and
 R
n

 ai2  a 2j  (ai  a j ) 2
4S 1i j n

ak ak
possibly involve some calculations of n(n  1) n 2 n
limit of sequences. 2
a k  a k 1   ai  4S 1
4S i 1
( ai  a j ) 2 .
i  j n
a k a k 1
Example 5. (1988 IMO Shortlisted Multiplying the first of these equations
 1 1 
Problem) Let a1, a2, a3, … be a  2  . by n−1 and adding it to the second
sequence of nonnegative real numbers  a a k 
 k 1 equation, then dividing the sum by n,
such that Then we get
k
ak  2ak 1  ak  2  0 and a 1  n
1 1  n 1 1 (ai  a j ) 2

j
j 1 0  bn  2    R S .

k 1  a k 1 a k  4 4 1 i  j  n S
for all k = 1, 2, …. Prove that
2  1  Comparing L and R and using S≥ai+aj,
0  ak  ak 1   21   2.
k2  a n  we get L≤R.

for all k = 1, 2, ….
Example 8. (1998 IMO Longlisted
Solution. We claim 0≤ak−ak+1 for all k. (b) Let 0<q<1. Then an=q−2n for n = 0, 1, Problem) Let
(Otherwise assume for some k, we 2, … satisfy 1 = a0 < a1 < a2 < ⋯ and the
have ak−ak+1 < 0. From ak−2ak+1+ak+2 sequence bn=q(1+q)(1−qn) has an  [ (1  n) 2  n 2 ], n  1,2,  ,
≥ 0, we get ak+1−ak+2≤ ak−ak+1< 0. It lim bn  q(1  q).
follows ak < ak+1 < ak+2 < ⋯. Then n  where [x] denotes the integer part of x.
Prove that
ak + ak+1 + ak+2 + ⋯ For an arbitrary 0 ≤ b < 2, take q satisfy
(a) there are infinitely many positive
diverges to infinity, which leads to a 1  4b  1 integers m such that am+1−am >1;
contradiction.)  q  1.
2 (b) there are infinitely many positive
Let bk=ak−ak+1. Then for all positive Then 0<q<1 and q(1+q)>b. So eventually integers m such that am+1−am=1=1.
integer k, we have bk≥bk+1≥0. Now we the sequence bn (on its way to q(1+q)) will
have be greater than b. (continued on page 4)
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 20, No. 4, Mar. 16 – Jun. 16
Problem Corner
We welcome readers to submit their
solutions to the problems posed below
for publication consideration. The
solutions should be preceded by the
solver’s name, home (or email) address
and school affiliation. Please send
submissions to Dr. Kin Y. Li,
Department of Mathematics, The Hong
Kong University of Science &
Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon,
Hong Kong. The deadline for sending
solutions is August 14, 2016.
Problem 486. Let a0=1 and
1  a n21  1
an  . Therefore, combining (*) and (**), we
a n 1
for n=1,2,3,…. Prove that 2n+2an > π for
all positive integers n.
Problem 487. Let ABCD and PSQR be
squares with point P on side AB and
AP>PB. Let point Q be outside square
ABCD such that AB⊥PQ and AB=2PQ.
Let DRME and CSNF be squares as
shown below. Prove Q is the midpoint
of line segment MN.
M Q
R S
A P B
E Problem 482. On ΔABD, C is a point on
D C
Problem 488. Let ℚ denote the set of
all rational numbers. Let f: ℚ →{0,1}
satisfy f(0)=0, f (1)=1 and the condition
f (x) = f (y) implies f (x) = f ((x+y)/2).
Prove that if x≥1, then f (x) = 1.
Problem 489. Determine all prime
numbers p such that there exist positive
integers m and n satisfying p=m2+n2
and m3+n3−4 is divisible by p.
Problem 490. For a parallelogram
ABCD, it is known that ΔABD is acute
and AD=1. Prove that the unit circles
with centers A, B, C, D cover ABCD if
and only if
AB  cos BAD  3 sin BAD.
*****************
Solutions
****************
Problem 481. Let S={1,2,…,2016}.
Determine the least positive integer n
such that whenever there are n numbers
in S satisfying every pair is relatively
Page 3
prime, then at least one of the n numbers is [DBA]/[DAC] = AB2/CA2. Then we
prime. have
Solution. BOBOJONOVA Latofat  AB 
3
BD AB BD / AC (*)
     .
(academic lycuem S.H.Sirojiddinov,  AC  CD AC CD / AB
Tashkent, Uzbekistan), KWOK Man Yi
(Baptist Lui Ming Choi Secondary School, Next, ∠DBE =∠CBE =∠CAE and
S5), Toshihiro SHIMIZU (Kawasaki, ∠BDE = ∠DAE =∠ACE implies Δ
Japan),WONG Yat. DBE is similar to Δ CAE. Similarly,
Let k0=1 and ki be the square of the i-th ∠ECD =∠EAB and ∠EDC = ∠EAD
prime number. Then k14=432<2016. Since =∠EBA implies ΔECD is similar to Δ
EAB. Then
the numbers k0,k1,…,k14 are in S and are
pairwise coprime, so n≥16.
BD / CA EB / AE EB (**)
  .
Next suppose A={a1,a2,…,a16}⊂S with no CD / AB EC / EA EC
ai prime and ar, as are coprime for r≠s.
Then in case 1∉A, let pi be the least prime have EB/EC= (AB/AC)3.
divisor of ai. We have ai≥pi2. As the ai’s Other commended solvers:
are pairwise coprime, no two pi’s are the BOBOJONOVA Latofat (academic
same. Now the 15th prime is 47. So the lycuem S. H. Sirojiddinov, Tashkent,
largest pi is at least 47, which leads to Uzbekistan) and WONG Yat.
some ai≥pi2≥472>2016, a contradiction.
Problem 483. In the open interval (0,1),
Otherwise, 1∈A. For the 15 numbers in A n distinct rational numbers ai/bi
that is not 1, let ai be their maximum, then (i=1,2,…,n) are chosen, where n>1 and
ai≥pi2≥472>2016, again contradiction. So ai, bi are positive integers. Prove that
the least n is 16. the sum of the bi’s are at least (n/2)3/2.
Other commended solvers: Joe Solution. Toshihiro SHIMIZU
N SPENCER. (Kawasaki, Japan).
Without loss of generality, we may
side BD with C≠B,D. Let K1 be the suppose the numbers ai/bi are sorted so
F circumcircle of Δ ABC. Line AD is that the denominators are in ascending
tangent to K1 at A. A circle K2 passes order. We have the following lemma.
through A and D and line BD is tangent to
K2 at D. Suppose K1 and K2 intersect at A Lemma. Let k be an integer in [1,n] and
and E with E inside ΔACD. Prove that b be the denominator of the k-th
EB/EC= (AB/AC)3. number. Then we have
Solution. Jafet Alejandro BACA k
3/ 2
 k 1
3/ 2
OBANDO (IDEAS High School, b    .
Nicaragua), KWOK Man Yi (Baptist Lui 2  2 
Ming Choi Secondary School, S5),
Proof. We first consider the number of
MANOLOUDIS Apostolos (4 High denominators that are at most b. For
School of Korydallos, Piraeus, Greece), every i = 1, 2, …, b, the number of
Vijaya Prasad NALLURI and Toshihiro
denominators equal to i is at most i−1.
SHIMIZU (Kawasaki, Japan). Thus,
b
b(b  1) b 2
K1 K2 k   (i  1)   .
A i 1 2 2
This implies b≥ 2k . We will show
3/ 2 3/ 2
E k  k 1
2k      .
B
C
2  2 
D
It is equivalent to
Line AD tangent to K1 at A implies ∠DAC
4 k  k k  (k  1) k  1
= ∠DBA. With ∠ADC =∠BDA, we see Δ
DAC is similar to ΔDBA. Now BD/CD = or ( k  1) k  1  (k  4) k .
Mathematical Excalibur, Vol. 20, No. 4, Mar. 16 – Jun. 16 Page 4

For k=1,2,3,4, the left hand side is Other commended solvers: Joe any city it is not possible to reach
greater than the right hand side is SPENCER. another city in the same group by using
non-positive. For k≥5, squaring the at most 28 flights.
inequality, it is equivalent to (k−1)3 ≥ Problem 485. Let m and n be integers
(k−4)2 k or 5k2−13k+1≥0. The larger such that m>n>1, S={1,2,…,m} and T={a1, Problem 5. Find all functions f :
roots of the left hand side is a2, …, an} is a subset of S. It is known that ℝ+→ℝ+ such that
(13+ 149 )/10, which is less than 2.6. every two numbers in T do not both divide
any number in S. Prove that (z+1)f(x+y) = f (xf (z)+y) + f (y f (z)+x),
Then the left hand side is always
positive for k≥5. QED 1 1 1 mn for all positive real numbers x, y, z.
   .
a1 a2 an n
Using the lemma and summing the
cases k=1, 2, …,n, we get the result. Solution. Jon GLIMMS and Toshihiro
SHIMIZU (Kawasaki, Japan).
Other commended solvers: Jim Inequalities of Sequences
GLIMMS, Joe SPENCER and
For i=1,2,…,n, let (Continued from page 2)
WONG Yat.
Ti = { k∈S : k is divisible by ai }.
Problem 484. In a multiple choice test, Solution. For every integer n, we have
there are four problems. For each Then Ti has [m/ai] elements. Since every
problem, there are choices A, B and C. pair of numbers in T do not both divide 2n  3  [ 2 (n 1)]
For any three students who took the any number in S, so if i≠k, then Ti and Tk (*)
 an  [ 2(n 2  n  1/ 2) ]
test, there exist a problem the three are disjoint. Now the number of elements
students selected distinct choices. in the union of the sets T1, T2, …, Tn is  [ 2n]  2n.
Determine the maximum number of
students who took the test. m  m  m From this, we get
 a    a      a   m.
Solution. Jon GLIMMS and  1  2  n
n2+(n+1)2−(n−1)2−n2 =4n > 2an+1.
Toshihiro SHIMIZU (Kawasaki,
Japan). Using m/ai < [m/ai]+1, we have
Hence,
n
m n
m n
More generally, suppose there are n  a    a   1  m  n. an 1  [ n 2  (n  1) 2 ]  [ an2  4n ]
problems with n≥4. Let Sn be the i 1 i i 1  i i 1

maximum number of students who  [ an2  2an  1]  an  1

took the test with n problems. If S1>3, n
Then m  1  m  n. Therefore, for n=1,2,3,…. If (a) is false, then there
then there would exist 2 students with
i 1 ai exists N such that
the same choice and 1 problem cannot
distinguish these 2 students. Now S1=3 1 1 1 mn mn ak+1−ak=1 for all k≥N. (**)
is certainly possible by given condition.     .
a1 a2 an m n
In general if there is a problem which 3 So aN+k=aN+k for k=0,1,2,3,…. By (*),
students have different choices, then for k=0,1,2,3,…, we have
Other commended solvers: Joe
we say the problem distinguish them. SPENCER. 2 ( N  k )  3  aN  k  aN  k ,
By pigeonhole principle, for problem 1,
i.e. ( 2  1) k  a N  3  2 N . Since
there is a choice among A, B, C, which
at most [Sn/3] selected. For the N is constant, when k is large, this leads
remaining at least Sn−[Sn/3] students, to a contradiction. So (a) must be true.
problem 1 does not distinguish any 3 of
Olympiad Corner
Next assume (b) is false. By (**), we
them. So problem 2 to n will be used to (Continued from page 1)
can see there exists N such that
distinguish these remaining students.
Then Sn−1≥ Sn−[Sn/3] ≥ 2Sn/3. Hence, Problem 3. (Continued) Let N be the ak+1−ak≥2 for all k≥N.
Sn≤ 3Sn−1/2. So S2≤4, S3≤6 and S4≤9. intersection of lines PR and AC, and let M
be the intersection of line AB and the line Then aN+k≥aN+2k for k = 0,1,2,3,….
The following table will show S4=9 : through R parallel to AC. Prove that line By (*), we have
MN is tangent to ω.
Student\problem I II III IV aN  2k  2 ( N  k ),
1 A A A A Problem 4. The country Dreamland
2 A B B B which is the same as
consists of 2016 cities. The airline
3 A C C C Starways wants to establish some
(2  2 )k  2 N  a N .
4 B A C B one-way flights between pairs of cities in
5 B B A C such a way that each city has exactly one This leads to a contradiction when k is
6 B C B A flight out of it. Find the smallest integer k large. So (b) must be true.
7 C A B C such that no matter how Starways
8 C B C A establishes its flights, the city can always
9 C C A B be partitioned into k groups so that from