sustainability

Article
A Bamboo Treatment Procedure: Effects on the
Durability and Mechanical Performance
Quoc-Bao Bui 1, *, Anne-Cécile Grillet 2 and Hoang-Duy Tran 2
1 Sustainable Developments in Civil Engineering Research Group, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
2 University Savoie Mont Blanc, LOCIE-CNRS UMR 5271, 73000 Chambéry, France
* Correspondence: buiquocbao@tdt.edu.vn

Received: 18 July 2017; Accepted: 10 August 2017; Published: 23 August 2017

Abstract: Bamboo is a natural material having a fast reproduction and high mechanical strengths.
However, when a bio-based material in general, and bamboo in particular are expected to be a
construction material, their sensitivity to moisture and their durability are usually questionable.
Indeed, it is well known that these materials do not possess the same performance in the long-term,
when compared to industrial materials. Sustainable solutions for the bamboo treatment still need to be
investigated. The present study explores the oil-heated treatment with different types of oils, like flax
or sunflower oils. The present investigation concentrates on mechanical properties and durability of
treated bamboos to assess the effectiveness of these kinds of treatment. First, bamboo specimens were
treated to decrease their sensitivity to moisture and improve their durability. Different conditions
of treatment were tested: treatment at 100 ◦ C or 180 ◦ C; with flax oil, sunflower oil, or without
oil; treatment durations of 1 h, 2 h, or 3 h; and, different cooling methods and cooling durations.
Then, mechanical and durability tests were carried out on untreated and treated bamboos: uniaxial
compression tests, 3 points bending tests, water immersion tests, and humidity tests. The results
showed that some tested treatment methods could increase both the durability and the compressive
strength of treated specimens, compared to untreated bamboo. The best results were observed on
specimens treated at 180 ◦ C during 1 h or 2 h without oil, and then cooled in 20 ◦ C sunflower oil.

Keywords: bamboo; durability; oil treatment; heat treatment; mechanical characteristics

1. Introduction
Bamboo is a wood-like plant that is a part of the grass family, consisting of a cylindrical hollow
shoot, or culm. This culm is covered with a waxy surface, which prevents moisture from escaping.
At intervals, the culm has raised ridges called nodes, from which branches will offshoot. The general
physical features of bamboo are shown in Figure 1. The plant grows up from a throng of underground
stems and roots, called rhizomes. Some species can grow to a height of up to 30.5 m, with a diameter
as great as 305 mm [1]. Bamboo is a natural resource with very rapid renewability. Indeed, bamboo
can have a very high growth rate, with some species growing up to 600 mm per day. However,
it still takes four to five years for the bast fibers, or so-called wood fibers to mature. Thanks to these
properties, bamboo can be used in environmentally friendly constructions as structural elements
(Figure 2), or as a substitute for steel reinforcement rebars in low-cost buildings (see [1] for an excellent
review and investigation on this topic). However, like timber or the most of bio-based materials,
bamboo is sensitive to water and moisture; it can absorb or release water/moisture depending on its
environment. Previous studies have shown that bamboo could absorb water up to 100% of its dry
weight [2], or other sources reporting extreme values of up to 300% [3]. The moisture absorption tends
to be quite high initially (after about 20–24 h [4,5]), which causes the material to swell until it reaches
its fibers saturation point.

Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444; doi:10.3390/su9091444 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 2 of 11
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 2 of 11
absorption2017,
Sustainability tends to be quite high initially (after about 20–24 h [4,5]), which causes the material
9, 1444 to
2 of 11
absorption
swell until it tends to be
reaches itsquite
fibershigh initially
saturation (after about 20–24 h [4,5]), which causes the material to
point.
swell until it reaches its fibers saturation point.

Figure 1. General features of a bamboo culm [2].

Figure 1. General features of a bamboo culm [2].
Figure 1. General features of a bamboo culm [2].

Figure 2. Bamboo used as structural elements in Vietnam (Architect: T.-N. Vo).

Figure 2. Bamboo used as structural elements in Vietnam (Architect: T.-N. Vo).
Figure 2. Bamboo used as structural elements in Vietnam (Architect: T.-N. Vo).
The sensitivity to moisture can cause swellings and shrinkages, which decrease the bonding
The sensitivity
between bamboo and to concrete
moisture or can cause in
mortar swellings
the caseand whereshrinkages,
bamboo which is useddecrease the bonding
as reinforcement [1].
betweenThe bamboo
sensitivity andto concrete
moistureorcan causeinswellings
mortar the case and
where shrinkages,
bamboo which
is used decrease
as the bonding
reinforcement [1].
On the other hand, bamboo may also be attacked and destroyed by biodegradation factors [6]. There
between
On bamboo and concrete or mortar be in the caseand where bambooby is biodegradation
used as reinforcement [1].
[6].On the
are the other
several hand,
existing bamboo
procedures may toalso
reduce attacked
bamboo’s destroyed
moisture absorption, and improve factors There
the durability;
other
are hand, bamboo may also be attacked and destroyed by biodegradation factors [6]. There are
butseveral existing
in several cases,procedures
chemical to reduce bamboo’s
treatments were used moisture
[7–10],absorption,
which mayand makeimprove the durability;
the treated bamboo
several
but in existingcases,
several procedures
chemical to reduce bamboo’s
treatments were moisture
used absorption,
[7–10], which and improve
may make the
the durability;
treated bamboo but
material less environmental friendly [11,12] and more expensive [5].
in severalless
material cases, chemical treatments
environmental friendly were
[11,12] used
and[7–10],
more which may[5].
expensive make the treated bamboo material
There are also some eco-friendly methods to improve the durability, which use thermal and
less environmental
There are also friendly
some [11,12]
eco-friendly and more
methods expensive
to improve [5].
natural products like vegetable oils (palm, sunflower, or soythe durability,
bean) [6,13,14].which
Someuse thermal
of the studiesand in
naturalThere are also
products likesome eco-friendly
vegetable oils methods
(palm, to improve
sunflower, or soy the durability,
bean) [6,13,14]. which
Some use
of thermal
the studiesandin
the literature investigated influences of the oil-treatment on the bamboo mechanical strength.
natural
the products
literature like vegetable
investigated oils (palm,
influences of the sunflower,
oil-treatmentor soy bean) [6,13,14]. mechanical
Some of thestrength.
studies
Wahab et al. [14] studied tropical bamboo treated in palm oilon at the
140, bamboo
180, and 220 °C, during 30, 60,
in the
Wahab literature
et al. [14] investigated
studied influences
tropical bamboo of the
treated oil-treatment
in palm oil on
at the
140, bamboo
180, and mechanical
220 °C, during strength.
30, 60,
and 90 min. The results showed that the treatment decreased the mechanical properties (bending,
Wahab
and 90 et al. The
min. [14] results
studiedshowed
tropicalthat bamboo
the treated decreased
treatment in palm oil the atmechanical
140, 180, and 220 ◦ C,
properties during
(bending,
compressive, and shear strengths). When the treatment duration increases, the mechanical strengths
30, 60, and 90and
compressive, min.shearThe results showed that the treatment decreased thethemechanical properties
could decrease from 15strengths).
to 58% of the When the
initial treatment
strength, duration
depending increases,
on each treatmentmechanical strengths
procedure and
(bending,
could compressive, and shear strengths). When the treatment duration increases, the mechanical
each mechanical property. On the other hand, the treatments usually lead to the color changesand
decrease from 15 to 58% of the initial strength, depending on each treatment procedure [8],
strengths
each could decrease
mechanical property. from On the 15other
to 58% hand, of the
the treatments
initial strength,
usually depending
lead to theon each
color treatment
changes [8],
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 3 of 11

procedure and each mechanical property. On the other hand, the treatments usually lead to the
color changes [8], [15–17] which is an undesirable effect. The present paper also investigates the
oil-heated treatment, but with other kinds of oils, such as flax oil and sunflower oil. Furthermore,
besides the durability aspect, influences of the treatment on mechanical properties of bamboo culms
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 3 of 11
are also studied.
[15–17] which is an undesirable effect. The present paper also investigates the oil-heated treatment,
2. Materials and Methods
but with other kinds of oils, such as flax oil and sunflower oil. Furthermore, besides the durability
aspect, influences of the treatment on mechanical properties of bamboo culms are also studied.
2.1. Materials and Treatments
2. Materials
The bamboo and Methods
used in the present study was planted in the Savoy region, France. The bamboo
is from the Phyllostachys family, which is present in Europe from the early nineteenth century.
2.1. Materials and Treatments
This bamboo was chosen due to its availability for the investigation. The diameters of the bamboo
The were
culms tested bamboo used5in
about theDifferent
cm. present study was planted
treatment in thewere
processes Savoyinvestigated;
region, France. The
the bamboo
main is
differences
from the Phyllostachys family, which is present in Europe from the early
coming from the heating methods, oils used, and the cooling processes. For heating treatment, two nineteenth century. This
bamboo was chosen due to its availability for the investigation. The diameters of the bamboo culms
ways were tried: specimens were put in an oven, or in hot oil. Different heating times and two types of
tested were about 5 cm. Different treatment processes were investigated; the main differences coming
oil were tested (flax oil and sunflower oil). The flax and sunflower oils were chosen in this study thanks
from the heating methods, oils used, and the cooling processes. For heating treatment, two ways were
to itstried:
availability
specimens andwere
the put
reasonable price
in an oven, or ininhot
France. Finally,heating
oil. Different specimens
times were
and twocooled
typesinofoil, also with
oil were
flax oil
tested (flax oil and sunflower oil). The flax and sunflower oils were chosen in this study thanks todifferent
or sunflower oil. While specimens were cooled in oil, their weights were measured at its
moments: 1 h, 12
availability andh,the
24reasonable
h, 48 h, and 72inh.France.
price Eleven different
Finally, sets ofwere
specimens bamboo
cooled(including
in oil, alsothe
withuntreated
flax
set) were
oil orstudied
sunflower foroil.
different treatments
While specimens wereandcooled
tests in(Table 1). Each
oil, their setwere
weights had also several
measured subsets, and
at different
each moments:
subset had 1 h, 12 h,
five 24 h, 48 h, and
specimens. 72 the
After h. Eleven different
treatment, sets ofspecimens
bamboo bamboo (including the untreated
were weighed set)
and stored in
wereair
ambient studied
for twoforweeks
differentandtreatments and by
then tested tests (Table 1). Each
mechanical set had also several subsets, and each
tests.
subset
In order had five specimens.
to assess After the treatment,
the oil-absorption of bamboobamboo specimens,specimens were also
there were weighed and stored
the referent in
specimens,
ambient air for two weeks and then tested by mechanical tests.
which were only treated by oven heating and then cooled in a desiccator. Then, the weight of these
In order to assess the oil-absorption of bamboo specimens, there were also the referent
specimens were determined and compared with that of the specimens treated in oil. The specimens
specimens, which were only treated by oven heating and then cooled in a desiccator. Then, the weight
intended for specimens
of these uniaxial compression
were determinedtests and
hadcompared
6 cm of length;
with thattheofspecimens intended
the specimens forinbending
treated oil. The tests
had 20 cm of length; and, for the durability tests, the specimen length was
specimens intended for uniaxial compression tests had 6 cm of length; the specimens intended not important, so available
for
specimens
bending with different
tests had 20 lengths were used.
cm of length; and, for the durability tests, the specimen length was not
important, so available specimens with different lengths were used.
2.2. Mechanical Tests
2.2. Mechanical Tests
The mean compressive strength fcm , and the Young’s modulus E of specimens were characterized.
The mean
The compressive compressive
strength strengthbyfcmuniaxial
was measured , and the Young’s modulus
compression tests [18] Eonof6-cm
specimens were
height specimens;
characterized. The compressive strength was measured by uniaxial compression tests [18] on
the diameter was the actual bamboo diameter (Figure 3). Therefore, the slenderness ratio (height/outer 6-cm
height specimens; the diameter was the actual bamboo diameter (Figure 3). Therefore, the slenderness
diameter) was about 1.2. For specimens tested under compression tests, they were cut by a circular
ratio (height/outer diameter) was about 1.2. For specimens tested under compression tests, they were
saw to have two plane and parallel surfaces.
cut by a circular saw to have two plane and parallel surfaces.

Figure 3. A bamboo specimen during the uniaxial compression test.

Figure 3. A bamboo specimen during the uniaxial compression test.
The compressive strength σ was determined following [18], by taking into account the effective
cross-sectional area A of bamboo specimens (having internal hollow core, Figure 1):
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 4 of 11

The compressive strength σ was determined following [18], by taking into account the effective
cross-sectional area A of bamboo specimens (having internal hollow core, Figure 1):

σ = F/A (1)

where F is the maximum force during the uniaxial compression test. A = π [D2 − (D − 2t)2 ]/4, with D
and t are the means of the outer diameter and the wall thickness of the bamboo culm, respectively.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 4 of 11

Table 1. Different methods of treatment and cooling.

σ = F/A (1)
Setwhere Subset Treatment
F is the maximum Method
force Treatment
during the uniaxial Duration
compression Cooling
test. A = Medium Cooling
π [D2 − (D − 2t) Duration
2]/4, with D
and t are 1a
the means of the outer diameter and the1wall
h thickness of the bamboo culm, respectively.
1 1b 2h 24 h
1c 3 hof treatment and cooling.
Table 1. Different methods

Set 2aSubset Treatment Method 1 hDuration

Treatment Cooling Medium Cooling Duration
2 2b 1a Flax oil, 100 ◦ C 21hh 1h
1 2c 1b 32hh 24 h
3a 1c 13hh
3 3b 2a 21hh Flax oil, 20 ◦ C 12 h
2 3c 2b 32hh 1h
Flax oil, 100 °C
4 4 2c 23hh 72 h
3a 1h
5a 1h
3 3b 2h 12 h
5 5b 180 ◦ C in oven 2h Flax oil, 20 °C 24 h
3c 3h
5c 3h
4 4 2h 72 h
6a 5a 11hh
6 6b 5b 100 ◦C 22hh
5 180 °Cininoven
oven 24 h24 h
6c 5c 33hh
7a 6a 11hh
7 6 7b 6b Sunflower
100 °Coil, 100 ◦ C
in oven 22hh 24 h24 h
7c 6c 33hh
8a 7a 11hh
8 7 180Sunflower oil,
◦ C in oven
24 h24 h
8b 7b 22hh
7c
100 °C
3h Sunflower oil, 20 ◦ C
9a 1h
8a ◦ C°C 1h
9 8 9b 100
180 ininoven
oven 2h 24 h24 h
8b 2h
9c 3h Sunflower oil,
9a 1h
10a 9b 12hh 20 °C
9 100 °C in oven 24 h
10 10b 9c Sunflower oil, 180 ◦ C 23hh 24 h
10c 3h
10a 1h
Sunflower oil,
10 10b 2h 24 h
180 °C
10c 3h
Three-points bending tests were also performed on 20 cm-length specimens (Figure 4) to
characterize the tensile strength
Three-points andwere
bending tests the also
Young’s modulus.
performed However,
on 20 cm-length only the
specimens Young’s
(Figure 4) to modulus
characterize
was determined, thethe tensilestrength
tensile strength and thenot
was Young’s modulus. However,
determined becauseonly the Young’s
specimens modulus
were was
not broken under
determined, the tensile strength was not determined because specimens were not broken under the
the three-point bending testing device used, due to the high ductile property of bamboo.
three-point bending testing device used, due to the high ductile property of bamboo.

Figure 4. A three-point bending test on a bamboo specimen.

Figure 4. A three-point bending test on a bamboo specimen.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 5 of 11

The Young’s modulus was used to compare the mechanical characteristics of the tested bamboo
with that presented in the literature. Effects of the studied treatments on the mechanical characteristics
were assessed by uniquely basing on the compressive strength.

2.3. Tests under High Humidity

In order to test the resistance of treated bamboo against fungi development, specimens of each set
were placed in boxes which contained 100% relative humidity (RH). Five untreated bamboo specimens
were also tested for the comparison.
Before being tested under 100% RH, specimens were conditioned at a relative humidity level
of 57%, and a temperature of 25 ◦ C for seven days (until the equilibrium at 57% RH was obtained).
These conditions were chosen in order to test all samples in the same conditions, allowing for further
comparisons between the different treatments. The 57% RH value is a usual recommended value for
durability tests because this value is often observed in service buildings [19].
To obtain a relative humidity level of 100%, a small quantity of water was put in a hermetic
plastic box. The specimens were deposited on a shelf inside the box but above the water. The same
procedure was used for 57% RH, but the humidity level was obtained with a saturated salt solution
(NaBr). The specimens were put in 100% RH boxes, which were set at 30 ◦ C. The RH and temperature
in the box were monitored by the sensors installed in the box, which could measure both the RH and
the temperature. The bamboo specimens were surveyed in the 100% HR box and weighed regularly
until all specimens had fungus symptoms.
The adsorbed water vapor amount is calculated as following:

(m100% − m57% )/m57%

where: m100% = weight of the sample after an exposure time t to a relative humidity level of 100%, and
m57% = weight of the sample after equilibrium at a humidity level of 57%.

2.4. Water Immersion Test

Another accelerated test for the durability of bamboo is the water immersion test. Before the tests,
specimens were also conditioned at 57% RH for seven days. Then the specimens were immersed in
water for 10 weeks. At the end of the test, specimens were taken out from the water, weighed and
visible changes were investigated.

2.5. Aging Test

An accelerated aging test following the Japanese Industrial Standard (“JIS-A treatment” method)
is also carried out in this investigation [20]. The specimens were immersed in the 70 ◦ C hot water for
9 h, then, they were weighed and visually investigated. This acceleration treatment is equivalent to an
outdoor exposure of bamboo during a 1 year period [21].

3. Results

3.1. Effects of Oils-Treatments on the Bamboo Appearance and Weight

Several specimens that had been treated in oil at a high temperature (180 ◦ C) during 3 h and
then immediately cooled in oil (at 20 ◦ C) were cracked due to a sudden change of temperature
(Figure 5). This observation is clearest for specimens treated in 180 ◦ C sunflower oil for three hours.
For specimens treated during 1 or 2 h, the cracking was not observed. So it is suggested that a long
treatment (more than 2 h) at a high temperature (180 ◦ C) may have deteriorated the microstructure
of bamboo.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 6 of 11
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 6 of 11

Figure 5. Specimen cracked due to sudden change of temperature.

Figure 5. Specimen cracked due to sudden change of temperature.

Results from the specimens treated by heating without oil and cooled into the desiccator,
Results
showed that from theinspecimens
a loss treatedweight
the specimens’ by heating without
occurred. oil result
This and cooled
couldinto the from
come desiccator, showed
the moisture
content evaporation, and the destruction of some organic components (such as carbohydrates) content
that a loss in the specimens’ weight occurred. This result could come from the moisture during
evaporation,
the andDuring
heating [22]. the destruction of some
the treatment, organicdecrease
a weight components (such
occurred as to
due carbohydrates) duringloss,
the organic matter the
heating [22]. During the treatment, a weight decrease occurred due to the organic
whereas oil-absorption led to a weight increase. The organic matter loss is determined during the matter loss, whereas
oil-absorption
treatment in anled to awithout
oven weight increase.
oil, but itThe organic
is not reallymatter lossas
the same is determined
during the oilduring the treatment
treatment. That wasin
an oven
why the without
absorbedoil,
oilbut it is not
amount forreally the same
oil-treated as duringcould
specimens the oil treatment.
not Thatdetermined.
be precisely was why theHowever,
absorbed
oil amount for oil-treated specimens could not be precisely determined. However,
it was observed that the weight loss during the treatment without oil (in oven) was higher for the it was observed
that the weight
treatment at 180loss duringthan
°C (22%) the treatment
for treatmentwithout
at 100oil°C
(in(16%).
oven) So,
wasithigher for the that
is suggested treatment at 180 ◦of
the amount C
(22%) thanorganic
for treatment ◦
at 100 isCmore
(16%). So, it is suggested that the amount of destroyed organic
destroyed components important at 180 °C than at 100 °C, because the moisture
components is more important at 180 ◦ C than at 100 ◦ C, because the moisture content is escaped also
content is escaped also at both 180 °C and 100 °C.
at both 180 ◦ C and 100 ◦ C.
3.2. Humidity Test
3.2. Humidity Test
After humidity tests, several specimens were attacked by fungus. On specimens treated at 100
After humidity tests, several specimens were attacked by fungus. On specimens treated at 100 ◦ C,
°C, as well as on untreated specimens, fungi appeared at nearly the same time (2 or 3 days, Figure
as well as on untreated specimens, fungi appeared at nearly the same time (2 or 3 days, Figure 6a).
6a). No difference had been seen between the two oils at the same temperature (100 ◦°C). The untreated
No difference had been seen between the two oils at the same temperature (100 C). The untreated
sample and those treated at 100 °C have adsorbed a water vapor amount of 9 ± 2% when the fungi
sample and those treated at 100 ◦ C have adsorbed a water vapor amount of 9 ± 2% when the fungi
appeared. This means that a temperature of 100◦°C is not efficient enough to improve the durability
appeared. This means that a temperature of 100 C is not efficient enough to improve the durability of
of bamboo. Specimens which had been treated at 180 °C (Figure 6b,c) were less attacked by fungi
bamboo. Specimens which had been treated at 180 ◦ C (Figure 6b,c) were less attacked by fungi than
than specimens treated at 100 °C. All the bamboos treated at 180 °C (in oil or in air) had the same
specimens treated at 100 ◦ C. All the bamboos treated at 180 ◦ C (in oil or in air) had the same resistance
resistance to fungi apparition. Fungi appeared after 5 days of exposure to the humidity level of 100%
to fungi apparition. Fungi appeared after 5 days of exposure to the humidity level of 100% RH, and
RH, and the adsorbed water vapor amount was about 12 ± 2%. The difference in fungi resistance
the adsorbed water vapor amount was about 12 ± 2%. The difference in fungi resistance between the
between the specimens treated at 100 °C and 180 °C is suggested due to the less amount of
specimens treated at 100 ◦ C and 180 ◦ C is suggested due to the less amount of carbohydrates in the
carbohydrates in the bamboos treated at 180 °C. Fungus developed similarly whatever the cooling
bamboos treated at 180 ◦ C. Fungus developed similarly whatever the cooling way had been. So, it can
way had been. So, it can be suggested that the temperature of treatment is the predominant factor for
be suggested that the temperature of treatment is the predominant factor for the fungi resistance. It is
the fungi resistance. It is worth◦ noting also that at 180 °C, there are significant changes in the color of the
worth noting also that at 180 C, there are significant changes in the color of the specimens, which is
specimens, which is not desirable in some cases if the constructor wishes to have the original appearance
not desirable in some cases if the constructor wishes to have the original appearance of the bamboo [8].
of the bamboo [8].
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 7 of 11
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 7 of 11

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.
Figure 6. After
After 33 days
days of
of exposure
exposure in
in 100%
100% Relative
Relative Humidity
Humidity (RH):
(RH): (a)
(a) aa specimen
specimen treated
treated at
at 100
100 ◦°C
C
attacked by fungi (white parts on the cross-section); and (b,c) specimens treated at 180 °C, no
attacked by fungi (white parts on the cross-section); and (b,c) specimens treated at 180 ◦ C, no fungi fungi
attack observed.
attack observed.

3.3. Water Immersion Test

3.3. Water Immersion Test
After 10 weeks immersed in water, the untreated specimens had a weight increase of 50.1%
After 10 weeks immersed in water, the untreated specimens had a weight increase of 50.1%
(Table 2), but there was no swelling. The treated bamboos did not visibly manifest any significant
(Table 2), but there was no swelling. The treated bamboos did not visibly manifest any significant
changes on the form; only the specimens’ weights were increased by a maximum of 45%. This shows
changes on the form; only the specimens’ weights were increased by a maximum of 45%. This shows a
a small improvement of the treated specimens for the water absorption due to the absorbed oil, when
small improvement of the treated specimens for the water absorption due to the absorbed oil, when
compared to untreated specimens.
compared to untreated specimens.

Table 2. Weight increases of the specimens after the water immersion and ageing tests.
Table 2. Weight increases of the specimens after the water immersion and ageing tests.
Treatment Treatment Water Immersion Test— Aging Test—Weight
Set Subset Treatment Water Immersion Aging Test—Weight
Set Subset Method
Treatment MethodDuration Weight Increase (%) Increase (%)
1a 1 hDuration Test—Weight Increase (%)
44.3 Increase (%)
51.0
1 1b1a 2h 1h 44.3
42.6 51.0
49.4
1 1c1b 3h 2h 42.6
41.4 49.4
48.4
1c 3h 41.4 48.4
2a 1h 41.7 54.9
2 2b 2a 2h 1h 41.7
38.3 54.9
52.2
2 2b Flax oil,
Flax100
oil,°C100 ◦ C 2h 38.3 52.2
2c 3h 39.3 49.1
2c 3h 39.3 49.1
3a 1h 44.9 53.7
3a 1h 44.9 53.7
3 3b 2h 42.2 51.3
3 3b 2h 42.2 51.3
3c3c 3h 3h 39.6
39.6 50.1
50.1
4 4 2h 43.8 48.5
4 4 2h 43.8 48.5
5a 1h 38.5 47.6
5a 1h 38.5 47.6
5 5b 180 °C in ◦oven 2h 36.2 48.4
5 5b 180 C in oven 2h 36.2 48.4
5c5c 3h 3h 35.1
35.1 42.9
42.9
6a 1h 43.2 57.7
6a 1h 43.2 57.7
66 6b6b 100 °C in ◦oven 2h 2h 38.2
38.2 57.1
57.1
100 C in oven
6c6c 3h 3h 44.6
44.6 55.6
55.6
7a7a 1h 1h 41.2
41.2 54.6
54.6
Sunflower oil,
77 7b7b Sunflower oil, 100 ◦C 2 h 2h 40.8
40.8 52.1
52.1
100 °C
7c7c 3h 3h 43.0
43.0 51.3
51.3
8a8a 1h 1h 39.2
39.2 48.2
48.2
88 180 °C180
in ◦oven
C in oven
8b8b 2h 2h 38.2
38.2 46.8
46.8
9a9a 1h 1h 44.9
44.9 55.8
55.8
99 9b9b in ◦oven
100 °C100 C in oven 2h 2h 43.4
43.4 55.0
55.0
9c9c 3h 3h 41.1
41.1 53.4
53.4
10a10a 1h 1h 36.6
36.6 46.6
46.6
Sunflower oil,
10
10 10b10b Sunflower oil, 180 ◦ C 2 h 2 h 35.6
35.6 43.4
43.4
10c 180 °C
10c 3h 3h 33.8
33.8 42.9
42.9
Untreated
Untreated 50.1
50.1 59.2
59.2
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 8 of 11
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 8 of 11

3.4. Aging Test

The water immersion at 70 ◦°C C was not severe enough to visibly deteriorate the treated and
◦ C water immersion, only weight changes were noted.
untreated specimens. Similar to the case of 20 °C water immersion, only weight changes were noted.
While the untreated specimens’ weight increased by 59.2% in weight (Table 2), the 100 ◦°C C treated
specimens’ weight increased by a maximum of 58%, whereas that of the 180 ◦°C C treated specimens
increased by only 48% at maximum. This result shows also a significant improvement of the 180 ◦°C C
treated specimens,
specimens, compared
comparedtotountreated
untreatedspecimens.
specimens.This
Thisbehavior
behaviormay
maybebe
due to to
due thethe
less amount
less of
amount
hydrophilic component in the ◦ C treated specimens.
180180
of hydrophilic component in the °C treated specimens.

3.5. Mechanical Tests

3.5. Mechanical Tests
The
The Young’s
Young’s moduli
moduli were were determined
determined from from the the force-displacement
force-displacement curves curves obtained
obtained from from the
the
three-points bending tests. Indeed, the bamboo specimens were
three-points bending tests. Indeed, the bamboo specimens were considered as a hollow circular considered as a hollow circular
beam;
beam;
and, the and, the internal
internal and external
and external diameters
diameters of the
of the cross-section
cross-section werewere theaverage
the averagevalues
values of of three
three
measurements. Following the basic theory from the strength
measurements. Following the basic theory from the strength of materials, the Young’s modulus of materials, the Young’s modulus
measured
measured for for the
the studied
studied bamboo
bamboo range range from
from 8.8 8.8 toto 9.6
9.6 GPa.
GPa. TheThe variation
variation isis due
due to to the
the quality
quality ofof
different parts on a bamboo tree (bottom part or top part). These values are
different parts on a bamboo tree (bottom part or top part). These values are in the usual interval noted in the usual interval noted
in
in the
the literature
literature (from
(from 77 to to 20
20 GPa,
GPa, [23]).
[23]).
Uniaxial compressive
Uniaxial compressive tests were tests were also
also used
used to to determine
determine the the ultimate
ultimate compressive
compressive strength.
strength.
Observations
Observations duringduring the the tests
tests confirmed
confirmed the the ductile
ductile behavior
behavior of of bamboo
bamboo culms.culms. When
When the the specimen
specimen
reached the maximal stress, only a vertical crack appeared (Figure
reached the maximal stress, only a vertical crack appeared (Figure 7), and the specimen 7), and the specimen did not did
present
not
apresent
brittle afailure.
brittleThe obtained
failure. ultimate compressive
The obtained strengths strengths
ultimate compressive are illustrated in Figure 8.inItFigure
are illustrated is important
8. It is
to note that,todue
important note tothat,
a lowdue slenderness
to a low ratio (of 1.2), ratio
slenderness the presented compressive
(of 1.2), the presentedstrengths
compressive werestrengths
obtained
by multiplying the ultimate compressive stresses by a ratio of 0.85, to take
were obtained by multiplying the ultimate compressive stresses by a ratio of 0.85, to take into account into account influences of
the frictionsofbetween
influences the specimens’
the frictions between the surfaces and thesurfaces
specimens’ loadingand pressthe plates. These
loading frictions
press plates.prevent
These
the lateral extensions (due to the Poisson’s effect) at the two ends of the
frictions prevent the lateral extensions (due to the Poisson’s effect) at the two ends of the specimen specimen tested. Therefore,
the stresses
tested. in these
Therefore, thezones
stresses areinnot homogeneous
these zones are not andhomogeneous
the compressive and strength obtainedstrength
the compressive on low
slenderness
obtained onratio low specimens
slenderness areratio
higher than that are
specimens obtained
higheronthanspecimens with a reasonable
that obtained on specimens slenderness
with a
ratio (about 2 [18]). When the slenderness ratio increases, the ultimate
reasonable slenderness ratio (about 2 [18]). When the slenderness ratio increases, the ultimate stress obtained decreases
stress
because
obtainedwhen the slenderness
decreases because when ratio the
is high, the specimen
slenderness ratio isis in failure
high, the due to the is
specimen buckling
in failurephenomenon.
due to the
This phenomenon
buckling phenomenon. is wellThisknown in mechanical
phenomenon tests and
is well known in the correctortests
mechanical factor
andisthe
recommended
corrector factor by
regulations (Eurocode [24], for example). However, the scope of
is recommended by regulations (Eurocode [24], for example). However, the scope of the present the present study is to compare the
influences
study is to of different
compare thetreatment
influences methods on the
of different compressive
treatment methodsstrength,
on the socompressive
the application or not so
strength, of the
the
corrector factor does not have consequences on the conclusions.
application or not of the corrector factor does not have consequences on the conclusions.

Figure 7. Specimens after compression tests.

Figure 7. Specimens after compression tests.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 9 of 11
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 9 of 11

Figure 8. Compressive strengths obtained.

Figure 8. Compressive strengths obtained.
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
From Figure 8, the obtained compressive strength of the untreated specimens was about 57 MPa,
which
From is in the
Figure same
8, the interval of
obtained the usual values
compressive reported
strength of in
thethe literature (38–130
untreated specimensMPawas [22,23]). For 57 MPa,
about
treated specimens, the compressive strengths of several specimens decreased or remained equal to
which is in the same interval of the usual values reported in the literature (38–130 MPa [22,23]). For treated
the untreated sample. Only a few specimens presented a significant increase of compressive strength
specimens, the compressive strengths of several specimens decreased or remained equal to the untreated
(sets 3c; 6b 6c; 8a, 8b; and, 10a, 10b). The results obtained for the set 3 are strange and doubtful because
sample.theOnly onlyadifference
few specimensbetweenpresented
specimensaofsignificant
3a, 3b, and 3c increase
was theof compressive
cooling duration.strength (setscould
So, this result 3c; 6b 6c; 8a,
8b; and,come
10a, from10b).the The results obtained
inhomogeneity for the material
of a natural set 3 areasstrange
bamboo.and Thedoubtful
sets 6 andbecause the onlytodifference
8 corresponded a
between treatment
specimens in ovenof without
3a, 3b, oiland (100
3c°Cwasfor set
the6,cooling
and 180 °C for set 8), So,
duration. whereas
this the set 10
result corresponded
could come from the
to a treatment
inhomogeneity in oil at 180
of a natural °C. Several
material results reported
as bamboo. The sets in 6the
andliterature showed thattothe
8 corresponded mechanical in oven
a treatment
properties ◦decreased when the oil-treatment ◦ duration increased. For example, Wahab et al. [14]
without oil (100 C for set 6, and 180 C for set 8), whereas the set 10 corresponded to a treatment in
reported
◦
that all compressive strengths decreased when the specimens were treated after 1 h, 2 h, and
oil at 180
3 h,C. Several results
respectively. reported
However, in theinpresent
the literature
study, thisshowed
trend that
was thenot mechanical
observed for properties decreased
all oil-treated
when the oil-treatment
specimens. duration
Only sets increased.
1, 2, 5, and For the
10 followed example, Wahab previously,
trend reported et al. [14] reported
and more that all compressive
especially for
strengthsthedecreased
3 h duration. when For the
otherspecimens were treated
sets, the compressive after 1did
strengths h, 2not h, decrease
and 3 h,when respectively. However, in
the treatment-
duration
the present increased.
study, this trend was not observed for all oil-treated specimens. Only sets 1, 2, 5, and 10
The main difference between the sets 1, 2, 3, and 4 is the duration of the cooling. From the results
followed the trend reported previously, and more especially for the 3 h duration. For other sets, the
presented in Figure 8, a general rule about influence of cooling duration on the compressive strength
compressive strengths did not decrease when the treatment-duration increased.
was not obvious because in several cases longer cooling durations provided higher results, but in
The main
other difference
cases, the resultsbetween
were lower. the Therefore,
sets 1, 2, 3, and
it is 4 is thethat
suggested duration
the coolingof the cooling.
duration doesFrom the results
not have
presenteda realininfluence
Figure 8,ona the general ruleand
durability about influence
on the compressive of cooling
strength.duration on the compressive strength
was not obvious It is noted in theinliterature
because several thatcases when
longera relatively
coolinghigh temperature
durations provided(abouthigher
100 °C)results,
treatmentbutis in other
applied, moisture in the bamboo begins to be removed, which can lead
cases, the results were lower. Therefore, it is suggested that the cooling duration does not have a real to the increase in strength
[22]. However, at a higher temperature (above 125 °C), the compressive strength decreased with
influence on the durability and on the compressive strength.
temperature, primarily due to the decomposition of macromolecules [25]. The hemicelluloses
It is noted in the literature that when a relatively high temperature (about 100 ◦ C) treatment
degrade at temperatures between 150 °C and 200 °C, while lignin decomposes at temperatures
is applied,
between moisture
220 °C and in 250
the°Cbamboo begins
[3]. This may be the toreason
be removed,
why the setwhich 3c (bamboo can treated
lead to the oil
in flax increase
at in
strength100 [22]. However,
°C during 3 h andat then
a higher
cooledtemperature
in flax oil) and(above 125 ◦ C),
set 6c (treated the°C
at 100 compressive strength
in oven and cooled decreased
in flax
oil) had remarkable
with temperature, primarilystrength
dueincreases. However, as mentioned
to the decomposition above, these sets
of macromolecules didThe
[25]. not hemicelluloses
provide
satisfying results in durability tests (apparition
◦ of
◦ fungus).
degrade at temperatures between 150 C and 200 C, while lignin decomposes at temperaturesThe best compromise was the sets 8, wherebetween
specimens were treated by heat without oil, at 180 °C (during 1 h or 2 h), and then cooled in sunflower
220 ◦ C and 250 ◦ C [3]. This may be the reason why the set 3c (bamboo treated in flax oil at 100 ◦ C
during 3 h and then cooled in flax oil) and set 6c (treated at 100 ◦ C in oven and cooled in flax oil) had
remarkable strength increases. However, as mentioned above, these sets did not provide satisfying
results in durability tests (apparition of fungus). The best compromise was the sets 8, where specimens
were treated by heat without oil, at 180 ◦ C (during 1 h or 2 h), and then cooled in sunflower oil.
This method of treatment improves the compressive strength of about 10% and gives a satisfying
behavior under durability tests.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1444 10 of 11

Other sets giving acceptable results for all tests were sets 5a, 5b (180 ◦ C in oven during 1 or 2 h,
then cooled by flax oil), and set 10 (treated at sunflower oil 180 ◦ C during 1 or 2 h, then cooled by
sunflower oil), but their compressive strength was slightly lower than that of the sets 3c, 6c, and 8
as mentioned above. For practice and economic reasons, sets 5a, 5b and 8a, 8b seem preferable than
set 10, because oil is only used for the cooling and not needed for the treatments. From the good
results observed on sets 5a, 5b, 8a, and 8b, it is suggested that the treatment at a high temperature
(180 ◦ C), during a reasonable time (1 or 2 h) can destroy sugar, starch, and protein which are highly
susceptible to attack by fungi [26,27]; then the less-sensitive material was covered by oil during the
cooling, which led the material to have a better durability. A longer treatment (from 3 h) at 180 ◦ C can
destroy more elements in the micro-structure of bamboo, which leads to the cracking presented in the
previous section.
During the immersion tests in water, the bamboo weight increased due to water absorption but
no fungi nor swelling were observed after ten weeks of treatment. However, when specimens were
exposed to 100% RH, fungi appeared after only 5 days for the most resistant. So it is deduced that
bamboo is more resistant to water than to moisture. Therefore, it is not surprising that in some cases,
peoples immerse bamboo in water for the bamboo preservation [26].

5. Conclusions
The present study investigated different methods of treatment for bamboo: different oils (flax oil,
sunflower oil, and without oil); different temperatures (100 ◦ C or 180 ◦ C); different treatment durations
(1 h, 2 h, or 3 h); and, different cooling methods (oven, flax oil, sunflower oil) and cooling durations.
Results showed that the treatment duration influenced properties of treated bamboos. Three hours at
180 ◦ C was a too long treatment for the bamboo endurance, leading to cracks during cooling and to
the degradation of the bamboo. One hour or two hours are more convenient for treatment at 180 ◦ C.
The results also showed that some studied treatment methods could increase both the durability and
the compressive strength of treated specimens, when compared to untreated bamboo. As a conclusion
of all these experiments, the best compressive strength was obtained for the samples treated without
oil (oil was used only for cooling), and the best resistance to fungi and to water sorption were for
specimens treated at 180 ◦ C. Thus, among the procedures tested, the best compromise was set 8, where
specimens were treated by heat without oil, at 180 ◦ C (during 1 h or 2 h) and then cooled in sunflower
oil. This is an interesting result because oil is only needed for cooling, which simplifies the treatment.
It will be important to verify this result on other bamboo types.

Author Contributions: Anne-Cécile Grillet conceived, analyzed the experiments for the treatment methods;
Quoc-Bao Bui piloted the mechanical experiments; and, Hoang-Duy Tran performed the experiments and
analyzed the data. Quoc-Bao Bui wrote and Anne-Cécile Grillet revised the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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