NB Dhaval

A
Project Report
On
NITROBENZENE
Submitted in partial fulfillment towards the Bachelor’s
Degree in the field of Chemical Engineering
Prepared By
DHAVALKUMAR DESAI
CH- 15 ( I.D.No. 15MHUOS104 )
Under the Guidance of

MIHIR P. SHAH
Department of Chemical Engineering

Faculty of Technology, Dharmsinh Desai University
College Road, Nadiad – 387 001
April, 2019
I
COMPANY CERTIFICATE PHASE-2
II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to use this opportunity to extend my gratitude towards everyone who helped and
facilitated me in the completion of the internship at Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizers &
Chemicals. It provided me with a great chance for learning and improving technical
knowledge.
I express special thanks to Mr. K. K. Shrivastav, Chief Manager in industry, who, in spite
of being extraordinarily busy with his duties, took time out to guide me, and the training
manager of the company for allowing me to take training at their organization. I also
acknowledge the operators and plant in charges in the company for sharing their knowledge
with me and helping me get acquainted with the plant.
My deepest gratitude to the faculties at the university for giving me useful guidelines regularly,
Mr. Mihir P. Shah (Associate Prof.), my guide and Dr. M. S. Rao, Head of Department,
for letting me have this chance to gain necessary exposure.
III
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................... II
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. VII
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. VIII
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1
1.1 History of Nitrobenzene ..................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Nitrobenzene production capacity...................................................................................... 2
1.3 Market value ....................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Technology providers ......................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Reaction scheme for process .............................................................................................. 3
1.6 Customers ........................................................................................................................... 3
1.7 Competitors ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.8 Reaction mechanism .......................................................................................................... 4
1.9 Applications of nitrobenzene ............................................................................................. 5
1.10 Properties of nitrobenzene ................................................................................................ 6
1.11 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 2: SELECTION OF PROCESS ......................................................................... 8
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 9
2.2 Process Selection ................................................................................................................ 9
2.3 Raw materials ................................................................................................................... 12
2.4 Raw materials cost ........................................................................................................... 12
2.5 Raw materials availability ................................................................................................ 12
2.6 Properties of Raw Material .............................................................................................. 12
2.7 Process Block Diagram .................................................................................................... 14
2.8 Process Description .......................................................................................................... 15
2.8.1 Nitration and extraction of spent acid ...................................................................... 15
2.8.3 Recovery of benzene ................................................................................................ 16
2.8.4 Storage Crude and pure NB ..................................................................................... 16
2.9 Process Flow Diagram ..................................................................................................... 17
2.10 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER 3: MATERIAL BALANCE .............................................................................. 18
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Material Balance .............................................................................................................. 20
3.2.1 Pump Reactor ........................................................................................................... 20
IV
3.2.2 Separator................................................................................................................... 22
3.2.3 Washing Section – I ................................................................................................. 23
3.2.4 Washing Section – II ................................................................................................ 25
3.2.5 Distillation Column .................................................................................................. 27
3.3 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER 4: ENERGY BALANCE ................................................................................... 30
4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 31
4.2 Energy Balance ................................................................................................................ 31
4.2.1 Pump Reactor ........................................................................................................... 31
4.2.2 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger ............................................................................... 32
4.2.3 Distillation Column .................................................................................................. 32
4.3 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 34
CHAPTER 5: PLANT UTILITIES ...................................................................................... 35
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 36
5.2 Boiler section.................................................................................................................... 36
5.3 DM Plant .......................................................................................................................... 38
5.4 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER 6: DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPMENTS ................................................. 40
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 41
6.2 Details of equipments ....................................................................................................... 41
6.3 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER 7: DESIGNING OF EQUIPMENTS ............................................................... 45
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 46
7.2 Storage Tank .................................................................................................................... 46
7.3 Heat Exchanger ................................................................................................................ 53
7.4 Centrifugal Pump ............................................................................................................. 60
7.5 Distillation Column .......................................................................................................... 62
7.6 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER 8: PUMPS, PIPING, FITTINGS & VALVES ................................................ 77
8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 78
8.2 Various types of pumps available .................................................................................... 78
8.3 Pipe and fittings ................................................................................................................ 79
8.4 Valves ............................................................................................................................... 80
8.5 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 83
V
CHAPTER 9: SAFETY, HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT.................................................. 84
9.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 85
9.2 Safety measures to prevent occupational health hazards ................................................. 85
9.3 List of Safety equipments ................................................................................................. 86
9.4 Various pollution control measures taken by the industry ............................................... 86
9.4.1 Effluent Treatment Plant .......................................................................................... 86
9.5 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 90
CHAPTER 10: PLANT LOCATION & LAYOUT ............................................................ 91
10.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 92
10.2 Various factors affecting plant location ......................................................................... 92
10.3 Location of Nitrobenzene plant ...................................................................................... 93
10.4 Plant layout Introduction ................................................................................................ 93
10.5 Plant Layout ................................................................................................................... 93
10.6 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 94
CHAPTER 11: COST ESTIMATION ................................................................................. 95
11.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 96
11.2 Cost of each equipment used in plant ............................................................................. 96
11.3 Direct Cost ...................................................................................................................... 97
11.4 Indirect Cost ................................................................................................................... 98
11.5 Fixed Capital Investment................................................................................................ 98
11.6 Total Capital Investment ................................................................................................ 98
11.7 Total Production Cost .................................................................................................... 99
11.8 Direct Production Cost ................................................................................................... 99
11.9 Profit Calculation ......................................................................................................... 101
11.10 Rate of Return ............................................................................................................ 101
11.11 Payout Period ............................................................................................................. 101
11.12 Turnover Ratio ........................................................................................................... 102
11.13 Break Even Point ........................................................................................................ 102
11.14 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 102
CHAPTER 12: CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................... 103
APPENDIX-1........................................................................................................................ 105
APPENDIX-II ...................................................................................................................... 124
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 132
VI
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Chemical structure of nitrobenzene ......................................................................... 2
Figure 1.2 Formation of nitronium ion ..................................................................................... 4
Figure 1.3 Removal of proton gives nitrobenzene .................................................................... 4
Figure 2.2 Process Block diagram .......................................................................................... 14
Figure 2.3 Process Flow Diagram ........................................................................................... 17
Figure 3.1 Material Balance across Pump reactor .................................................................. 20
Figure 3.2 Material Balance across Separator ........................................................................ 22
Figure 3.3 Material Balance across Washing Section-I .......................................................... 23
Figure 3.4 Material Balance across Washing Section-II......................................................... 25
Figure 3.4 Material Balance across Distillation Column ........................................................ 27
Figure 3.5 Overall material balance ........................................................................................ 29
Figure 5.1 Steam generation plant ......................................................................................... 37
Figure 5.3 DM Plant................................................................................................................ 39
Figure 7.1 Diagram Of Heat Exchanger. ................................................................................ 53
Figure 8.1 Diaphragm valve.................................................................................................... 80
Figure 8.2 Needle valve .......................................................................................................... 81
Figure 8.4 Globe valve ............................................................................................................ 82
Figure 8.5 Plug valve .............................................................................................................. 83
Figure 9.1 Process flow diagram of ETP ................................................................................ 89
VII
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Raw material availability ........................................................................................ 12
Table 3.1 Raw material and product details ............................................................................ 19
Table 3.2 Material balance across pump reactor ..................................................................... 22
Table 3.3 Material balance across separator ........................................................................... 23
Table 3.4 Material balance across washing section – I ........................................................... 25
Table 3.5 Material balance across washing section – II.......................................................... 26
Table 3.6 Material balance across distillation column ............................................................ 28
Table 3.7 Material balance across distillation column ............................................................ 28
Table 4.1 Specific heat capacities of all the components ........................................................ 31
Table 4.2 Heat capacity and temperature differences of component ...................................... 32
Table 7.1 Storage Vessel Thickness ........................................................................................ 48
Table 7.2 Summary table of Storage Vessel ........................................................................... 53
Table 7.3 Physical Properties of crude nitrobenzene and water ............................................. 54
Table 7.4 Summary Table of Condenser Design .................................................................... 60
Table 7.5 Data require in designing pump .............................................................................. 62
Table 7.6 Feed Composition ................................................................................................... 62
Table 7.7 Cp Constants for benzene and water ....................................................................... 63
Table 7.8 Cp Constants for nitrobenzene ................................................................................ 63
Table 7.9 Weight of Distillation column parts ........................................................................ 73
Table 11.1 Cost of the equipments used in plant .................................................................... 96
Table 11.2 Direct Cost ............................................................................................................ 97
Table 11.4 Raw materials cost for one hour ............................................................................ 99
Table 11.5 Direct Production Cost .......................................................................................... 99
Table 11.6 Fixed Charges ...................................................................................................... 100
Table 11.7 General Expenses ................................................................................................ 100
VIII
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 History of Nitrobenzene

Nitrobenzene (NB) the simplest aromatic nitro compound, having the molecular formula
C6H5NO2. It is used in the manufacture of aniline, benzidine, and other organic chemicals.
Nitrobenzene is a colorless to pale yellow, oily, highly toxic liquid with the odor of bitter
almonds.
NB was first prepared in 1834 by the German chemist Eilhardt Mitscherlich, who treated
benzene with fuming nitric acid. Commercially, both batch and continuous processes
employing mixed nitric and sulfuric acids are used to make NB.
NB undergoes nitration, halogenation, and sulfonation much more slowly than does benzene.
It may be reduced to a variety of compounds, depending on the reaction conditions. Most
nitrobenzene produced is reduced to aniline; smaller amounts are converted to azobenzene,
hydrazo benzene (the intermediate for benzidine), and phenylhydroxylamine. Reduction of
both the nitro group and the benzene ring affords cyclohexylamine. NB is used as a mild
oxidizing agent in the syntheses of quinoline and fuchsine.
IUPAC NAME: Nitrobenzene
Figure 1.1 Chemical structure of nitrobenzene[19]

Other chemical names: nitro benzenol, oil of mirbane
Chemical formula: C6H5NO2
1.2 Nitrobenzene production capacity
In India: The installed capacity of nitrobenzene amounted to almost 92 thousand metric tons
in the country during fiscal year 2018, down from about 104 thousand metric tons in fiscal year
2015.
In GNFC: Approx. 10000 MTPA for sale
Approx. 64 MTPD
2
INTRODUCTION
1.3 Market value
As we all know, the price of any product won’t remain same as time passes. Similarly, the
prices of Nitrobenzene fluctuate over the period of years with the efforts and plans created by
company. The price of nitrobenzene in GNFC is approx. Rs 60/kg.
1.4 Technology providers
The technology providers are:

 M/S Chematur engineering AB Sweden
 NORAM
 Joseph National
1.5 Reaction scheme for process
1. NB main reaction:
C6H6 + HNO3 C6H5NO2 + H2O + Heat
2. Byproduct formation:
I. Oxidation and Nitration
C6H6 + 3HNO3 C6H3(NO2)2OH + HNO2 + 2H2O + Heat
II. Dinitration
C6H6 + 2HNO3 C6H4(NO2)2 + 2H2O + Heat
1.6 Customers
1. AMOS corporation, Ahmedabad

2. Anand Petrochemicals, Ankleshwar
3. Chem-mart , Mumbai
4. New India Enterprise Pvt.Ltd, Baroda
5. Tradex Corporation, Ahmedabad
6. M.J.Corporation, Vapi
7. A-1 Acid, Ahmedabad
8. Kinjal Chemicals, Ahmedabad and Vapi
9. Apurva Chemicals, Vapi
10. Elements Chemilin Pvt.Ltd. , Ankleshwar
3
INTRODUCTION
1.7 Competitors
1. Chemieorganic Chemicals Pvt. Ltd., Jhagadia

2. Shree Ram Agro India, Haryana
3. Huntsman
4. Chemours
5. Covestro
6. Connell Chemical Industry
7. SP Chemicals
1.8 Reaction mechanism
The nitration of benzene involves the following steps

1. Formation of nitronium ion (electrophile) NO2+
HNO3 + 2H2SO4 NO2+ + 2HSO4- + H3O+
The electrophile attacks the benzene ring to give to carbonium ion. This carbonium ion is
resonance – stabilized.
Figure 1.2 Formation of nitronium ion
2. Removal of proton gives nitrobenzene.
Figure 1.3 Removal of proton gives nitrobenzene
The rate controlling step is second reaction. The rate of reaction is function of many factors,
most importantly it is a function of sulphuric acid strength. The change in sulphuric acid
4
INTRODUCTION
strength changes the rate by the several orders of magnitude because it affects the formation
of nitronium ions and it is nitronium ion which is reactive species in rate controlling step.
The main byproducts formed in commercial nitrobenzene plants are
 Dinitrobenzene (C6H4(NO2)2
 Dinitrophenol (C6H3OH(NO2)2
The fraction of nitrobenzene obtained is usually well below 100 ppm, but can reach a few
hundred ppm if the nitration is accidently operated with excess nitric acid. The introduction of
nitro groups into the benzene ring lowers the electron density, thereby impeding electrophile
attack. Substantial rate of conversion to dinitrobenzene are possible only at high spent acid
strengths. Furthermore, commercial nitrobenzene plant usually operates with excess benzene
which will consume most of the nitric acid well before significant quantities of dinitrobenzene
can be formed.
1.9 Applications of nitrobenzene
General use
Nitrobenzene is used primarily in the production of aniline, but it is also used as a solvent and
as an ingredient in metal polishes and soaps.In India, around 98%of nitrobenzene produced is
converted into aniline; the major use of aniline is in the manufacture of polyurethanes.
Nitrobenzene is also used as a solvent in petroleum refining, as a solvent in the manufacture of
cellulose ethers and cellulose acetate (around 1.5%), in Friedel-Crafts reactions to hold the
catalyst in solution (it dissolves anhydrous aluminium chloride as a result of the formation of
a complex) and in the manufacture of dinitrobenzene and dichloroaniline (around 0.5%). It is
also used in the synthesis of other organic compounds, including acetaminophen.
Agriculture use
Nitrobenzene is a plant energizer and flower stimulant. The main advantages are:
 It helps the plant to increase CN ratio significantly
 It increases plant size and helps for flowering
 It enhances the plant canopy and induces flowering and increases the yield
 It can be used in all major agriculture crops through foliar application
 It is compatible with pesticide and fungicides.
The concentration for usage is 2 to 3 ml per liter of water and foliar spray. The same amount
of urea can be applied to rice.
5
INTRODUCTION
Most significant uses of Nitrobenzene

 Nitrobenzene is in the manufacture of aniline. Approximately 97-98% by weight of NB
produced is converted to aniline.
 Nitrobenzene is used for the preparation of intermediate chemicals for ‘azo’ and
substituted ‘diazo’ dyes including benzidine, m-dinitrobenzene and m-nitro
chlorobenzene.
 It is also used in the manufacture of quinoline and magenta.
 It is also used in the manufacture of rubber chemicals and hydroquinone, drugs, herbicides
and fibers.
 Nitrobenzene is used as selective solvent in petroleum industry.
 It is used as ingredient in shoe polishes.
It is used for preparation of dinitrobenzene and as a component of liquid explosive.
1.10 Properties of nitrobenzene*

Appearance: Pale to dark yellow liquid free from visible impurities.
Specific gravity: 1.205 at 270C
pH: 5.5 (Min.)
Crystallization point: 5.50C
Boiling point: 210 – 2110C
Melting point: 60C
Vapour density: 4.3(air=1)
Vapour pressure: 1mm Hg at 44.40C
Distillation range: 9% (by volume) shall be distilled between 2090C to 2210C
Flash point: 87.80C
Explosive limit: 1.8%
Ignition temperature: 4820C
Threshold limit value: 1.2 ppm
Moisture: 0.05% by wt. (Max.)
* Refer Appendix-I for MSDS of Nitrobenzene
6
INTRODUCTION
1.11 Conclusions
We can conclude from above details that Nitrobenzene has various uses in different industries
because of its important properties. Many dyes, drugs, pesticides, synthetic rubber industries
etc. requires large amount of nitrobenzene as a raw material, so is has a large demand in market.
Large scale production of nitrobenzene can give good profit from it. So industry has decided
to set up a plant for production of nitrobenzene.
7
CHAPTER 2: SELECTION OF PROCESS
8
SELECTION OF PROCESS
2.1 Introduction
For producing any product selection of process is very important. And by considering various
parameters affecting the process one have to choose the optimum and best possible way to
form the product which is discuss in this chapter.
2.2 Process Selection
The entire plant is divided into three sections:

Nitration section: Here nitration reaction is carried out. Nitration of benzene is done with
98% HNO3. 98% H2SO4 is used as a dehydrating agent. The process is carried out in Nitration
pump.
Washing section: Here washing is done with the help of process water and caustic soda.
Washing is carried out in five different stages.
Distillation section: Here distillation of crude nitrobenzene is done. Crude nitrobenzene
contains traces of benzene and water, hence to obtain pure nitrobenzene it is distilled in
distillation column. Benzene and water are obtained in the form of vapor through the top of
the distillation column, and distilled nitrobenzene is obtained from the bottom.
Process selection:
The Mononitration of benzene is probably the most basic and familiar nitration process
despite the importance of nitration process. Few changes in nitration method have been
proposed for year. The various method which can be used for the manufacture of nitrobenzene
are explained as below.
1. Nitration of benzene using nitric acid alone

This process involves the utilization of 40-60% by weight of nitric acid and temperature of
50-90oc. molar ratio of HNO3 to benzene is 6:1 to 15:1 and it is necessary to reconcentrate
the nitric acid by distillation. The plant usually consists of a relatively small reaction tower, a
nitration stripper and accessory and heat transfer equipments.
The main disadvantage of this process is the water formation, after nitration reaction retards
the rate of reaction considerably.
9
2. Nitration of benzene using mixed acid

In this process, benzene is nitrated using a mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid commonly
referred as “Mixed acid” or “Nitrating Mixture”. The reaction vessel is acid resistant, cast
iron or steel vessel that are equipped with efficient agitator. By vigorous agitation the
interfacial area of heterogeneous reaction mixture is maintained as high as possible enhancing
mass transfer of reactants. Cooling coil or jacket are used to control the temperature of highly
exothermic reaction.
Industrial practice has been to operate with excess benzene, this is done to ensure that little
or no nitric acid remains in the spent acid. It is much easier, to remove or recover benzene
from crude nitrobenzene than, to recover nitric acid from spent acid. Beside of this, operating
with excess nitric acid would lead to increase in the formation of impurities or byproducts
(like dinitrobenzene). The spent acid strength in conversion isothermal nitrobenzene plant is
usually kept at about 75% H2SO4 and residual nitric acid level is typically 0.1% HNO3 (by
Weight). The spent acid strength drops much below 68% H2SO4, nitration rates will drop to
an extent that the increase in unreacted nitric acid and its subsequent loss will become an
unacceptable economic penalty.The process of manufacturing nitrobenzene using nitric acid
alone as nitrating agent has been replaced by the one using mixed acid because of following
reactions:
Nitric acid alone is generally poor nitrating agent, since the water produced in reaction
suppresses nitronium ion formation to yield a much less active nitrating agent. Hence the
equilibrium is shifted away from the product to reactant this result in slowness and
incompleteness of nitration reaction.
Nitric acid is further most a good oxidizing agent, its activity becoming more pronounced at
higher temperatures. Part of raw material may thus be converted to value less products which
not only lowers the direct yield, but also makes the purification of nitro compounds
imperative.
Where as in mixed acid process, the sulphuric acid present in mixture acts as dehydrating
agent by isolating the water formed in nitration reaction, thus preventing the suppression of
active nitrating agent and undesirable displacement of equilibrium. Employment of mixed
acid rather than an excess of nitric acid results in certain technical advantages. Since nitric
acid is much more expensive than sulphuric acid, a considerable saving is affected. The
sulphuric acid moreover is recovered from the spent acid with only a slight loss. In addition
of a serving as an economical dehydrating agent, the presence of sulphuric acid makes it easier
10
to keep the reaction under control and milder conditions that are thus provided are
instrumental in inhabiting the formation of oxidation products.
Two different mixed acid processes are used in industry for the manufacture of nitrobenzene.
 Conventional isothermal process.
 Adiabatic process.
Both processes have difference only in nitrating section, whereas adiabatic process integrates
nitration with sulphuric acid concentration. Here the heat of nitration is utilized for the
concentration of sulphuric acid (spent acid). This is achieved by circulating a large volume of
sulphuric acid through nitrators, absorbing heat of nitration without much temperature rise.
The spent sulphuric acid is flash concentrated under vacuum. In the areas of nitrobenzene
purification, effluent treatment and fume control, the both process employ the equivalent
design concept. The conventional isothermal plant usually operates at about 550C. this
temperature is selected so that the Nitrator can be operated at atmospheric pressure without
danger of having benzene flash (Boiling point 80.10C.) at higher temperature nitration would
be much faster in the adiabatic process where final temperature is 105-1450C: but Nitrator
would then have to be pressured. Also control of high temperature and pressure is
comparatively very difficult. Hence most of plants, all over the world, employs conventional
isothermal process.
3. Azeotropic nitration of benzene
Here the reaction is carried out at 120-1600C with excess of water being distilled from a
Nitrator as an azeotrope with benzene. After being separated from product, the sulphuric acid
recycled to the Nitrator without being concentrated an excess of benzene used to facilitate the
removal of excess water as an azeotrope. After azeotrope is condensed, water is separated,
and benzene return to Nitrator. In duplex process the nitration is carried out in an azeotropic
first stage which is followed by a lower temperature, mixed acid second stage. All or part of
the benzene resulting from the azeotrope of first stage is taken to second stage for further
nitration.
Selected process: Continuous, conventional isothermal process.
Reasons:
Always continuous process offers low capital cost and capacity advantages over batch
process.
The continuous isothermal process utilizes lower nitric acid concentration and because of
rapid and efficient mixing in reactors, higher reaction rates are observed. It operates at lower
11
temperature (550C). Hence it need not required pressurized reactor (to avoid benzene vapor
loss). The heat of nitration is removed by cooling and hence excess sulphuric acid (as heat
absorbing medium) is not essential.
2.3 Raw materials

 Nitric acid (HNO3)
 Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
 Benzene (C6H6)
 Caustic soda (NaOH)
2.4 Raw materials cost
 Benzene: 45-60 Rs/kg

 Sulfuric acid: 50 – 55 Rs/kg
 Caustic soda: 15- 20 Rs/kg
 Nitric acid: Not available as it obtained from CNA Plant
2.5 Raw materials availability

Table 2.1 Raw material availability
Raw materials Source

Benzene Reliance Industries
Sulfuric Acid Birla Copper
Caustic Soda GACL, UPL
Nitric Acid Nitric acid plant, GNFC
2.6 Properties of Raw Material
2.6.1 Properties of Benzene*

 Colour: Colorless
 Appearence: Not darker than solution of 0.1N of potassium dichromate and 12cc of
0.1N cobalt sulphate made with distilled water.
 Melting point: 5.530C
* Refer Appendix-I for MSDS of Benzene
12
 Explosive limit: 1.3 to 7%

 Ignition temperature: 5620C
 Boiling point: 80.10C
 Flash point: 110C
2.6.2 Properties of Nitric acid*

 Colour: Colorless to Yellow liquid with acidic odor.
 Composition: 98% HNO3 by weight.
 Boiling point: 830 C
 Melting point: -170C (20%)
 Specific gravity: 1.115 (20%), 1.3667 (60%)
 Vapour density(Air=1): 2 Approx.
 Vapour pressure: 48mm Hg (200C)
 Flash point: Non flammable
2.6.3 Properties of Sulphuric acid**

 Appearance: Colorless (pure) to dark brown oily liquid with acidic odor.
 Composition: 98% by weight H2SO4(Min) Iron as Fe 0.05% by wt. Arsenic
as 0.004 % by wt. (Max). Heavy material as Pb 0.005% (Max).
 Boiling point: 3300C
 Specific gravity: 1.84
2.6.4 Properties of Caustic soda***

 Specification: Rayon grade caustic lye.
 Composition: Total alkali 45% (min) as NaOH, Sodium carbonates
0.2% (Max), sodium chloride 0.1%, sodium sulphate
0.1%, and silica 75 ppm as SiO2, Iron 10 ppm,
Aluminum 2 ppm., Calcium 25 ppm., Magnesium 15 ppm.
 Specific gravity: 2.13
 Melting point: 3180C
 Boiling point: 13880C
 Residue on ignition: 0.05% by wt. (Max.)
* Refer Appendix-I for MSDS of Nitric acid

** Refer Appendix-I for MSDS of Sulphuric acid
*** Refer Appendix-I for MSDS of Caustic Soda
13
2.7 Process Block Diagram
Figure 2.2 Process block diagram[7]
14
2.8 Process Description
Benzene is stored in the storage tank outside battery limits and is then fed to extractor by a
centrifugal pump and then to benzene pump. A small part of benzene is coming from recovery
to the benzene pump tank.98% nitric acid from the two storage tank is fed to the nitration circuit
with help of a dosing pump and then through a control valve to adjust the feed rate.
The sulphuric acid is fed to the nitration circuit from the four storage tank. Most of the acid
comes from sulphuric acid concentration (SAC) unit outside the battery limit. Sulphuric acid
and benzene is mixed in the nitration circuit with the circulating spent acid. Concentrated
caustic soda is stored outside the battery limit but when used, it is 16-17% (by weight)
concentrated.
2.8.1 Nitration and extraction of spent acid

Intensive mixing takes place between benzene and nitric acid in the circuit pump for short
retention time. To get best mixing an orifice is placed after the pump to reduce the 50% pressure
head, the other 50% about 22 m liquid head in the cooler. A circuit cooler is designed to give
some retention time to complete the nitration reaction. In the circuit separator the emulsion of
NB (light phase) is separated from spent acid (SA) with the help of dynamic separator at the
top. The static separator at the bottom removes the SA (containing about 1% NA & 70% by
wt, acid) back to the nitrating unit. Nitric acid (NA) is added close to the pump as possible to
avoid over nitration.
2.8.2 Washing
In W-1 wash water can be acidic condensate from SAC or from last washer W-4. To W-2 alkali
is added to completely neutralize the mineral acids and to remove and nitro-phenols, which are
easily soluble in alkaline solutions. Wash water to W-2 comes from W-3, where as fresh water
is added to W-4. By this counter-current washing two wash waters (“Acidic yellow water from
W-2” & “Alkaline red water from W-3”) are taken out. Mixing & separation is by gravity on
the same shaft. By recirculating a part of wash water, the ratio of organic to water is controlled
to maximum efficiency. The red & yellow water is fed to neutralization vessel. The mixture
neutralization vessel has Ph of about 4, which leads to precipitation of nitro-phenols.
Before sending the wash water to WWT (Waste water treatment) section, NB is added to the
neutralization vessel, to control the level of nitro-phenols. The water & NB is mixed & is
allowed to settle in the separator. The water phase leaves on the top of separator to WWT.
15
Where as the organic phase returns back to neutralization vessel, and a small fraction of it goes
to the incineration.
2.8.3 Recovery of benzene

Feed of benzene is made a little too high (5-10% more) in relation to NA to prevent formation
of di-nitro and control the reaction temperature. At the time of benzene recovery in the valve
tray distillation column at moderate vacuum, water is removed from washed NB which is
dissolved or emulsified form.
The crude NB from the two storage tank is heated by the hot & pure NB product (from bottom
of the distillation column) in the heat exchanger and is send to the middle of the distillation
column. The water and benzene is separated from NB and taken out from top of the tower. This
mixture (water & benzene) is cooled in shell and tube condenser and is separated. Some part
of recovered benzene is taken as reflux and the other part flows to the nitration section. The
vapours from the condenser are cooled by refrigerated water in vent condenser.
The vacuum system consists of two parallel liquid ring pumps with chilled NB as sealing liquid.
The liquid from the vacuum system is send to small buffer tank from which it is returned to
one of the two storage tanks. The vapour leaving the two vacuum pumps is evacuated by a fan.
The pure NB product coming from the reboiler is cooled in the preheater for the feed and in a
product cooler. After the cooler it flows by gravity to the NB buffer tanks.
2.8.4 Storage Crude and pure NB

The crude NB from the washing is stored in two tanks. There is also one NB rework tank. From
the rework tank the NB can be fed back to the acids wash vessel if there have been washing
problems. If benzene or water contents of the NB are too high the NB is fed to the benzene
recovery column.
The pure NB from the recovery system flows to two buffer tanks. From there the NB can be
pumped back to the rework tank or to one of the two NB day tanks.
16
2.9 Process Flow Diagram
Figure 2.3 Process Flow Diagram[7]
2.10 Conclusions
As discussed in this chapter, there are various methods available to produce nitrobenzene. But
as explained in this chapter, every method has its own merits and demerits. We use nitration
method to produce weak nitrobenzene. It is most efficient method among all available methods.
Reaction parameters like pressure and temperature should be maintain at design value for
maximum production as well as safety aspect. Apart from process description and reaction,
PBD and PFD are also very useful to understand any process. PBD consist only major
equipments whereas PFD consist minor equipments like HE, compressor, turbine etc. Now, we
are in the position to carry out complete material and energy balance for identification of size
of equipments and utilities requirement.
17
CHAPTER 3: MATERIAL BALANCE
18
MATERIAL BALANCE
3.1 Introduction
A mass balance, also called a material balance, is an application of conservation of mass to the
analysis of physical systems. Material balances are important first step when designing a new
process or analysing an existing one. Material balances are nothing more than the application
of the law of conservation of mass, which states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
Mathematically the mass balance for a system is given by,
Input + Generation = Output + Accumulation + Consumption.
3.1.1 Capacity of the plant

Actual plant capacity = 32000 MTPA
Basis: 96 MTPD Production of Nitrobenzene
Raw material: Benzene, H2SO4 (concentric), HNO3 (concentric), NaOH.
3.1.2 Chemical Reactions

Main Chemical Reaction
H2SO4
C6H6 + HNO3 C6H5NO2 + H2O + 27 Kcal /mole
Benzene Nitric Acid Nitro Benzene Water Heat
By-product formation
(1) Oxidation and Nitration:
C6H6 + 3HNO3 C6H3(NO2)2OH + HNO2 + 2H2O
Benzene Nitric Acid Dinitrophenol Nitrous Acid Water
(2) Dinitration:
C6H6 + 2HNO3 C6H4(NO2)2 + 2H2O
Benzene Nitric Acid Dinitrobenzene Water
Table 3.1 Raw material and product details
Component name Molecular weight Density (kg/m3)
(kg/kmol)
Benzene 78 850
Nitric Acid 63 1500

Sulfuric Acid 98 1700
Caustic Soda 40 2130
Nitrobenzene 123 1200
19
MATERIAL BALANCE
3.2 Material Balance
3.2.1 Pump Reactor
Figure 3.1 Material Balance across Pump reactor

Capacity of the plant : 64 MTPD of Nitrobenzene
New Capacity of plant : 1.5*64 = 96
Production rate = 96*1000 / 24
= 4000 kg/hr
Assuming that 1% of NB is lost during separation process.
Actual NB production = 101*4000/100
= 4040 kg/hr
Now, HNO3 required for production of NB = 4040*63/123
= 2069.268 kg/hr
But, yield of nitric acid is 99.8%
amount of nitric acid reacted for nitrobenzene
0.998 =
total nitric acid reacted
Total benzene reacted = 2069.268/0.998
= 2073.41 kg/hr
Conversion of Nitric acid = 99.5 %
Total HNO3 reacted
0.995 =
HNO3 feed
HNO3 feed = 2073.81 / 0.995
= 2083.829 kg/hr
Now, benzene require for production of NB
1 mol HNO3 1 mol Benzene
63 kg HNO3 78 kg Benzene
2069.268 kg HNO3 2561.95 kg/hr of benzene
20
MATERIAL BALANCE
We take 20% excess benzene for attaining 99.5% conversion of benzene.

= 1.2 * 2561.95
= 3074.34 kg/hr
Impurities formed = 0.1 % of capacity
= 0.001 * 4040
= 4.04 kg/hr
Impurities = DNP + DNB (negligible)
For this impurity formation,
Required HNO3 = 4.04*3*63/184 = 4.15 kg/hr
Required benzene = 4.04*78/184 = 1.7126 kg/hr
Amount of water produced = 4040*18/123 = 591.219 kg/hr
According to data,
Mixed acid content at inlet of pump, 78% H2SO4 , 18% H2O , 4% HNO3
So, amount of H2SO4 in mixed acid = 2083.829*0.78 / 0.04
= 40634.66 kg/hr
Amount of H2O in mixed acid = 2083.829*0.18/0.04
= 9377.2305 kg/hr
So, total mixed acid = 9377.2305 + 40634.66 + 2083.829
= 52095.71 kg/hr
Benzene Balance
Benzene feed = 3074.34 kg/hr
Benzene reacted = 2561.95 + 1.7126 = 2563.66 kg/hr
So, benzene unreacted = 3074.34 – 2563.66 = 510.67 kg/hr
HNO3 balance
HNO3 feed = 2083.829 kg/hr
HNO3 reacted = 4.15 + 2069.268 = 2073.410 kg/hr
So, HNO3 unreacted = 2083.829 – 2073.410 = 10.419 kg/hr
21
MATERIAL BALANCE
Table 3.2 Material balance across pump reactor
Component Input (kg/hr) Output (kg/hr)

C6H6 3623.04 510.67
HNO3 2083.829 10.419
H2SO4 40634.66 40634.66
H2O 9377.2305 9968.45
NB 0 4040
Impurities 0 4.04
Total 55170.05 55168.27
3.2.2 Separator
Figure 3.2 Material balance across Separator

Consider, overall efficiency of separator = 99.5%
So, C6H6 in organic layer = 510.67*0.995
= 508.11 kg/hr
NB in organic layer = 4040*0.995
= 4019.8 kg/hr
Impurities in organic layer = 4.04*0.995
= 4.0198 kg/hr
H2SO4 in acid layer = 40634.66*0.995
= 40431.48 kg/hr
H2O in acid layer = 9968.45*0.995
= 9918.60 kg/hr
HNO3 in acid layer = 10.419*0.995
22
MATERIAL BALANCE
= 10.37 kg/hr
Table 3.3 Material balance across separator
Component Inlet (kg/hr) Outlet (kg/hr)

Organic layer Acid layer
Benzene 510.67 508.11 2.56
HNO3 10.419 0.049 10.370
NB 4040 4019.8 20.2
H2O 9968.45 49.85 9918.60
H2SO4 40634.66 203.18 40431.48
Impurities 4.04 4.0198 0.0202
4785 50383.2
Total 55168.2 55168.2
3.2.3 Washing Section – I

Washing Section – I (Removes acidic impurities)
Figure 3.3 Material Balance across Washing Section-I
Flowrate of washing water = 2.56 m3/hr

= 2560 kg/hr
So, total water inlet = 2560 + 49.85
= 2609.85 kg/hr
Total acid inlet = 203.18 + 0.049
= 203.229 kg/hr
As per manual data,
0.05 % of impurities removes with H2O
23
MATERIAL BALANCE
= 0.05*4.0198/100
= 0.002 kg/hr
5% of total water goes to washing section – II
So, outlet water = 130.4925 kg/hr
Washed water = 2609.85 – 130.4925
= 2479.35 kg/hr
Solubility of NB in H2O
In 100 kg H2O dissolves 0.257 kg NB,
So, in 2479.35 kg H2O dissolves NB = 0.257*2479.35/100
= 6.37 kg of NB
Remaining NB = 4019.8 – 6.37
= 4013.43 kg/hr
0.05% of NB is entrained with washed water = 0.05*4013.43/100
= 2.0067 kg/hr
So,
NB at outlet = 4011.42 kg/hr
NB as washed product = 8.3767 kg/hr
Solubility of Benzene in H2O:
So, in 2479.35 kg H2O dissolves NB = 0.07*2479.35/100
= 1.735 kg of NB
Remaining benzene = 508.11 – 1.735
= 506.374 kg/hr
0.05% of benzene is entrained with washed water = 0.05*506.374/100
= 0.2531 kg/hr
So, Benzene at outlet = 506.127 kg/hr
Benzene as washed product = 1.983 kg/hr
24
MATERIAL BALANCE
Table 3.4 Material balance across washing section – I

Washer – 2 Washed product
Benzene 508.11 506.127 1.983
HNO3 10.37 0 10.37
NB 4019.8 401.43 6.37
H2O 2609.85 49.85 9918.60
H2SO4 203.18 0 203.18
Impurities 4.0198 4.0178 0.002
4654.06 2701.25
Total 7355.32 7355.31
3.2.4 Washing Section – II

Washing Section – II (Removes impurities of DNP by NaOH)
Figure 3.4 Material Balance across Washing Section-II
Flowrate of NaOH solution (4 w/v%) = 100 lit/hr

NaOH flowrate = 4*2.13/1
= 8.52 kg/hr
H2O flowrate = 96*1/1
= 96 kg/hr
So, total H2O = 96 + 130.4925
= 226.4925 kg/hr
5% of H2O goes to outlet = 0.05*226.4925
= 11.32 kg/hr
Thus, washed water = 226.4925 – 11.32
25
MATERIAL BALANCE
= 215.1675 kg/hr
Solubility of NB in H2O
So, In 215.1675 kg H2O dissolves NB = 0.257*215.1675/100
= 0.5529 kg of NB
Remaining NB = 4013.43 – 0.5529
= 4012.87 kg/hr
0.05% of NB is entrained with washed water = 0.05*4012.87/100 = 2.006 kg/hr
So, NB at outlet = 4010.87 kg/hr
NB as washed product = 2.5593 kg/hr
Solubility of Benzene in H2O
In 100 kg H2O dissolves 0.07 kg benzene
So, In 215.1675 kg H2O dissolves NB = 0.07*215.1675/100
= 0.1506 kg of benzene
Remaining benzene = 506.127 – 0.1506 = 505.97 kg/hr
0.05% of benzene is entrained with washed water = 0.05*505.97/100
= 0.2529 kg/hr
So, Benzene at outlet = 505.72 kg/hr
Benzene as washed product = 0.4035 kg/hr
Table 3.5 Material balance across washing section – II

Distillation Washed product
C6H6 506.127 505.72 0.4035
HNO3 0 0 0
NB 4013.43 4010.87 2.5593
H2O 226.4925 11.32 215.1675
H2SO4 0 0 0
Impurities 4.0178 0 4.0178
4527.91 222.1481
Total 4750.06 4750.06
26
MATERIAL BALANCE
3.2.5 Distillation Column

In distillation column flowrate of feed
Figure 3.4 Material Balance across Distillation Column

C6H6 = 6.4835 kmol/hr,
NB = 32.6086 kmol/hr,
H2O = 0.6288 kmol/hr
Total feed flowrate = 39.7209 kmol/hr
Basis, Fraction of Benzene - Water in Feed
0.6288+6.4835
Xf =
39.7209
= 0.179kmol/hr
Let , XD = 0.995
Xw = 0.005
F=D+W
39.7209 = D + W ------------------1)
Xf F = XD D + Xw W
7.1123 = 0.995 D + 0.005 W ------------------2)
By solving equation 1 and 2, we get
D = 6.9835
W = 32.7373
27
MATERIAL BALANCE
Table 3.6 Material balance across distillation column

Component Inlet (kmol/hr) Outlet(kmol/hr)
Distillate Bottom
NB 32.6086 0.0349 32.5736
H2O + C6H6 7.1123 6.9485 0.1636
6.9835 32.7373
Total 39.7209 39.7209
Table 3.7 Material balance across distillation column

Component Inlet (kg/hr) Outlet(kg/hr)
Distillate Bottom
NB 4010.87 4.2927 4006.55
H2O 11.32 11.0577 0.2623
C6H6 505.72 494.0661 11.6538
509.4165 4018.4661
Total 4527.9 4527.9
28
MATERIAL BALANCE
3.3 Overall Material Balance
Figure 3.5 Overall material balance [24]
3.4 Conclusions
After completing material balance for the said capacity of production of Nitrobenzene, we are
in position to know amount of raw materials required. We also came to know about the size of
vessel needed for commercial production of the product. After completing material balance we
are now in the position to find amount of heat either required to be supplied or removed from
the system. This analysis will help us to determine the capacity of utilities to be installed in the
plant.
29
CHAPTER 4: ENERGY BALANCE
30
ENERGY BALANCE
4.1 Introduction
All chemical processes involve certain chemical reactions at particular conditions of

temperature and pressure to produce a desired product. To achieve these conditions of heating
or cooling a stream and for proper functioning of equipment, various entities such as de-
mineralized water, cooling water, chilling water, high pressure, medium pressure, low pressure
steam, electricity etc. are used. These entities are called UTILITIES. Utilities do not take part
in the process but they only make the conditions favorable for any process.
Energy balance is a calculation done to calculate the load on utilities. It is used to calculate the
amount of utilities required by the system to reach optimum conditions. Thus, the load
calculation for cooling water is used to determine the total cooling water requirements and thus
used to find the capacity of cooling tower, size of fans steam etc. Similarly, the load calculation
for steam is used to determine the capacity of boiler.
Energy balance requires knowledge of thermodynamics. The heat duty on process side and
utility side is matched in order to calculate the load on the utilities. Proper values of heat
capacities, latent heat of vaporization, latent heat of condensations etc at their respective
temperatures are needed to be incorporated in the calculation.
Present chapter comprises energy balance around pump reactor, cooler and distillation column.
Table 4.1 Specific heat capacities of all the components

Compound Cp (KJ/kg K)
Benzene 1.8
HNO3 1.72
H2SO4 (concentretic) 1.38
H2SO4 (dilute) 1.34
H2O 4.184
NaOH (4%) 4.072
Nitrobenzene 1.4
4.2 Energy Balance
4.2.1 Pump Reactor

In this pump nitration of benzene is takes place. We can’t use reactor for any nitration reaction
because reaction is highly exothermic. So, if we do in reaction becomes runaway.
Reference temperature : 00C
31
ENERGY BALANCE
Energy balance over pump reactor :

Heat input = (mCpΔT)acid mixture + (mCpΔT)Benzene + (mCpΔT)H2SO4 + (mCpΔT)H2O +
(mCpΔT)HNO3
= 0.78*40634.77*1.34*(50-0) + 0.18*9377.254*4.184*(50-0) +
0.04*2083.83*1.72*(30-0) + 3074.34*1.8*(30-0)
= 2646998.342 KJ/hr
Energy of product:
Heat output = (mCpΔT)Benzene + (mCpΔT)H2SO4 + (mCpΔT)H2O + (mCpΔT)HNO3 +
(mCpΔT)NB
= 40634.77*1.34*(60-0) + 9968.47*4.184*(60-0) +
10.419*1.72*(60-0) + 512.3902*1.8*(60-0) + 4040*1.4*(60-0)
= 6165293.59 KJ/hr
Heat of reaction at 60 0C = 47303.22 KJ/hr
ΔQ = heat in – heat out – heat of reaction
= 2646998.342 – 6165293.59 – 47303.22
= - 3565598.47 KJ/hr
4.2.2 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

This heat exchanger is use for the purpose of cool down NB mixture after nitration reaction.
Table 4.2 Heat capacity and temperature differences of component
Cp of Water Cp of Process fluid

(KJ/kg K) 4.184 (KJ/kg K) 2
T initial (K) 301 T initial (K) 333
T final (K) 309 T final (K) 323
ΔT1 (K) 8 ΔT2 (K) 10
Q = mCpΔT
3565598.47 = m*4.184*8
m = 106524.81 kg/hr
4.2.3 Distillation Column

This column is used to separate out NB and benzene mixture.
Enthalpy of feed :
Q = ΣmCpΔT
32
ENERGY BALANCE
= 506.72*1.8*(44-0) + 11.32*4.184*(44-0) + 4010.67*1.4*(44-0)

= 289273.46 KJ/hr
Enthalpy of mixture at condenser inlet
Q = ΣmCpΔT
= 4.29*1.4*(50-0) + 4.29*360 + 11.05*4.184*(50-0) + 11.05*2230 + 494.86*1.8*50
+ 494.86*433
= 287609.64 KJ/hr
Enthalpy of mixture at condenser outlet :
Q = ΣmCpΔT
= 4.29*1.4*(25-0) + 11.05*4.184*(25-0) + 494.86*1.8*(25-0)
= 23574.68 KJ/hr
Condenser duty :
Q = mCpΔT
287609.64 – 23574.68 = m*4.184*(37-22)
m = 4207.05 kg/hr
Reflux at top
Flowrate at top = 1.35 m3/hr
So, 1.35 m3/hr benzene+H2O contains 494.86 kg/hr benzene
0.2 m3/hr benzene+H2O contains = 0.2*494.86/1.35
= 73.31 kg/hr benzene
Q = mCpΔT
= 73.31*1.8*(25-0)
= 3299.06 KJ/hr
Enthalpy of mixture at reboiler inlet :
Q = mCpΔT
= 4006.55*1.4*(170-0) + 0.2623*4.184*(170-0) + 11.90*1.92*(170-0)
= 956890.17 KJ/hr
Enthalpy of mixture at reboiler outlet:
Q = mCpΔT
= 4006.55*1.4*(173-0) + 0.2623*4.184*(173-0) + 11.90*1.92*(173-0)
= 974528.9751 KJ/hr
Reboiler duty :
Q = mCpΔT
974528.9751 – 956890.17 = m*2.1*10
33
ENERGY BALANCE
m = 839.94 kg/hr
Bottom reflux
At flow rate of 318.73 m3/hr enthalpy of reboiler outlet is 974528.97 KJ/hr
So, at flow rate of 312.13 m3/hr enthalpy of reboiler duty = 312.13*974528.97/318.73
= 954349.22 KJ/hr
Total energy in = 289273.46 + 954349.22 + 3299.06
= 1244499.8 KJ/hr
Total energy out = 956890.17 + 287609.64
= 1244499.8 KJ/hr
4.3 Conclusions
Heat integration is most important in any industry. Because, utilities are very costly. So, it is
very important to do not waste heat. We have seen energy balance around pump reactor, cooler
and distillation column. This can also help in final estimation cost to find working capital cost
and fixed capital cost.
34
CHAPTER 5: PLANT UTILITIES
35
PLANT UTILITIES
5.1 Introduction
The entities that are used to achieve optimum conditions for a process but not taking part in the
process are called UTILITIES. The basic Utilities required for any process are as follows:
1. Low Pressure Steam (LPS)
2. High Pressure Steam (HPS)
3. Medium Pressure Steam (MPS)
4. DM Water
5. Cooling Water
6. Instrument air and Plant air
7. Electricity
All these have their particular role to achieve the optimum conditions for a process, heating,
cooling, etc. These streams do not take part in the process. The steam generation section or
boiler house produce steam at various pressures. Cooling tower produces cooling water, and
Instrument and plant air are generated at compressor house. D.M. water is the demineralized
water used in plant to avoid scaling in pipes and tubes. Electricity is drawn from Power house
to run the equipment in the industry. Thus, utilities play a major role in the proper functioning
of any industry.
5.2 Boiler section
There is a steam generation plant from where generated steam used in the plant. Company has
three boilers. Boilers were supplied and commissioned by M/S Foster Wheeler Power
Products. UK Ltd. and TGs were made of M/S. BHEL Ltd.
Each boiler is designed to generate steam at the rate of 275 T/hr. at a pressure of 105 Kg/cm 2
abs and at a temperature of 510ºC at the outlet of the Boiler. All the three boilers are connected
to a single common-header to supply high-pressure steam of different consuming points.
Normally, two boilers are kept in service, which are sufficient enough to meet the steam
requirement of the complex and the third boiler is kept as stand by which will be either under
wet preservation of under maintenance, inspection etc. The normal steam generation of each
boiler is about 220 T/hr.
Boilers are of monowall, radiant, single drum, front fired, water wall type and were initially
designed to fire natural Gas and Coal in 8 burners arranged in a 4 tiers. From the very beginning
itself coal firing was not used as decided by Government of India. A Natural Gas was
36
PLANT UTILITIES
sufficiently available. Later on due to restriction of NG to 3.0 MSM3 by M/S. GAIL, the fuel
firing system of boilers has been modified so as to fire NG as well as Natural Gas Liquid
(NGL) with the help of M/S. Thermax Babcock and Wilcox Ltd. Steam is the vaporized form
of water. This vapor is commonly visible as a cloud escaping from the spout of teakettle in
which water in the teakettle produces 1600 times more volume in steam form.
These properties of steam, its ability to carry a large amount of heat and the large quantity of
steam which can be made from a small amount of water, make steam an ideal substance for
transferring heat conveniently and economically to every corner of the plant. Another property
of steam is the way its volume varies with change in temperature and pressure of the same.
We take advantage of these properties by generating steam at high pressure to operate steam
turbines, drive generator, compressor and pumps. The low-pressure exhaust steam from the
turbines is then used for process requirements.
Steam itself will not burn nor will it support combustion and this property of steam is utilized
to purge or remove oil or gas or to extinguish a small fire.
The intent of the ensuing discussions is to present the fundamentals and precautions
encountered in steam generation. The fundamentals presented touch the basics of heat transfer
and their respective contribution to steam generation, furnace Details, material selection, fuels
etc. the precautions mentioned pertain to feed water treatment in areas of oxygen removal,
alkalinity and scale formation.
Figure 5.1 Steam generation plant [24]
37
PLANT UTILITIES
5.3 DM Plant
The suspended and biological impurities are already removed in Pre-treatment plant. The
dissolved impurities must be removed completely before its used as Boiler feed. The process
used for removal of dissolved impurities is known as demineralization. The process is Ion
Exchange process.
Process
Strongly Acidic Cation Unit
When water with some dissolved salts is passed through a resin bed, which is charged with H+
ions (RH), the ionised cations Ca++, Mg++, Na+, etc. come in contact with the resin, replace the
H+ ions moved out of resin matrix, neutralize the charged negative ions SO4-, Cl-, CO3-, etc.
and combined with them to form corresponding acids like H2SO4, HCl, H2CO3, etc.. The
process of ion exchange can be represented as:-
2RH + CaSO4 = R2Ca + H2SO4
RH + NaCl = RNa + HCl
2RH + CaCO3 = R2Ca + H2CO3
The cation exchanger resin is regenerated with 4% HCl. The process of Regeneration can be
represented as:-
R2Ca+ 2HCl = 2RH + CaCl2
RNa + HCl = RH + NaCl
Degasser Tower
The outlets of cation exchangers having H2SO4, HCl, H2CO3 etc.. Out of these acids H2CO3
can be easily removed by mechanical method in acidic media. Here atmospheric air is used for
stripping the water & remove the CO2 from broken H2CO3 with it.
H2CO3 = H2O + CO2
Weak Base Anion Unit

The degassed water is passed through the bed of WBA unit, the negative ions like SO4 or CO3
(strong anions) displace of OH- ions from the resin matrix (ROH) & get themselves fixed in
matrix place. The process of ion exchange can be represented as:-
ROH + HCl = RCl + H2O

2ROH + H2SO4 = R2SO4 + H2O
2ROH + H2CO3 = R2CO3 + 2H2O
38
PLANT UTILITIES
Strong Base Anion Unit

The water from WBA outlet enters the Strong Base Anion Unit where the Resin absorbs the
residual anions, silica and carbon dioxide present in the water.
2 ROH + H2SiO3 = R2SiO3 + 2H2O (DM Water)
The Weak Base Anion exchanger & Strong Base Anion Unit resin is regenerated with 4%
NaOH. The process of Regeneration can be represented as:-
RCl + NaOH = ROH + NaCl

R2SO4 + 2NaOH = 2ROH + Na2SO4
R2CO3 + 2NaOH = 2ROH + Na2CO3
R2SiO3 + 2NaOH = 2ROH + Na2SiO3
Figure 5.3 DM Plant[7]
5.4 Conclusions
It has been concluded that for attaining the desired condition in process utilities are used. As
many chemical processes do not take place at ambient conditions so in order to reach required
conditions different utilities are used. After identifying all the utilities requirement necessary
major and minor equipment is discuss in next chapter.
39
CHAPTER 6: DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPMENTS
40
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENTS
6.1 Introduction
From chapter 3, material balance, we came to know the total number of unit operations and
unit processes required for the production of nitrobenzene of the said capacity. Based on the
capacity selected the following section will discuss on the capacity of all the equipments used
along with MOC used for the fabrication of same.
6.2 Details of equipments
1. Nitration Pump
Tag number: P 405
MOC: Haste alloy which consists of 20% chromium and 27-30% Nickel
Operating conditions:
Discharge pressure: 11 bar
Suction pressure: 1 bar
Diff pressure: 10 bar
Temp.: 700C
2. Static Seperator
Tag number: S 407
MOC: Shell: SS316 (in India)
3. Dynamic Seperator
Tag number: S 408
MOC: Shell: SS 316
4. Lamella
Tag number: S 412
MOC: SS 316
5. Coalescer
Tag number : SS 316
MOC : SS 316
NOTE: Operating conditions are measured as whole for all 4 separators, not as for single.
Operating conditions: Organic phase: 400C & Acidic phase: 380C
6. Washers
There are 4 washers arranged in series.
41
 1st Washer
Tag number: S 501
MOC: Hast alloy 273
Operating conditions: Temp.: 400C
 2nd Washer
Tag number: S 502
MOC: SS 316
 3rd Washer
Tag number: S 503
MOC: SS 316
Operating conditions: Temp.:370C
 4th Washer
Tag number: S 504
MOC: SS 316
7. Distillation column
Tag number: C 801
MOC: CSGL i.e. Shell is made up of Carbon steel with glass lining.
Number of plates: 11
Type of plates: Valve trays
MOC of trays: SS 316
Operating conditions: Under Vacuum
8. Bottom circulation pump

Tag number: P 801
MOC:
Casing: Silicon Iron
Inner side: Refractory mainly silica
Outer side: MS
Operating conditions: Under vacuum
Temp: 1730C
42
9. Nox coloumn
Tag number: C 802
MOC: SS 316
Operating conditions: Temp.: 36-370C & Pressure: 3.5 bar
10. Crude NB tank

2 tanks are used to store NB where in one tank NB is stored for definite time to cool
down temperature.
Tag number: T 608, T 610
MOC: SS
11. Tank for distillate

NB 2 tanks are used.
MOC: CS
12. Effluent tank

The waste discharged from S 502 is stored in this tank. Discharged product are alkaline
impurities.
Tag number: T 9426
MOC: SS
13. Spent acid tank

Tag number: T 409
MOC: SS
14. CNA tank

2 tanks are used.
MOC: Aluminum
15. Benzene tank

Benzene is directly obtained from Tank farm.
MOC: SS
NOTE: All the tanks are operated at atmospheric pressure.
43
6.3 Conclusions
Numerous equipments are involved in construction of any chemical plant. After selection of
any process, it is inevitable to decide the equipment necessary to accomplish the process.
Suitable MOC is decided based on the fluid to be handled, considering their behavior in nature,
properties, corrosion, fouling and reactivity with the material of equipment. The MOC should
be selected on the basis of its ability to withstand such conditions and work efficiently without
obtaining damage. By concluding this chapter, we are in position to design equipment.
44
CHAPTER 7: DESIGNING OF EQUIPMENTS
45
DESIGNING OF EQUIPMENTS
7.1 Introduction
In this chapter, Process design of Storage tank, Centrifugal pump, Heat exchanger is described
as minor equipment design and process as well as mechanical design of Distillation column
are described as major equipment design.
7.2 Storage Tank
In chemical industries liquid, gases and solids are stored during intervals between raw materials
supplied and production, between production and transportations for selling the product. In
industries tanks for a particular fluid are chosen according to the flash point of the substance.
These tanks are used for holding a liquid at atmospheric pressure.
According to the production of NB per hour in Chapter 3, the storage design is done on one
month capacity.
Storage Tank for Nitrobenzene:
 MOC : SS 304
 Maximum Allowable Stress f : 702.72 kg/cm2
 ƍMOC: 8000 kg/m3
 ƍNB: 1200 kg/m3
 Superimposed Load : 125 kg/m2
Capacity of storage tank = 96 MTPD
= 96 * 30 * (1/1200)
= 2400 m3/month
We have to take 15% extra volume.
∴ Total volume = 1.15*2400 = 2760 m3
Surface area is to be minimized,
f(r,h) = 2𝜋rh + 2𝜋𝑟2 [Close Tank]
(We have to do conical head design or self supported roof)
Constraint : g(r,h) = 0
g(r,h) = V- 𝜋𝑟2h
P(r,h,λ) = 2𝜋rh + 2𝜋𝑟2 + λ(V- 𝜋𝑟2h)
𝜕𝑝
=0
𝜕𝑟
2𝜋h + 4𝜋𝑟 + λ(-2𝜋𝑟h) = 0 ………..1
46
𝜕𝑝
=0
𝜕ℎ
2𝜋r + λ(-𝜋𝑟2) = 0 …………2
𝜕𝑝
=0
𝜕𝜆
(V – 𝜋r2h)*(1) = 0
V = 𝜋𝑟2h
From equation 1
h + 2r = λ(rh)
𝜆 = 1⁄𝑟 + 2⁄ℎ ……….. A
From equation 2
2𝜋𝑟 = λ𝜋𝑟2
λ = 2/𝑟 …………..B
From equation A and B,
2/r = 1/r + 2/h
1/r = 1/h
r = ℎ /2
V = 𝜋𝑟2h
V = 2𝜋𝑟3
2760 = V =2𝜋𝑟3
r = 7.6 m & d = 15.2 m = 16 m
h = 16 m
Diameter of the tank = 16 m
Height of tank = 16 m
Young modulus for CS = 1.9*1011 kg/cm2
J = 0.85
Corrosion Allowance = 2 mm
Plate Size = 6.3m * 1.8 m
𝜋𝐷−(𝑁∗2∗0.001)
N=
6.3
𝜋(16)−(𝑁∗2∗0.001)
N=
6.3
So, N =7.98 = 8 plates/course
𝐻−(𝑋∗2∗0.001)
X=
𝑊
47
16−(𝑋∗2∗0.001)
X=
1.8
X = 8.879 = 9 plates/course
Total plates required = 9*8 = 72 plates
“Class A” tank
P = 𝜌(H – 0.3)*100 + P’
= 1200*10-6 * (16-0.3)*100 +0.0125
= 1.8965 kg/cm2
t = Pd/2fJ + c
= (1.8965*16*103)/(2*702.72*0.85) + 2
= 27.4 mm
td = 28 mm
For course of 1.8 m, 28 mm thickness
Table 7.1 Storage Vessel Thickness
H (m) P (kgf/cm2) t (mm) H’ (m)
16 1.8965 28 16 – 1.8 = 14.2
14.2 1.6805 25 14.2 – 1.8 = 12.4
12.4 1.4645 22 12.4 – 1.8 = 10.6
10.6 1.2485 20 10.6 – 1.8= 8.8
8.8 1.0325 16 8.8 – 1.8= 7
7 0.8165 14 7 – 1.8 = 5.2
5.2 0.5880 10 5.2 – 1.8 = 3.4
3.4 0.3845 8 3.4 – 1.8 = 1.6
1.6 0.2621 5 1.6 – 1.8 = -0.2
Bottom Design
Diameter of bottom,
2∗65
Db = di + 2t + 1000
2∗65
= 16 + 2(28*10-3) + 1000
= 16.18 m
48
Di = 16 m
tb = 8 mm
Roof Design
tanθ = 1/5
θ = tan-1(1/5)
θ = 11.31°
P = Pressure based on class of vessel + Superimposed Load
= 624 + 125
= 750 kgf/cm2
Thickness of roof
𝑑𝑖
tr = √𝑝/0.204𝐸 + 1.5
sin 𝜃
16000 187.4
= √ + 1.5
sin 11.31 0.204∗2∗1930000∗10000
= 17.79 mm > 12 mm
= 18 mm
Rafter spacing in cylinder
𝑙
X = 𝑛/𝑁
6.1717
= 50/5
= 0.61717 m = 2.0248’ < 5.5’

Recommend by API standard.
Minimum number of rafters required between pentagon and central column
𝑁𝐿
n'min =
𝑙
5∗6.1717
=
2.128
= 14.50 < 15
It should be multiple of 5.
n’ = 15
l’ = 3.14*16/50 =1.0048
Rafter selection
Total load of rafter per unit
𝑋+𝑙′
W = P’
2
49
= 174.53’* 0.61717+1.0048
2
= 141.541 kgf/m
Maximum permissible thickness of self - supported roof is 12mm.
Hence, self-supported roof can not be used.
Conical roof thickness
Conical roof thickness = 3/16” + c
= 4.7625 + 1.5
= 6.35mm (1/4”)
Slope of conical roof = (3/48)
Pressure created by dead load and live load,
P’ = tr 𝜌 g + 125
= 6.35*10-3*8000 + 125
= 175.8 kg/cm2
Size of top angle (periphery ring)
= 75*75*10 or 3”*3”*3/8”
Maximum rafter spacing on periphery ring
l = t √2𝑓/𝑝
2∗702.72∗10000
= 6.35*10-3 √ 175.8
= 1.795 m
Maximum rafter spacing on periphery ring recommended by API standard = 2𝜋” = 1.915m
Maximum rafter spacing on periphery l = 1.915 m
Minimum number of rafter required
𝜋𝐷
Nmin =
𝑙
𝜋∗16
=
1.915
= 26.234”
If we use one pentagon in between periphery ring and central column then,
n = actual number of rafter in between periphery ring and pentagon = 50
l’ = actual spacing between rafters = 3.14*(16/50) = 1.0048 m
R = radius of circle circumscribing pentagon = 16/4 = 4m
Length of girder
L = 2R sin (360/2*5)
50
= 2*4*sin (360/10)
= 4.702 m
Mmax = Wlr2 / 8
= 141.541*4.76392 / 8
Where, lr = D/4 (2 – cos (360/2N))
= (16/4) (2-cos36)
= 4.7639 m
Mmax = 401.53 kgf m
Modulus of selection
Zreq = Mmax/f
= 401.529*100/702.72 = 57.13 cm3
= 3.486 in3
Channel size C3 – 10”*21/8”
Z11 = 15.7 in3 = 257.276 cm3
Weight per foot = 20 lb
Weight per m = 29.82 kg/m
Total load of rafter W = 29.82 + 141.541 = 171.361 kg/m
Mmax = Wlr2 / 8
= 171.361*4.76392 / 8 = 486.124 kgf m
Zreq = Mmax/f
= 486.124*100/702.72 = 69.177 cm3
Zreq < Z11
Hence, selected member can used as rafter.
Girder selection
Total weight of girder per unit length
WG = nRWlr/2l
nR = (n + n’)/N
= (50+15)/5 = 13
WG = 13*171.361*4.7339 / 2*4.702 = 1128.5 kgf/m
Bending moment induced in girder,
Mmax = Wlr2 / 8
= 1128.5*4.7022 / 8 = 3118.723 kgf m
Zreg = 3118.723*100/702.72 = 443.8 cm3
51
1 beam 20” IB2; 20”*7”

Z11 = 150.2 in3
Z22 < Z11
Weight per foot = 85 lb/foot
= 126.76 kg/m
Actual weight of girder per unit length
WG = 126.76+1128.5 = 1255.26 kgf/m
Mmax = Wlr2 / 8
= 1255.26*4.7022 / 8 = 3469 kgf m
Zreq = 3469*100 / 702.72 = 493.65 cm3 = 42.44 in3 < 150.2 in3
Column size
Length of column supporting pentagon = H + (D/4) tan 𝜃
Lc = 16 + (16/4) (3/48) = 16.25 m
Lc/r ≤ 180
Minimum value of radius of gyration = Lc / 180
= 16.25 / 180
= 0.09027 m
Vertical channel size : 12”
Horizontal channel size : 15”
a = 15.93 in2 = 0.01027 m2
weight per m = 54.6 lb/ft = 81.4245 kg/m
compressive stress induced in column = f = Wc/a
Wc = weight of one girder + weight of column
= WGL + weight of column* Lc
= 1255.26*4.702 + 16.25*81.4245
= 7225.38 kgf
f = Wc/a = 7225.38*10-4 / 0.0102773 = 70.304 kgf/cm2
Maximum allowable compressive stress
18000
f= 𝐿𝑐∗𝐿𝑐
1+( )
18000𝑟′ ∗𝑟′
rxx = 4.4”
ryy = 4.46”
So, rxx is small.It can be taken as r’.
52
18000
f= 16.25∗16.25 = 8277.67 psi
1+( )
18000∗0.11176∗0.11176
fmax = 579.4 kgf/cm2

Induced stress f < fmax
Selected member can be used as column for pentagon. Total 5 column are required for
pentagon.
Table 7.2 Summary table of Storage Vessel
Capacity (m3) 2760
Height (m) 16
Diameter (m) 16
Bottom plate diameter (m) 16.186
Bottom plate thickness (mm) 8
Thickness of roof (mm) 18
Type of roof Column supported conical roof
7.3 Heat Exchanger
In circulation system, Heat exchanger is used to cool down the crude nitrobenzene which
comes from the nitration pump. Here it is selected for the designing section.
t1=60°c
T1=36°c t2=46°c
T2=28°c
Figure 7.1 Diagram Of Heat Exchanger.
T1=Cold Outlet , T2=Cold Inlet;

t1=Hot Inlet , t2=Hot Outlet.
Tube Side Fluid : Crude Nitrobenzene

Shell Side Fluid : Water
53
Table 7.3 Physical Properties of crude nitrobenzene and water

Units Hot Side (Crude NB) Cold Side (Water)
Inlet Temperature °C 60 28
Outlet Temperature °C 46 36
Density Kg/m3 - 1000
Flow Rate Kg/hr 55170.05 42920.29
Specific Heat KJ/Kg°C 1.86 4.184
Change Temperature °C 14 8
Viscosity mNS/m2 2.8 0.7644
Thermal W/m°C 0.438 0.617
Conductivity
Calculations:
Heat Load:
Q = mCpΔT
= 55170.05 * 1.86 * (60-46)
= 1436628.102 KJ/hr
Q = 399063.36 Kw
Water Mass Flow Required:
Q = mCpΔT
m = 1436628.102/4.184*8
m = 42920.29 Kg/hr
LMTD:
ΔT = 24-18/ln(24/18)
= 20.85°C
LMTD Correction Factor For 1 Shell & 1 Tube Passes:
So, Correction Factor, Ft = 1
Actual LMTD:
ΔTm = 1*20.85
= 20.85°C
Heat Transfer Area:
Assume Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U = 1000 W/m2°C
(Since U for Organic + Water system is b/w 1000-500 W/m2oC)
54
Tube side Calculations:

Q = UAΔT
A = Q/UΔT
= 399063.36/1000*20.85
A = 19.13 m2
So, Tube Length and Diameter:
Do = 25.4 mm
L = 5.995 m = 5995 mm
Thickness = 2.11 mm
No. Of Tubes:
Area Of One Tube:
= 3.14*Do*L
= 3.14*25.4*5995*10-6
= 0.478 m2
No. Of Tubes:
= Provisional Area/Area of One Tube
= 19.13/0.478
= 40.02
Nt = 42 Tube
For Triangular Pitch 1-1 Pass, K = 0.319 , n = 2.142
Bundle Diameter:
Db = d(Nt/K)1/n
Db = 25.4(42/0.319)1/2.142
Db = 247.91 mm = 0.24791 m
Diameter Of Shell:
Ds = Db + Clearance
= 247.91+15
Ds = 262.91 mm
Tube Side Heat Transfer Coefficient:

Mean Temp. = (28+36)/2 = 32°C
Tube Cross Section Area = (3.14*Do2)/4 = 506.70 mm2
Total Flow Area,
At = Tubes Per Passes * Cross Sectional Area = 0.0212 m2
55
Water Mass Velocity (Gt) = mw/At= 42920.29/0.0212*3600 = 562.37 Kg/m2sec

Co-Efficient for water
NRe of water = Gt*Do/µ@32oC
= 562.37*25.4*10-3/0.7644*10-3
= 18686.90
Prandlt No. = Cp µ/K
= 4.184*0.7644*10-3/0.617*10-3
= 5.1835
For Turbulent Flow Condition,
ℎ×𝑑
Nu = = 0.023× (𝑁𝑟𝑒)0.8 × (𝑃𝑟)0.4
𝑘
h = 0.023*(18686.9)0.8*(5.18)0.4*0.617/25.4*10-3
ht = 2820.07 W/m2°C
Shell Side Calculations

Baffle Spacing = Bs = 0.3*Ds = 0.3*262.91 = 78.87 mm
Tube Pitch = 1.25*Do = 1.25*25.4 = 31.75 mm
Cross Flow Area,
A = {(Dp – Do)/Dp}*Ds*Bs
= {(31.75 – 25.4)/31.75}*262.91*78.87*10-6
= 4.14*10-3 m2
Crude NB Mass Velocity (Gs) = m/As = 55170.05/3600*4.14*10-3
= 3695.31 Kg/ m2.sec
Equivalent Diameter,
𝐷𝑝2 ×√3/16 –(𝜋⁄8)×𝐷𝑜2
De = 8 ∗ ( )
𝜋𝐷𝑜
De = 18.36 mm
Mean Temp. = (60+36)/2 = 53°C
NRe = (Gs*de)/µ
= (3695.31*18.36*10-3)/7.93*10-3
= 8555.59
= 1.86*7.93*10-3/0.438*10-3
= 33.76
56
Shell Side Heat Transfer Coefficient

ℎ×𝑑
Nu = = 0.023× (𝑁𝑟𝑒)0.8 × (𝑃𝑟)0.4
𝑘
h = 0.023*(8555.59)0.8*(33.76)0.3*0.438/25.4*10-3
= 1594.73 W/m2K
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
(1/U) = {(1/ho) + RDo + Ao/Ai(Do-Di)/2*Kw + Ao/Ai(1/hi) + Ao*RDi/Ai}
RDo = Fouling co efficient of shell side fluid= 1/5000 W/m2°C
RDi = Fouling co efficient of tube side fluid = 1/4200 W/m2°C
1/U = {(1/1594.74) + (1/5000) + 5.06/4.25(2.11*10-3/28.8) + 5.06/4.25*(1/2820.07) +
5.06/4.25*4200}
Uo = 617.30 W/m2°C
% Error = [(Ua - Uc)/ Ua ]*100 %

= [(227.35 - 217.01)/ 217.01]*100
= 38.27 %
Now Again,
Assume Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U = 617.30 W/m2°C
(Since U for Organic + Water system is b/w 1000-500 W/m2oC)
Tube side Calculations:
Q = UAΔT
A = Q/UΔT
= 399063.36/1000*20.85
A = 30.99 m2
So, Tube Length and Diameter
Do = 25.4 mm
L = 5.995 m = 5995 mm
Thickness = 2.11 mm
No. Of Tubes:
Area Of One Tube:
= 3.14*Do*L
= 3.14*25.4*5995*10-6
= 0.478 m2
No. Of Tubes:
= Provisional Area/Area of One Tube
57
= 30.99/0.478
= 64.83
Nt = 66 Tube
For Triangular Pitch 1-1 Pass, K = 0.319 , n = 2.142
Bundle Diameter
Db = d(Nt/K)1/n
Db = 25.4(66/0.319)1/2.142
Db = 306.16 mm = 0.30616 m
Diameter Of Shell
Ds = Db + Clearance
= 306.16+15
Ds = 321.16 mm
Tube Side Heat Transfer Coefficient
Mean Temp. = (28+36)/2 = 32°C
Tube Cross Section Area = (3.14*Do2)/4 = 506.70 mm2
Total Flow Area,
At = Tubes Per Passes * Cross Sectional Area = 0.033 m2
Water Mass Velocity (Gt) = mw/At= 42920.29/0.033*3600 = 361.28 kg/m2sec
Co-Efficient for water
NRe of water = Gt*Do/µ @32oC
= 361.28*25.4*10-3/0.7644*10-3
= 12004.8
NPr = Cp µ/K
= 4.184*0.7644*10-3/0.617*10-3
= 5.1835
For Turbulent Flow Condition,
ℎ×𝑑
Nu = = 0.023× (𝑁𝑟𝑒)0.8 × (𝑃𝑟)0.4
𝑘
h = 0.023*(12004.8)0.8*(5.18)0.4*0.617/25.4*10-3
ht = 1978.77 W/m2°C
Shell Side Calculations

Baffle Spacing = Bs = 0.3*Ds = 0.3*321.16 = 96.35 mm
Tube Pitch = 1.25*Do = 1.25*25.4 = 31.75 mm
58
Cross Flow Area,

A = {(Dp – Do)/Dp}*Ds*Bs
= {(31.75 – 25.4)/31.75}*262.91*96.35*10-6
= 5.066*10-3 m2
Crude NB Mass Velocity (Gs) = m/As = 55170.05/3600*5.066*10-3
= 3025.07 Kg/ m2.sec
Equivalent Diameter,
𝐷𝑝2 ×√3/16 –(𝜋⁄8)×𝐷𝑜2
De = 8 ∗ ( )
𝜋𝐷𝑜
De = 18.36 mm
Mean Temp. = (60+36)/2 = 53°C
NRe = (Gs*de)/µ
= (3025.07*18.36*10-3)/7.93*10-3
= 7003.82
= 1.86*7.93*10-3/0.438*10-3
= 33.76
Shell Side Heat Transfer Coefficient
ℎ×𝑑
Nu = = 0.023× (𝑁𝑟𝑒)0.8 × (𝑃𝑟)0.4
𝑘
h = 0.023*(7002.82)0.8*(33.76)0.3*0.438/25.4*10-3
= 1358.80 W/m2K
Overall Heat Transfer Co Efficient
(1/U) = {(1/ho) + RDo + Ao/Ai(Do-Di)/2*Kw + Ao/Ai(1/hi) + Ao*RDi/Ai}
RDo = Fouling co efficient of shell side fluid= 1/5000 W/m2°C
RDi = Fouling co efficient of tube side fluid = 1/4200 W/m2°C
1/U={(1/1358.80) + (1/5000) + 5.06/4.25(2.11*10-3/28.8) + 5.06/4.25*(1/1978.77) +
5.06/4.25*4200}
Uo = 524.3 W/m2°C
% Error = [(Ua - Uc)/ Ua ]*100 %
= [(617.3 – 524.3)/ 617.3]*100

= 15.06 %
Pressure Drop
Tube Side,
59
𝑙 𝜇 −0.25 𝐺2
∆𝑃 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑓 ( ) ( ) + 2.5] ×
𝑑 𝜇𝑤 2𝜌
= 3.568 kPa
Shell Side,
4𝑓𝑑(𝑁𝐵 +1)𝐺 2
∆𝑃 = 2𝜌𝑔𝑑∅𝑠
= 2.658 kPa
Table 7.4 Summary Table of Condenser Design
No. of Tubes Require 66 Tubes

Tube Outside Diameter 0.02751 m
Tube Length 5.995 m
Shell Diameter 0.32116 m
Type of Heat Exchanger 1-1 STHE
Shell Side H.T.C. 1358.8 W/m² K
Tube Side H.T.C. 1978.77 W/m² K
7.4 Centrifugal Pump
Liquid handled: Benzene

Temperature: 30 ℃
Capacity: 4.1 m3/hr
Suction Pressure: 1.033 kgf/cm2
Discharge Pressure: 4 kgf/cm2
Viscosity: 0.562*10-3 kg/ms
Specific gravity of fluid: 0.876
Efficiency: 60%
Length of pipe: Inlet = 2 m
Outlet = 9 m
Diameter of pipe: Inlet = 3 inch
Outlet = 1.5 inch
MOC: Carbon Steel
Calculation
Inlet calculation:
Area = π*d2/4
60
= π*(0.0762)2/4
= 4.56*10-3 m2
Velocity = Capacity/Area
= 5/(3600*4.56*10-3)
= 0.249 m/s
Reynolds No. Nre = ρ*v*D/µ
= (876*0.249*0.0762)/(0.562*10-3)
= 29574.81
Friction loss, Fs = 0.085*Nre-0.25
= 6.48*10-3
Head losses = 4*fs*l*v2/d*g
= ( 4*6.48*10-3*2*0.2492)/(0.0381*9.81)
= 8.59*10-3 m
Outlet calculation
Area = π*d2/4
= π*(0.0381)2/4
= 1.140*10-3 m2
Velocity = Capacity/Area
= 4.1/(3600*1.140*10-3)
= 0.999 m/s
Reynolds No. Nre = ρ*v*D/µ
= (876*0.999*0.0381)/(0.562*10-3)
= 59329.30
Friction loss Fs = 0.085*Nre-0.25
= 5.44*10-3
Head losses = 4*fs*l*v2/d*g
= ( 4*5.44*10-3*9*0.9992)/(0.0381*9.81)
= 0.52 m
Head = Head loss + Pressure drop + diff. of head + Velocity component
𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑣2∗𝑣2
= 0.528+ (𝜌𝑔 - 𝜌𝑔) +(z2 -0) + 2𝑔
(4−1.033)∗98066.5 0.999∗0.999
= 0.528 + +1+
876∗9.81 2∗9.81
= 35.43 m
Power required,
61
Hydraulic Power, Ph = Head*ρ*capacity*g
= 35.43*876*4.1*9.81/3600
= 346.82 Watts
𝑃ℎ
Shaft Power, Ps =
Ƞ
= 578.04 Watts = 0.7748 hp

NPSH:
Vapour Pressure = 212.99 mmHg = 28396.33 N/m2
NPSH = Suction Head – Pressure Head
𝑃𝑠 V∗V 𝑃𝑣
=( + )–( )
𝜌∗𝑔 2∗𝑔 𝜌∗𝑔
1.033∗98066.5 0.249∗0.249 28396.33

=( + )–( )
876∗9.81 2∗9.81 876∗9.81
= 8.46 m
Table 7.5 Data require in designing pump
Suction Discharge
Pressure (Kgf/cm2) 1.033 4

3
Density (Kg/m ) 876 876
Viscosity (Pa s) 0.547*10-3 0.653*10-3
Length of pipe (m) 2 9
Diameter of pipe D(inch) 3 1.5
Velocity [Capacity/Area] (m/s) 0.249 0.999
Friction factor** 6.48*10-3 5.44*10-3
7.5 Distillation Column

7.5.1 Process Design
Table 7.6 Feed Composition
Feed component Feed component Top product Mass Bottom product

Mass % % Mass %
Nitrobenzene 88.58 0.8426 99.703

H2O 0.25 2.1706 0.00652
Benzene 11.168 96.9676 0.29
Vapor pressure of C6H6 and H2O
62
ln P = c1 + c2/T + c3 lnT + c4 Tc5

(Where P in Pascal and T in kelvin)
Table 7.7 Cp Constants for benzene and water
C6H6 H2 O
C1 83.107 73.649
C2 -6486.2 -7258.2
C3 -9.2194 -7.3037
C4 6.984*10-6 4.1653*10-6
C5 2 2
Tmin 278.68 273.16
Pmin 4.76*103 611
Tmax 562.05 647.096
Tmin 4.875*106 2.193*107
(Reference : Perry Table 2.8)
Vapor pressure of C6H5NO2
Antoine’s equation,
ln P = A – B/(T+C) (where P in mmHg and T in Celsius)
Table 7.8 Cp Constants for nitrobenzene
Parameters C6H5NO2
A 7.53814
B 2018.37
C 222.575
Tmin 5.76
Tmax 445.85
Using above equation at T = 44 0C

So, Vapor pressure of C6H6 = 212.99 mmHg
Vapor pressure of H2O = 67.828 mmHg
Vapor pressure of C6H5NO2 = 0.926 mmHg
Relative volatility,
Vapor pressure of light key
α =
Vapor pressure of heavy key
αB-NB = 212.99/0.926 = 230.010
63
αW-NB = 67.828/0.926 = 73.248

αNB-NB = 0.926/0.926 = 1
3
αavg = √αB − NB ∗ αW − NB ∗ αNB − NB
αavg = 25.6358 ≈ 26
To calculate minimum number of stages,
Frenske equation,
𝐷𝑥𝑑 𝐵𝑥𝑏
ln[ ∗ ]
𝐷𝑥𝑑′ 𝐵𝑥𝑏′
Nmin =
ln 𝛼𝑎𝑣𝑔
Here, xD = 96.9676 %
xB = 0.29%
xD’ = 0.8426%
xB’ = 99.703%
𝑥𝑑 𝑥𝑏′
ln[( )𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑘𝑒𝑦∗( )ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦𝑘𝑒𝑦]
𝑥𝑏 𝑥𝑑′
Nmin =
ln 𝛼𝑎𝑣𝑔
96.9676 99.703
ln[( )∗( )]
0.29 0.8426
Nmin =
ln 25.6358
= 3.26 ≈ 3
To calculate minimum reflux,
Underwood equation*,
𝛼𝑖 𝑥𝑓𝑖
1-q = ∑ [ ] -----------1)
i 𝛼𝑖− 𝜃
Subcooled liquid, q > 1

𝑚𝑐𝑝∆𝑇 + 𝑚𝜆
q=
𝑚𝜆
= 1 + ∆𝑇/𝜆
1.4∗(210.9−44)+273 4.184∗(100−44)+273
= 0.8858 * [ + 1] + 0.0025 * [ + 1] +
360 2230
1.8∗(80.1−44)+273
0.11168 * [ + 1]
433
= 2.66
1-q = 1-2.66 = -1.66 -------------2)
*Refer Appendix-II.
64
𝛼 Xfi 𝛼𝑖 𝑥𝑓𝑖
∑i[ ] , Assume 𝜃 = 1.5
𝛼𝑖− 𝜃
Benzene 230.01 0.11168 0.1124
Water 73.248 0.0025 0.002552
Nitrobenzene 1 0.8858 -1.7716
-1.66
So, by try and error method L.H.S. = R.H.S.

𝛼𝑖 𝑥𝑓𝑖
Rmin + 1 = ∑ [ ]
i 𝛼𝑖− 𝜃
230.010∗0.96967 73.248∗0.0021706 1∗0.008426
= + +
230.01−1.5 73.248−1.5 1−1.5
Rmin = 0.96139
Ractual = 1.2 * Rmin
= 1.2 *0.96139 = 1.152
To calculate number of stages,
From Gilliland chart*,
R − Rmin
x-axis =
𝑅+1
1.152−0.96139
=
1.152+1
= 0.0892
N − Nmin
y-axis =
𝑁+1
N−3
0.62 =
𝑁+1
N = 9 (Theoretical required)
Tray efficiency,
Using O’Connell’s chart*,
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
Efficiency =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
0.7 = 9/number of actual plates

Number of actual plates = 12.85 ≈ 13
Feed plate location,
Frenske equation
*Refer Appendix-II
65
𝑋𝑙𝑘 𝑋𝑙𝑘
𝑁𝑟 ln[( )∗𝑑∗( )∗𝑓]
𝑋ℎ𝑘 𝑋ℎ𝑘
= 𝑋𝑙𝑘 𝑋𝑙𝑘
𝑁𝑠 ln[( )∗𝑓∗ ∗𝑏]
𝑋ℎ𝑘 𝑋ℎ𝑘
0.9696 0.11168
ln[( )∗509.4165∗( )∗4527.91]
00008426 0.8858
= 0.11168 0.0029
ln[( 0.8858 )∗4527.91∗0.99703∗4018.4661]
𝑁𝑟
= 1.9675
𝑁𝑠
Nr + Nm = 13
1.9675 Nm + Nm = 13
Nm = 4.3 ≈ 4
Ns = 8.6 ≈ 9
Number of rectifying section = 9
Number of stripping section = 4
Feed plate location = 4
Tray diameter calculation,
Estimation of physical properties,
Column pressure = 0.302 bar
Reflux ratio = 1.152
L = flow of liquid in top section, m3/hr
V = flow of vapor in top section, m3/hr
L = R*D
= 1.152*1.15
= 1.3248 m3/hr
V=L+D
= 1.3248 + 1.15
= 2.4748 m3/hr
Diameter of tower
Density of liquid product = 1160 kg/m3
Density of vapor product = 0.936 kg/m3
Flowrate of liquid product fL = 5062.40 kg/hr
Flowrate of vapor product fV = 385.616 kg/hr
Flooding condition,
𝜌𝑙− 𝜌𝑣
Uf = k1 √ 𝜌𝑣
66
Lw 𝜌𝑣
Flv = √ 𝜌𝑙
Vw
5062.40 0.936
= 385.616 √ 1160
= 0.3729
From graph*,
Flow parameter Vs capacity parameter
Csbf = 0.1
σ = 27 Mn/m
σ 0.2 𝜌𝑙− 𝜌𝑣
Unf = Csbf (20) √ 𝜌𝑣
27 0.2 1160−0.936
= 0.1 * (20) √
0.936
= 3.708 m/s
Linear design gas velocity based on net area (70% flooding)
Un = 0.70*3.708 = 2.6 m/s
Diameter of column
4 𝑉
Diameter of column = (𝜋)* √𝑈𝑛
4 1.35
= (𝜋)* √ 2.6
Dc = 0.9179 m
Column size
Given data
Hole size dh = 19.05 mm
Tray spacing St = 500 mm
Weir height hw = 80 mm
Tray thickness = 5 mm
𝜋
Tower cross section area Ac = 4 * dc2
𝜋
= * (0.9179)2
4
= 0.6613 m2
Downcomer area Ad = 12% of Ac
= 0.079356 m2
*Refer Appendix-II
67
Net area for vapor flow rate An = Ac – Ad

= 0.581944 m2
Active area Aa = Ac – 2Ad
= 0.6613 – 2(0.079356)
= 0.502588 m2
Weir length Lw = 75% of Dc
= 0.49597 m
Throw over opening tw = 20% of Dc
= 0.13226 m
Area of hole Ah = 10% of Aa
= 0.050258 m2
Area of coning Acz = 2Lwhw
= 2*0.49597*0.080
= 0.0793 m2
Area of perforation
Let Lp/dh = 2.5
From graph Ah/Ap = 0.15
Nu of hole per plate = Ah / Area of one hole
0.050258
=𝜋
∗ (19.05)2
4
= 176.41 ≈ 177
Hole pitch = 2.5*dh
= 47.625 mm
Downcomer back up hAP = hw – 7
= 80 – 7
= 73 mm
Weir liquid creast
𝐿
How = 950 (𝜌𝑙∗𝐿𝑤)
5062.40
= 950*(3600∗1160∗495.9)
= 8.36 mm
K2 vs (hw + how) graph,
(hw + how) = 80 + 8.36 = 88.36 mm
K2 = 30.8
68
Weep point
𝑘2−0.90∗(25.4−𝑑ℎ)
Uh = ℎ𝑜𝑤^0.5
30.8−0.90∗(25.4−19.05)
= 8.36^0.5
= 8.67 m/s
Plate pressure drop
1. Due to vapor flow through the hole, hdp
𝑈ℎ 𝜌𝑣
hdp = 51 ( 𝐶𝑜 )2 ( 𝜌𝑙 )
Co vs Ah/Ap * 100 graph,

Co = 0.3
8.67 800
hdp = 51 ( 0.3 )2 (1160)
= 77.33 mm
2. Due to liquid head on plate
hw + how = 88.36 mm
3. Residual losses indusive of other miner losses
hr = 12500/ 𝜌𝑙
= 12500/1160
= 10.77 mm
H1 = hdp + hw + how + hr
= 77.33 + 88.36 + 10.77
= 176.46 mm
= 0.17646 m
∆P = 𝜌𝑙*g*H1
= 1160 * 9.81 * 0.17646
= 2008.04 N/m2
4. Total height of liquid Hd
Hd = hd + hw + how + h
𝐿
hd = 1.66* ( )
𝜌𝑙∗𝐿𝑤
Ap = hdp * Lw
= 77.33*0.415
= 38.35 mm2
5062.40
= 1.66* (3600∗1160∗0.05025)
69
= 0.040 m = 40 mm
Hd = hd + hw + how + h
= 40 + 176.46 + 88.36
= 304.82 mm
Total height of liquid in downcomer
Hd = 304.82 mm
Froth height hf = 0.5 (St + hw)
= 0.5 (500 + 80)
= 290 mm
Free height of downcomer
F = St + hw – Hd
= 500 + 80 – 304.82
= 275.18 mm
Height of column
H = (N-1) * tray spacing + 1.5 ft (top) + 2.5 ft (bottom)
= (13 – 1) * 0.5 + (1.5 + 2.5) * 0.3025
H = 7.21 m
Mechanical design of Distillation Column

Inside diameter of column = 0.918 m
Internal pressure = 10.29 psi = 0.723 kgf/cm2
MOC for shell and head = CS
Max allowable stress = 9319500 Pa
Modulus of elasticity E = 188000 MPa
Density of MOC = 7850 kg/m3
Joint efficiency factor J = 0.85
Corrosion allowance = 2 mm
Design of shell
Select 8 mm thick plate of SA-283 Gr B
t = 7 – 1.5 = 5.5 mm
Do = O.D. of corroded shell
Do = 918 + 7(2)
= 932 mm
70
Do/t = 932/5.5 = 169.45

L/Do = 7210/932 = 7.73
For design temperature = 180 oC = 453 K
Factor B = 2000
2000 = P * (do / t)
2000/169.45 = P
Pd = 11.8 psi
So, use 7 mm thick plate of SA-283 grade B plate.
Weight of shell without stiffeners
𝜋
W = 4 *(0.932 – 0.9182) *7.21 * 7800
= 1143.4 kg
For torispherical closure,
Rc = di = 0.918 m
Rc/(100*th) = 918/(100*5) = 1.836
Do = 928 mm
Do/t = 185.6
Factor B = 2100
P (Rc/th) = 2100
P (918/5) = 2100
P = 11.43 mm
𝜋
Weight of top head = 4 *(0.918)2*0.005*7850
= 25.9 kg
Stress in shell,
1. Axial tensile stress due to pressure,
fap = P*Di / (4*(ts-C))
= 70000*0.918 / (4*(0.007 – 0.002))
= 3213000 N/m2
This is same throughout to column height.
Circumferential stress = 2 * 3213000 = 6426000 N/m2
Outside diameter do = di + 2t
= 918 + 2(7)
= 932 mm
Mean diameter dm = (932+918)/2 = 925 mm
71
2. Stress due to dead weight of shell,

Density of shell = 7850 kg/m3
Due to weight of shell
f dx = weight of shell / cross section area of shell
𝜋
(do∗do – di∗di)∗ρ ∗ g ∗ X
4
=
𝜋∗𝑑𝑚∗(𝑡𝑓−𝑐)
𝜋
(0.932∗0.932 – 0.918∗0.918) ∗7800 ∗ 9.81 ∗ X
4
=
𝜋∗0.925∗(7−2)∗0.001
= 107811.9 X N/m2
3. Stress due to dead weight of insulation,
MOC of insulation : Glass wool
Thickness of insulation : 80 mm
Density of insulation = 50 kg/m3
Diameter of insulation dins = do + 2(tins)
= 1092 mm
dins∗ρ ∗ g ∗ tins
f ins =
𝑑𝑚∗(𝑡𝑓−𝑐)
1.092∗50∗0.080∗9.81
=
0.925∗(7−2)∗0.001
= 9264.88 N/m2
4. Weight due to attachments
Total weight of head = 25.9 kg
Total weight of ladder and platform = 150 kg/m
25.9∗𝑋 150∗𝑋
f attach = +
𝜋∗𝑑𝑚∗(𝑡𝑓−𝑐) 𝜋∗𝑑𝑚∗(𝑡𝑓−𝑐)
= 20187 X N/m2
5. Due to weight of liquid on tray
Depth of liquid on tray = 0.059 m
Density of liquid = 1160 kg/m3
𝜋
Weight of liquid = * d2 * 0.0059 * 1160 * (2X -1)
4
𝜋
= 4 *(0.932*0.932) * 1160 * 0.0059 * (2X -1)
𝜋
Weight of tray = *D2 * (2X -1)
4
𝜋
= 4 *(0.932*0.932) *(2X-1)
fliquid+tray = weight of liquid+tray / (𝜋 *dm * (tf - c))
72
= 5.3488*(2X-1) / (3.14*0.925*(7-2)*0.001)
= 736.62X – 368.31 N/m2
6. Due to wind load
Wind pressure Pw = 13 kgf/cm2 = 1274864.5 Pa
fwind = 1.4*Pw*X*X / (3.14*do*(ts-c))
= 1.4*12748645*X*X / (3.14*0.932*0.005)
= 121976 X2
7. Due to seismic load
C = 0.08
8𝐶𝑋∗𝑋
fseismic =
3∗𝜋∗(𝑡𝑓−𝑐)∗𝑑𝑜∗𝑑𝑜
8∗0.08∗𝑋∗𝑋
=
3∗𝜋∗(3∗0.001)∗𝑑𝑜∗𝑑𝑜
= 26.072X2 N/m2
So, fwind + fseismic + fattachments + faxial = J*fallowable
26.072*X2 + 121976*X2 + 20187*X + 736.62*X – 368.31 + 107811.9*X = 9319500*0.85
122002.072*X2 + 12875.52*X – 368.31 = 79215750
X = 22.86 m
So, 7 mm thick plate can be used for whole column.
Design of skirt support
Diameter of vessel = 932 mm
Type of vessel = straight cylinder
Height of vessel = 7.21 m
Table 7.9 Weight of Distillation column parts
Weight of shell 1143.4 kg
Weight of insulation 436.8 kg
Weight of head 25.9 kg
Weight of other attachments 125 kg
Weight of liquid in bottom 229.99 kg
Dead weight of shell 1961.09 kg = 19238.29 N
Diameter of skirt = 932 mm

Height of skirt = 2.5 m
Height of skirt + shell = 2.5 + 7.2 = 9.7 m
73
MOC of skirt : SA-351 CF8

Allowance tensile stress : 70000 psi = 4761.9 N/m2
Seismic co-efficient = 0.08
Bolt material : SA 193 Gr B8
Allowable bending stress : 180 kgf/cm2
Calculations:
1. Stress due to dead weight
ΣW
fd =
𝜋∗𝑑𝑠𝑘∗𝑡𝑠𝑘
19238.29
=
𝜋∗0.932∗𝑡𝑠𝑘
6573.86
= N/m2
𝑡𝑠𝑘
2. Stress due to wind load,
Mw
Fwb =
𝑍
4∗Mw
=
𝜋∗𝑑𝑜𝑘∗𝑑𝑜𝑘∗𝑡𝑠𝑘
K = shape factor = 0.7 (for cylindrical vessel)
P1 = wind pressure in lower plate of vessel
Pw = k*P1*h1*Do
= 0.7*500*20*0.932
= 6524 N
Bending moment
Mw = Pw * h1 / 2
= 6524* 7.2/2
= 2348.64 N
4∗23486.4
fwb =
3.14∗0.932∗0.932∗𝑡𝑠𝑘
= 34444.1/tsk N/m2
3. Due to seismic load,
Msh = (3/2) * C*W*H
= (3/2) * 0.08*19238.29*7.2
= 16621.88 N.m
Msh
fsb =
𝜋∗𝑑𝑜𝑘∗𝑑𝑜𝑘∗𝑡𝑠𝑘
74
16621.88
=
𝜋∗0.932∗0.932∗𝑡𝑠𝑘
= 6094.22 N/m2
Maximum permissible tensile stress f = 4761.9 N/m2
𝑓𝑤𝑏−𝑓𝑠𝑏
Fcmax =
𝐽
34444.1 −6094.22
4761.9 =
0.85∗𝑡𝑠𝑘
tsk = 7.09 mm
So, use 9 mm thick plate to design skirt support.
Bearing plate design,
Skirt bearing plate
Assume bolt circle diameter = skirt diameter + 30 cm
= 93.2 + 30
= 123.2 cm
Compressive stress between bearing plate and concrete foundation,
ΣW
fc = + Mwb or Msb/z
𝐴
19238.29 16621.88
= +
0.02033 0.00467
𝜋
Where, A = 4 * (0.932*0.932 – 0.918*0.918)
= 0.02033 m2
𝜋 (0.9324 −0.9184 )
Z = *
32 0.932
= 4.67*10-3 m3
fc = 4505589.6 N/m2
Thickness of bearing plate,
√3∗𝑓𝑐∗𝑙∗𝑙
tb =
𝑓
l = (93.2 – 91.8 ) / 2 = 0.7 cm

3fc (l – 1.7tb2) = f * t2b
Where, f = 4200 kgf/cm2
3*4505589.6*(0.007 – 1.7*tb2) = tb2 * 411879300
tb = 0.0147 m = 14.7 mm ≈ 15 mm
𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑛 Mw
Anchor bolt, fc = -
𝐴 𝑍
75
19238.29 16621.88
= -
0.02033 0.00467
= -2612988.538 N/m2
Since, it is negative, the vessel skirt must be anchored to concrete foundation by an anchor
bolt.
𝐷𝑜
Minimum number of bolts = Nmin =
600
= 932/600
= 1.533
It should be multiple of 4.
Nmin = 4
Nmax = 16 (since diameter is 932 mm)
Load on each bolt
𝑓𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛∗𝐴
Pbolt =
𝑛
3.14
2612988.538∗( )∗(0.9322 −0.9182 )
4
=
16
= 3320.37 N
Maximum allowable bending stress f = 180 kgf/cm2
Area of bolt Ab = Pbolt / f
= 3320.37 / 17661542.5
= 1.88 * 10-4 m2
4∗𝐴𝑏
Bolt diameter Db = √
𝜋
4∗1.88∗0.0001
=√
𝜋
= 15.5 mm
7.6 Conclusions
Design of equipment is very important for getting desire result at the end of any operation or
process. We also need to consider safety too. Because if our equipment is not enough
mechanically strong to withstand process parameters, then it may be can turn into tragedy. We
have such past incidents to take in account. After design of any equipment, we come to know
how much material we need to make it. After it, we can also know cost of fabrication and cost
of MOC which ultimately help us to do cost estimation.
76
CHAPTER 8: PUMPS, PIPING, FITTINGS & VALVES
77
PUMPS, PIPING, FITTINGS & VALVES
8.1 Introduction
In an industry, the equipments are needed to be connected for transportation of fluid or

chemicals. Therefore, pipelines are required to connect these equipments. Also, the chemicals
are required to flow through specific rate to maintain the flowrate through these equipments.
Hence, pumps are used for this purpose.
8.2 Various types of pumps available

A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by mechanical
action. Pumps can be classified into three major groups according to the method they use to
move the fluid: direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps, reciprocating pumps and
centrifugal pumps.
There are two types of pumps used in the company and are very common in almost every
industry.
1. Reciprocating pump
2. Centrifugal pump
8.2.1 Reciprocating pump

A reciprocating pump is a class of positive-displacement pumps which includes the piston
pump, plunger pump and diaphragm pump. It is often used where a relatively small quantity
of liquid is to be handled and where delivery pressure is quite large. In reciprocating pumps,
the chamber in which the liquid is trapped, is a stationary cylinder that contains the piston or
plunger.
Uses of reciprocating pump
There are various uses of the reciprocating pump and they are as following:
The lubricating pump is a reciprocating pump and it supplies the lubrication oil to the main
engine.
Main bilge suction pump is also a reciprocating pump.
For ballast they are sometimes used.
Advantages of Reciprocating pump
 Gives high pressure at outlet.
 Gives high suction lift.
 Priming is not required in this pump.
 They are used for air also.
78
Disadvantages of Reciprocating pump

 High wear and tear, so requires a lot maintenance.
 The flow is not uniform, so we have to fit a bottle at both ends.
 The flow is very less and cannot be used for high flow operations.
 More heavy and bulky in shape.
 Initial cost is much more in this pump.
8.2.2 Centrifugal pump

Centrifugal pumps are a sub-class of dynamic axis symmetric work-absorbing turbo
machinery. Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the conversion of rotational
kinetic energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow.
Advantages of centrifugal pump
 As there is no drive seal so there is no leakage in pump.
 It can pump hazardous liquids.
 There are very less frictional losses.
 There in almost no noise.
 Pump has almost 100 efficiency
 Centrifugal pump has minimum wear with respect to others.
 There is a gap between pump chamber and motor, so there is no heat transfer between
them because of the gap between pump chamber and motor, water cannot enter into motor.
 Centrifugal pump uses magnetic coupling which breakup on high load eliminating the
risk of damaging the motor.
Disadvantages of centrifugal pump
 Because of the magnetic resistance there is some energy losses.
 Unexpected heavy load may cause the coupling to slip.
8.3 Pipe and fittings

A fitting is used in pipe systems to connect straight pipe or tubing sections, to adapt to different
sizes or shapes, and for other purposes, such as regulating or measuring fluid flow. The term
plumbing is generally used to describe conveyance of water, gas, or liquid waste in ordinary
domestic or commercial environments. whereas piping is often used to describe high-
performance (e.g. high pressure, high flow, high temperature, hazardous materials) conveyance
of fluids in specialized applications. The term tubing is sometimes used for lighter-weight
piping, especially types that are flexible enough to be supplied in coiled form. Fittings
79
(especially uncommon types) require money, time, materials, and tools to install, so they are a
non-trivial part of piping and plumbing systems.
The material with which a pipe is manufactured often forms as the basis for choosing any
pipe.
Materials that are used for manufacturing pipes include:
8.4 Valves
Valves are equipment designed to stop or regulate flow of any fluid (liquid, gas, condensate,
stem, slurry, etc.) in its path. Valves are categorized depending on their applications like
isolation, throttling, and non-return. Various type of valves are available depending upon the
type of construction.
The valves used in plant are:
1. Diaphragm valve
This valve consists of a valve body with two or more ports, a diaphragm, and a “weir or saddle”
or seat upon which diaphragm closes the valve.
This valve is made up materials like Brass, Cast iron, ABS, PVC-U, PVC-C, PP etc.
Body lining of materials may be unilined, rubber lined, Fluorine plastic lined type etc.
Advantages
 Wider range environments and applications.
 Various types & materials of diaphragm solenoid valves available.
 Media flowing through the valve acts as a pilot and influences the position of the
diaphragm, putting the valve in most suitable state.
Figure 8.1 Diaphragm valve[21]

2. Needle valve
This valve uses a tapered pin to gradually open a space for fine control of flow. The flow can
be controlled and regulated with the use of a spindle. A needle valve has relatively smaller
orifice with a long, tapered seat, and a needle- shaped plunger on the end of a screw, which
exactly fits the seat.
Advantages
80
 Used for controlling the fluid flow into delicate gauges of the system, which might be
damaged if high pressure fluid will be delivered suddenly.
 Motion of the work stop slowly at the end of operation.
 For controlling the fluid flow precisely.
 Can be used under throttling condition, complete open condition or in complete closed
condition.
Figure 8.2 Needle valve[22]
3. Gate valve
Gate valve also known as sluice valve opens by lifting a round or rectangular gate/wedge out
of the path of the fluid. The distinct feature of the valve is the sealing surface between the gate and
seats are planar, so gate valves are often used when a straight-line flow of fluid and minimum
restriction is required.
Advantages
 The fluid resistance of the valve is small.
 The sealing performance is better than of the shut-off valve. The opening & closing of it
is more convenient than of shut-off valve.
 Used for steam, oil & other media. It can also be used for granular solid and with large
viscosity Can provide dual flow directions. Therefore, it is suitable for use in pipeline
where the medium may change the flow direction.
Figure 8.3 Gate valve[23]
81
4. Globe valve
It is a type of valve used for regulating flow in a pipeline, consisting of a movable disk-type
element & a stationary ring seat in generally spherical body.
Advantages
 It is simple in structure, manufacturing and easier maintenance.
 Work schedule is short.
 Friction between the sealing is good and longer life expectancy.
Figure 8.4 Globe valve[24]
5. Plug valve
This are the valves with cylindrical or conically tapered “plugs” which can be rotated inside
the valve body to control flow through the valve. The plug in plug Valves have one or more
hollow passageways going side ways through the plug, So the fluid can flow through the plug
when the valve is open.
Advantages
 Simple in structure
 Convenient in maintenance
 No leakage
 Supporting higher Strength pipe system.
 Strong corrosion resistant, no wear, long term use
82
Figure 8.5 Plug valve[23]
8.5 Conclusions
Every chemical industry needs pumps, valves and its instrumentations. Pumps are used to
transfer a liquid from one point to another point by changing its flow rates. If needed flow rate
is lesser than pump capacity then also we have to run pump on its capacity. But in that case,
there is a provision of back flow stream. There are many types of instrumentations which are
used to measure process parameters. Valves are used to regulate and control the flow of fluid
by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways.
83
CHAPTER 9: SAFETY, HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT
84
SAFETY, HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT
9.1 Introduction
All individuals and companies have a duty of care to their neighbors, and to the environment
in general. Vigilance is required in both the design and operation of process plant to ensure that
legal standards are met and that no harm is done to the environment.
Consideration must be given to:
 All emissions to land, air, water.
 Waste management.
 Smells.
 Noise.
 The environmental friendliness of the products.
9.2 Safety measures to prevent occupational health hazards

 Training is imparted to all workers for all the hazardous process operations within the plant
and supervised by experienced supervisors.
 Suitable personal protective equipments are provided to workers for safety purpose.
 Fire extinguishers arranged at strategic locations in case of fire.
 All building plans and installations will be as per relevant laws and approved by competent
authority.
 Flame proof electrical fitting, flame arrestors etc.is installed if required.
 All the raw materials, solvent and products is stored in designated storage area equipped
with necessary safety features.
 MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) must be available in plant.
 Physical and chemical properties of all hazardous materials must be written on is storage
tank.
 Tank farm is restricted for unauthorized persons.
 Proper earthling is provided in all electrical equipments.
 Periodic inspection & testing of pressure vessels, equipments, and machineries is done.
 All staff & workers are trained for the firefighting, work permit system, first aid and safe
handling of hazardous chemicals.
 Good housekeeping is ensured within factory premises.
 Incident/accident reporting system used in company.
85
 Suitable notice/boards is displayed at designated locations indicting appropriate hazard

warning.
 Pre-employment medical checkup at the time of employment is carried out. In order to
safe guard the health of the employees, all the employees undergo periodic health checkup
at every six month.
9.3 List of Safety equipments
 Helmet
 Ear muff and ear plugs
 Goggles
 Face shield
 Hand gloves
 Aprons
 Safety Shoes
 Gas masks
9.4 Various pollution control measures taken by the industry
9.4.1 Effluent Treatment Plant

 Water can be considered as the most important raw material of civilization, since without
it people cannot live and agriculture and industries cannot operate.
 Water quality control becomes more important in today’s life for controlling pollution. In
Gujarat it's controlled and regulated by a board known as GPCB (Gujarat Pollution Control
Board)
There are three basic types of treatment process:
1) Bio-logical process, which utilize biochemical reactions to remove soluble or colloidal
organic impurities.
2) Physical process, that depends simply on the physical properties of impurities.
3) Chemical process, which utilizes chemical reaction to remove impurities.
By using above methods alone, or in combination, which is more common, an almost complete
purification is possible.
86
Effluent Treatment Unit

Effluent Treatment unit consists of primary, secondary & tertiary treatment. These units are
described in detailed as below:
 Primary Treatment Unit
Primary treatment unit comprising of following:
a) Oil & grease removal system with electric skimmer
b) Equalization cum neutralization tanks
c) Flash mixers
d) Primary clarifiers
a) Oil & Grease Removal System
Effluent from absorption bottom after cooling, it is fed in to oil and grease removal tank. Oil
& grease removal system is equipped with electrically operated oil skimmer to remove the
lighter oily fraction from the top of the tank and facility for removal of heavier fraction from
bottom of the tank.
The lighter oily fraction from the top of the tank and heavier fraction from the bottom of the
tank is collected in a collection tank and from collection tank it is pumped to tarry waste
collection tank for incineration.
b) Equalization cum Neutralization Tank
Effluent from oil and grease removal tank is transferred by gravity to equalization cum
neutralization tanks (2 no’s). The effluents from utilities and domestic/sanitary waste water
stream are mixed with effluents (from oil & grease removal tank outlet) in the equalization
cum neutralization tanks.
In equalization cum neutralization tanks, caustic, lime and acid dosing system is provided to
neutralize the wastewater based on the pH.
c) Flash mixer
Equalized & neutralized effluents from equalization cum neutralization tanks is transferred by
gravity to flash mixers having alum-dosing facility.
Flash mixers are provided for proper mixing of effluents with coagulation chemicals (alum) to
enhance the better flocks formation and to increase the removal efficiency of suspended solids
and COD, BOD and color to some extent.
d) Primary Clarifiers
Effluent from flash mixers is transferred by gravity to primary clarifier I and II. Where
adequate detention time is provided to settle the suspended solids present in the effluent.
87
Primary clarified effluent is then transferred to Aeration tanks from the top of the primary
clarifiers and primary sludge form the bottom the primary clarifiers is transferred either to
primary sludge drying beds or filter press for drying (through primary sludge sump).
 Secondary Treatment Unit
Activated sludge process is used for biological treatment of primary treated effluent. It consists
of Aeration tank I & II, secondary clarifier, secondary sludge sump, secondary sludge drying
beds & treated effluent sump I.
a) Aeration Tanks
Two nos. of aeration tanks of required capacity are provided. Required nos. of aerators is
provided to ensure required oxygen supply to biomass for degradation of organic present in
the effluent. As a nutrient for bacterial culture, solution of urea and DAP is dosed on day-to-
day basis. Required detention time in aeration tanks is provided.
b) Secondary Clarifier
Secondary clarifier of required capacity is provided. The overflow from aeration tanks is fed
to a secondary clarifier wherein the bio sludge is settling at the bottom and clarified effluent is
overflow to a treated effluent sump.
c) Secondary Sludge Drying Beds
Total six nos. of secondary sludge drying beds is provided for the drying of excess bio-sludge
generated from the secondary clarifier. Dried sludge is incinerated and the ash generated after
incineration is sent for secured land filling to Bharuch Enviro Infrastructure Limited,
Ankleshwar. Filtrate of biological sludge drying beds is pumped transferred to equalization
cum neutralization tank.
 Tertiary Treatment Unit
This includes pressure sand filtration and sodium hypochlorite reatment:
a) Sodium Hypo chlorite Treatment
The clarified effluent of secondary clarifier is treated with the sodium Hypochlorite solution
in treated effluent collection sump-I to reduce the color of effluent. This is also help full for
disinfection of effluent.
b) Pressure Sand filters
Two nos. of pressure sand filters of higher capacity is provided. The suspended solid present
in the secondary clarified effluent is removed in these filters. Filtered effluent is then
collected into treated sump-II for final disposal.
88
Figure 9.1 Process flow diagram of ETP [24]

 Process Flow Description
(i) Free oil separation
Effluent from plant contains free as well as emulsified oil. For removal of free oil, effluent is
passed through a tank in which corrugated plate interceptors are provided wherein free oil
settled as thin layer at the top is removed by an oil skimmer and transferred to oil tank. Oil
from tank is pumped to slop tank. Effluent free from free oil overflows in to dissolve air
floatation (DAF) unit.
(ii) Emulsified oil removal
Effluent contains emulsified oil to very small extent and for removal of this oil, dissolve air
floatation unit is provided which also reduces organic content of effluent. In this unit, re-
circulated effluent saturated with air is diffused at high pressure. When it is released to
atmosphere, due to buoyancy effect minute oil droplets and other suspended particles rise to
the top.
Sediment particle settled at the bottom of the unit are swept in to sludge tray by a scrapper
attached to rotating middle shell. The sludge generated is taken in to sludge drying beds for
drying. Polyelectrolyte is added in to DAF unit so that it breaks emulsified oil and makes it
possible to remove the oil.
(iii) Biological treatment
This treatment is given to effluent in order to reduce biological oxygen demand, chemical
oxygen demand and suspended solids. Effluent is taken into aeration tank and then secondary
89
classifier.
In aeration tank, micro-organisms will be developed. Some nutrients like urea solution, cow
dung are also added. Microorganisms will act on organic effluents. Process is based on
activated sludge process with extended aeration principle. Air is supplied for aeration purpose.
In case of effluent containing benzene in it, activated carbon powder is used. This will adsorb
non degradable organic material. Effluent from aeration tank is taken to secondary settling
tank. Suspended solids are removed here. The effluent enters centrally near bottom of tank and
an agitator is rotating at 0.5 RPM which helps in setting of suspended solids. Settled solids are
taken to sludge beds.
9.5 Conclusions
“Safety first” is a slogan which we seen in every industry. Even, there is a celebration of
“Safety week” in most of the industries. Safety of equipment that salvage from corrosion,
damage, failure. Safety of any piping from leakage, bounding and breakage. Safety from any
hazardous chemical to prevent fire and explosions. Safety equipments are provided for
controlling or preventions of high pressure & temperature of fluid. And mainly safety of all
human which are working in industry and plant from slippery area, fire explosions, falling
from heights, from contacting of any body part with hazardous chemicals like eye, skin,
inhalation and ingestions etc. But safety measures are provided in MSDS of all chemical
substance which contains information about the hazardous behavior of them (health, fire,
reactivity and environmental) and how to work safely with those chemical products. We live
in an environment. So, environment should be well protected by all the industries. There are
certain environmental norms fixed by GPCB which should be maintaining by every industry.
In Nitrobenzene plant, there is a analyzer for the absorption tower discharge and stack
discharge. These analyzers measures quantity of NOX discharges from these equipments.
Because NOX are very hazardous for human health. Hence, It should be maintain under the
range given by GPCB. Data from these analyzers are directly going to GPCB headquarter,
Gandhinagar. GPCB monitored this data constantly and if there is any clause violation by
company, then they can take strict actions against respective industry.
90
CHAPTER 10: PLANT LOCATION & LAYOUT
91
PLANT LOCATION & LAYOUT
10.1 Introduction
A plant is a place where men, money, equipment, machinery etc. are brought together for
manufacturing products.
Plant location means deciding a suitable location area, plan etc., where the plant or factory start
functioning. Activities involves, first to select a proper geographic region and second selecting
a specific site within region. Plant location plays a major role in the design of production system
as it determines the cost of,
 Getting suitable raw material.
 Processing raw material to finished goods.
 Finished product distribution to customers.
10.2 Various factors affecting plant location
Nearness to raw material: Especially those plants, which consume raw material in bulk or
raw material is heavy, is cheap but loses a good amount of its weight during processing (trees
and coal, saw mills) must be located close to the sources of the raw material.
Transport facilities: Depending upon the size of the raw material and finished goods, a
suitable method of transportation like roads, rail, water or air is selected and the plant location
is decided.
Nearness to market: It reduces cost of transportation as well as the chances of the finished
product getting damaged and spoiled in the way (especially perishable products). Also, for
catching big market and render quick service to customers.
Availability of labours: Stable labour face, of right kind of adequate size (number) and at
reasonable rates with its proper attitude towards work. The purpose of management is to face
less boycotts, strikes to achieve lower labour cost per unit of production.
Climate conditions: As development in the field of heating, ventilation and air conditioning,
climate of the region does not present much problems of course, control of climate needs
money.
Financial and other aids: Certain states gives aids as loans, feed money, machinery, built
sheds etc., to attract industries.
Land: Topography area, the shape of the site cost, drainage and other facilities, the probability
of floods, earthquakes etc. influences the selection of plant location.
92
Community attitude: Success of industry depends very much on the attitude of the local
people and whether they want work or not.
Existence of facilities: Bank, hospitals, schools, post office etc.
Effluent disposal: All industrial process produces waste products and full consideration must
be given to the difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluent
will be covered by local regulations and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during
the initial site survey to determine the standard that must be met.
Political strategic considerations: Capital grants, tax concessions and other inducements are
often given by government to direct new investment to preferred locations, such as areas of
high unemployment. The availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in the
site selection.
Community factor: The character and facilities of community can have quite effect on the
location of the plant. If the sufficient facilities not available than it become burden for the plant
to subsidize such facilities. Cultural facilities of the community are important to sound growth.
The problem of recreation deserves special consideration. The efficiency, character and history
of both state and local government should be evaluated.
10.3 Location of Nitrobenzene plant

Considering all above factors, ideas location for this plant is NCPL, GNFC (Because
transportation facilities are good i.e. Railway, Road transportation is easily available).
10.4 Plant layout Introduction
Plant layout means the disposition of various facilities (equipments, material, etc.) and services
of the plant with in the area of site selected previously plant layout begins of the factory
buildings and goes up to the location and movement of the work table.
10.5 Plant Layout
Process units and ancillary buildings should be laid to hive most economical flow of contents
and personnel around the site. Hazardous process must be located at a safe distance from other
buildings. The ancillary buildings and service required on a site in addition to the main
processing units (Buildings) will include,
 Storage of raw material and products.
 Maintenance workshops.
93
 Store, for maintenance operating supplies.

 Laboratory for process control.
 Fire stations and other emergency services.
 Effluent treatment plant.
 Utilities, steam boiler, compressed air, power generation, refrigeration
 Office for general administration.
 Canteen, medical centres and parking facilities.
Figure 10.1 Plant Layout of Nitrobenzene plant (Courtesy: MS Paint)
10.6 Conclusions
The choice of final site should be based on complete survey of advantages and disadvantages
of various geographical areas as well as all the points mentioned in this chapter. This chapter
has complete view of plant location. The factors should keep in mind is : raw material
availability, location and market areas, energy availability, climate, transport, water and labour
supply, waste disposal, legal restrictions and finally site characteristics.
94
CHAPTER 11: COST ESTIMATION
95
COST ESTIMATION
11.1 Introduction
Present chapter comprises cost of each equipment used in the plant, direct and indirect cost, total
production cost, total capital investment of the Nitrobenzene plant. It also gives information
about rate of return, payback period and breakeven point.
11.2 Cost of each equipment used in plant

Table 11.1 Cost of the equipments used in plant
Name of equipment Cost per unit No. of Units Total Cost (In
rupees)
Nitration pump 6000000 1 6000000
Circuit Cooler 2500000 1 2500000
Plate type heat exchanger 1000000 1 1000000
Static Separator 700000 1 700000
Dynamic Separator 1000000 1 1000000
Lamella Separator 1200000 1 1200000
Coalescer Separator 600000 1 600000
Washers 1000000 4 4000000
Pumps 125000 6 750000
Distillation Column 50000000 1 50000000
Vessels 1000000 3 3000000
Stripping Column 300000 2 600000
Preheater 500000 1 500000
96
COST ESTIMATION
Total Purchased Equipment Cost (PEC) = Rs. 71850000
11.3 Direct Cost
Table 11.2 Direct Cost
Sr. Components Assumed % of Total PEC Cost (In Rupees)
No. (Purchase Equipment Cost)
1 Purchased equipment 100 % 71850000
2 Purchase equipment 20 % 14370000

installation
3 Instrumentation 5% 3592500
4 Piping 5% 3592500
5 Electrical cost 15 % 10777500
6 Building 15 % 10777500
7 Yard improvement 5% 3592500
8 Service facilities 5% 3592500
9 Land 8% 5748000
Total Direct Cost = Rs. 127893000
97
COST ESTIMATION
11.4 Indirect Cost
Table 11.3 Indirect Cost
Sr. Components Assumed % of Total PEC Cost
No. (Purchase Equipment Cost)
1 Engineering & Supervision 15 % 10777500
2 Construction expenses 12 % 10777500
3 Contractor’s Fees 8% 5748000
4 Contingency 10 % 7185000
Total Indirect Cost: Rs 34488000
11.5 Fixed Capital Investment

Fixed capital investment = Direct cost + Indirect cost
= Rs. 162381000
11.6 Total Capital Investment

Working capital Investment = 20% of Total capital investment
So, Total Capital Investment = 162381000/0.80
= Rs. 202976250
& Working Capital Investment = Rs. 40595250
98
COST ESTIMATION
11.7 Total Production Cost

Table 11.4 Raw materials cost for one hour
Raw Material Quantities Cost Per kg (In Total Cost (In Rs.)
per hour (In kg) Rs.)
Benzene 3074 65 199810
Nitric Acid 2084 70 145880
Sulfuric Acid 40634 60 2438040
Caustic Soda 18 50 900
TOTAL 2784630
So, Total raw material cost per year,
Total Raw Material Cost = 2784630*24*365 = 1.016*109 per year
11.8 Direct Production Cost

Table 11.5 Direct Production Cost
Particulars Basis Chosen Cost (In Rupees)
Maintenance & Repairs 15 % of FCI 24357150
Operating Supplies 15% of WCI 6089287.5
Operating Labor (OL) 10 % of TPC 0.1X
Laboratory Charges 15 % of TPC 0.015X
Patents and Royalties 3 % of TPC 0.03X
Total 30446437.5+0.145X
99
COST ESTIMATION
Table 11.6 Fixed Charges
Particulars Basis Chosen Cost (In Rupees)
Depreciation 10 % of FCI 1623810
Interest 10 % of TCI 20297625
Local Taxes 4 % of FCI 649524
Insurance 1 % of FCI 162381
Total 44654775
Plant Overhead Cost = 60% of (Operating Labor + Maintenance & Repairs)

= 0.60 * (0.1X + 24357150)
= 0.06X + 14614290
Table 11.7 General Expenses
General Expenses
Particulars Basis Chosen Cost (Lakh)
Administrative Costs 25 % of OL 0.25X
Distribution & Marketing Costs 20 % of TPC 0.2X
R&D 5 % of TPC 0.05X
Total 0.5X
Total expenditure for production per year = Direct production cost + Fixed charges +Plant
Overhead cost + General Expenses
= 30446437.5 + 0.145X + 40595250 + 0.06X +
14614290 + 0.5X
= 85655977.5 + 0.705X
Total production cost = Total Expenditure + Raw material cost
X = 85655977.5 + 0.705X + 1.016*109
100
COST ESTIMATION
∴ X = Rs. 3734427042
11.9 Profit Calculation
Selling price of product = 110 Rs per kg

Selling price for 96 MTPD production,
= 110 * 96 * 365 * 1000
Selling price per year = Rs. 3854400000
Gross profit = Selling price – Total production cost
= 3854400000 - 3734427042
= Rs. 119972958
If 30% Income tax then,
∴Amount of Income taxes = Rs. 35991887.4
Surcharge = 4 % on Income taxes = 0.04 x 35991887.4 = Rs. 1439675
Net profit = Gross profit – Income Taxes – Surcharge

= Rs. 154525169
11.10 Rate of Return
R.O.R before Income taxes = (Gross profit /(Total Capital Investment) x 100
= (119972958 / 202976250)*100
= 59.1 %
R.O.R after Income taxes = (Net profit/(Total Capital investment)x100
= (154525169 / 202976250) * 100
= 76.12 %
11.11 Payout Period
Pay out period = F.C.I / NET PROFIT

= 162381000 / 154525169
= 1.05 years
101
COST ESTIMATION
11.12 Turnover Ratio
Turnover Ratio = Gross Annual Sales / Fixed Capital Investment

= 119972958 / 162381000
= 0.738
11.13 Break Even Point
Total production cost = Total income

3734427042 = X*96*1000*110
X = 353.63
Hence, after 354 days, Profit will start in a continuous production for 1 year.
11.14 Conclusions
Cost estimation is most important chapter in this report. Because without this chapter, we cannot
start industry without knowing rate of return, breakeven point, pay out period etc. All calculation
is based on the market values of equipment. After calculation of all costs, we have an idea about
purchased equipment cost. We calculate direct-indirect investments, depreciation, plant overhead
cost, local taxes, insurance policy, general expenses etc.
102
CHAPTER 12: CONCLUSIONS
103
CONCLUSIONS
From this training period of 2 months, first of all, we have seen a giant industry by our neck eyes.
Earlier we have seen this type of industry in photos and books. We have seen many new
equipments like glass lined in exchanger in CAN plant, prilling tower in urea plant, granular in
ANP plant etc. Overall, it was very good exposure of 2 months.
In this training period, we spent two months in Nitrobenzene plant. We come to know history of
nitrobenzene, applications of nitrobenzene, different methods of production of nitrobenzene etc.
Material and energy balances are an important part of any chemical industry and through which a
process is selected and the plant is operated. In energy balance chapter, we tried to do energy
balance on pump reactor, heat exchanger, distillation column. Somehow I get some knowledge
about heat integration by energy balance chapter.
Utilities are also very important in a chemical industry. An engineer must have its knowledge. In
Plant utilities chapter, there is information about DM water, cooling towers etc. In chapter 6,
details of equipment are provided for ease of understanding. equipment details are shown
containing MOC for each equipment. Designing of equipment is an important role of a chemical
engineer to know about capacity, MOC, volume etc. In chapter 7, In design chapter, We found
thickness of different course for Nitrobenzene storage tank, heat transfer coefficient of Heat
exchanger, Power require for centrifugal pump as well as NPSH for centrifugal pump in minor
equipment design section. For major equipment, we found number of trays of distillation column,
height of distillation column, nozzle, flange, bolt calculation as a part of mechanical design.
In chapter 8, various pumps used in the plant are listed in table. In chapter 9, there is a discussion
like every industry has some safety protocol which has to be followed by all whoever present in
the company. They lead “safety first”, no matter how much expense. We also need to take care
about environment.
Plant location should be appropriate before setting up the plant. By this statement, we meant plant
should be located where there is continuous supply of water, electricity and where transport and
raw material is easily available. With the assumed costs of each equipment, we can estimate the
cost of plant along with depreciation. From it, we got the sight of breakeven point, rate of return
and payout period.
104
APPENDIX-I
APPENDIX-1
1. MSDS of Nitrobenzene
Section 1: Introduction
Product Name: Nitrobenzene
CAS Number: 98-95-3
Synonym: Essence of mirbane, Essence of myrbane; Mirbane oil.
Section 2: Composition and Information on Ingredients

Nitrobenzene content: 99 wt. % min
Unnitrated hydrocarbons (benzene): 0.2 wt. % max
1,3-dinitrobenzene: 0.1 wt. % max
Nitrophenyls: 0.01 wt. % max
Water: 0.3 wt. %
Section 3: Hazards Identification

Potential Acute Health Effects: Extremely hazardous in case of ingestion. Very hazardous in
case of skin contact (irritant), of eye contact (irritant), of inhalation. Hazardous in case of skin
contact (permeator). Inflammation of the eye is characterized by redness, watering, and itching.
Skin inflammation is characterized by itching, scaling, reddening, or, occasionally, blistering.
Potential Chronic Health Effects: Extremely hazardous in case of ingestion. Very hazardous in
case of skin contact (irritant), of eye contact (irritant), of inhalation. Hazardous in case of skin
contact (permeator). The substance is toxic to blood, kidneys, lungs, liver, mucous membranes.
Section 4: First Aid Measures

Eye Contact: Check for and remove any contact lenses. Immediately flush eyes with running
water for at least 15 minutes, keeping eyelids open. Cold water may be used. Do not use an eye
ointment. Seek medical attention.
Skin Contact: After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of water. Gently and
thoroughly wash the contaminated skin with running water and non-abrasive soap. Be particularly
careful to clean folds, crevices, creases and groin. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. If
irritation persists, seek medical attention. Wash contaminated clothing before reusing.
Inhalation: Allow the victim to rest in a well ventilated area. Seek immediate medical attention.
105
APPENDIX-I
Serious Inhalation: Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing
such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is
not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek medical attention.
Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting. Examine the lips and mouth to ascertain whether the tissues
are damaged, a possible indication that the toxic material was ingested; the absence of such signs,
however, is not conclusive. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. If the
victim is not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek immediate medical attention.
Section 5: Fire and Explosion Data

Flammability of the Product: Combustible.
Auto-Ignition Temperature: 482°C
Flash Points: CLOSED CUP: 87.78°C
Flammable Limits: LOWER: 1.8%
Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:
SMALL FIRE: Use DRY chemical powder.
LARGE FIRE: Use water spray, fog or foam. Do not use water jet. Special Remarks on Fire.
Section 6: Accidental Release Measures

Small Spill: Absorb with an inert material and put the spilled material in an appropriate waste
disposal.
Large Spill: Combustible material. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition.
Stop leak if without risk. Be careful that the product is not present at a concentration level above
TLV. Check TLV on the MSDS and with local authorities.
Section 7: Handling and Storage

Precautions: Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Ground all equipment
containing material. Do not ingest. Do not breathe gas/fumes/ vapour/spray. In case of
insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment If ingested, seek medical advice
immediately and show the container or the label. Avoid contact with skin and eyes
Storage: Flammable materials should be stored in a separate safety storage cabinet or room. Keep
away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Keep container tightly closed. Keep in a
106
APPENDIX-I
cool, well ventilated place. Ground all equipment containing material. Keep container dry. Keep
in a cool place.
Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

Engineering Controls: Provide exhaust ventilation or other engineering controls to keep the
airborne concentrations of vapors below their respective threshold limit value. Ensure that
eyewash stations and safety showers are proximal to the work-station location.
Personal Protection: Splash goggles. Lab coat. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an
approved/certified respirator or equivalent. Gloves.
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill: Splash goggles. Full suit. Vapor respirator. Boots.
Gloves. A self contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product.
Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling this
product.
Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical state and appearance: Liquid. (Oily liquid.)
Odor: Strong.
Taste: Not available.
Molecular Weight: 123.11 g/mole
Color: Colorless from yellow to brown.
pH (1% soln/water): Not available.
Boiling Point: 210.8°C (411.4°F)
Melting Point: 5.7°C (42.3°F)
Critical Temperature: Not available.
Specific Gravity: 1.2 (Water = 1)
Vapor Pressure: 0.15 mm of Hg (@ 20°C)
Vapor Density: 4.25 (Air = 1)
Volatility: Not available.
Odor Threshold: 0.37 ppm
Water/Oil Dist. Coeff.: Not available.
Ionicity (in Water): Not available.
107
APPENDIX-I
Section 10: Stability and Reactivity Data

Stability: The product is stable.
Instability Temperature: Not available.
Conditions of Instability: Not available.
Incompatibility with various substances: Not available.
Corrosivity: Non-corrosive in presence of glass.
Section 11: Toxicological Information

Routes of Entry: Dermal contact. Eye contact. Inhalation. Ingestion.
Toxicity to Animals: ORAL (LD50): Acute: 780 mg/kg [Rat]. 590 mg/kg [Mouse].
Chronic Effects on Humans: The substance is toxic to blood, kidneys, lungs, liver,
mucous membranes.
Section 12: Ecological Information

Products of Biodegradation: Possibly hazardous short term degradation products are not likely.
However, long term degradation products may arise.
Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The products of degradation are as toxic as the
original product.
Section 13: Disposal Considerations

Waste Disposal: Waste must be disposed of in accordance with state and local environmental
control regulations.
Section 14: Transport Information

DOT Classification: CLASS 6.1: Poisonous material.
Identification: Nitrobenzene : UN1662 PG: II
Section 15: Other Information

Futher Information: The information contained in this Material Safety Data Sheet is based upon
available data and believed to be correct; however, as such has been obtained from various sources,
including the manufacturer and independent laboratories, it is given without warranty or
representation that it is complete, accurate, and can be relied upon.
(SOURCE: Sciencelab.com)
108
APPENDIX-I
2. MSDS of Benzene
Product Name: Benzene
Catalog Codes: SLB1564, SLB3055, SLB2881
CASNo.: 71-43-2
Synonym: Benzol: Benzine
Chemical Name: Benzene
Chemical Formula: C6H6

Composition:
Name: Benzene
CAS No.: 71-43-2
% by weight: 100
Toxicological Data on Ingredients:
Benzene: ORAL (LD50): Acute: 930 mg/kg [Rat]. 4700 mg/kg [Mouse]. DERMAL
Acute: & gt : 9400 mg/kg [Rabbit]. VAPOR (LC50): Acute: 10000 ppm 7 hours [Rat].

Potential Acute Health Effects: Very hazardous in case of eye contact (irritant), of
inhalation. Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant, permeator), of ingestion. Inflammation of
the eye is characterized by redness, watering, and itching.
Potential Chronic Health Effects:
CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS: Classified A1 (Confirmed for human.) by ACGIH, 1 (Proven for
human.) by IARC.

Eye Contact: Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes
with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Cold water may be used. WARM water MUST be
used. Get medical attention immediately.
109
APPENDIX-I
Skin Contact: In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water. Cover the irritated
skin with an emollient. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash clothing before reuse.
Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical attention.
Inhalation: If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing
is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention if symptoms appear.
Ingestion: Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give
anything by mouth to an unconscious person. If large quantities of this material are swallowed,
call a physician immediately. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband.

Flammability of the Product: Flammable.
Auto-Ignition Temperature: 497.78°C (928°F)
Flash Points: CLOSED CUP: -11.1°C (12°F). (Setaflash)
Flammable Limits: LOWER: 1.2% UPPER: 7.8%
Products of Combustion: These products are carbon oxides (CO, CO2).

Small Spill: Absorb with an inert material and put the spilled material in an appropriate waste
disposal.
Large Spill: Flammable liquid. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Stop leak
if without risk. Absorb with DRY earth, sand or other non-combustible material. Do not touch spilled
material. Prevent entry into sewers, basements or confined areas: dike if needed. Be careful that
the product is not present at a concentration level above TLV. Check TLV on the MSDS and with
local authorities.

Precautions: Keep locked up. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Ground
all equipment containing material. Do not ingest. Do not breathe gas/fumes/ vapor/spray. In case
of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice
immediately and show the container or the label. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Keep away
from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents, acids.
110
APPENDIX-I
Storage: Store in a segregated and approved area. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area.
Keep container tightly closed and sealed until ready for use. Avoid all possible sources of ignition
(spark or flame).

airborne concentrations of vapors below their respective threshold limit value. Ensure that eyewash
stations and safety showers are proximal to the work-station location.
Personal Protection: Splash goggles. Lab coat. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an
Gloves. A self-contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product.
Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient: consult a specialist BEFORE handling this
product.

Physical state and appearance: Liquid.
Odor: Aromatic. Gasoline-like, rather pleasant. (Strong.)
Color: Clear Colorless. Colorless to light yellow.
pH (1% solution/water): Not available.
Boiling Point: 80.1 (176.2°F)
Melting Point: 5.5°C (41.9°F)
Critical Temperature: 288.9°C (552°F)
Specific Gravity: 0.8787 @ 15 C (Water = 1)
Vapor Pressure: 10 kPa (@ 20°C)
Volatility: Not available.
Odor Threshold: 4.68 ppm
Water/Oil Dist. Coeff.: The product is more soluble in oil: log(oil/water) = 2.1
Ionicity (in Water): Not available.
111
APPENDIX-I
Dispersion Properties: See solubility in water, diethyl ether, acetone.

Solubility: Miscible in alcohol, chloroform, carbon disulfide oils, carbon tetrachloride,

Conditions of Instability: Heat, ignition sources, incompatibles.
Incompatibility with various substances: Highly reactive with oxidizing agents, acids.
Corrosivity: Non-corrosive in presence of glass.

Routes of Entry: Absorbed through skin. Dermal contact. Eye contact. Inhalation.
Toxicity to Animals: WARNING: THE LC50 VALUES HEREUNDER ARE ESTIMATED ON
THE BASIS OF A 4-HOUR EXPOSURE. Acute oral toxicity (LD50): 930 mg/kg [Rat]. Acute
dermal toxicity (LD50): >9400 mg/kg [Rabbit]. Acute toxicity (LC50): 10000 7 hours [Rat].

Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The products of degradation are less toxic than the
product itself.

Waste Disposal: Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and local
environmental control regulations.

DOT Classification: CLASS 3: Flammable liquid.
Identification: Benzene UNNA: 1114 PG: II
112
APPENDIX-I
3. MSDS of Nitric acid

MSDS Name: NITRIC ACID
Synonyms: Acide nitrique, Aqua fortis, Azotic acid, Hydrogen nitrate
TDG Classification: 8 PKG Gr II
Formula: HNO3
Molecular Wt: 63.01
Section 2: Composition/Information on Ingredients

CAS No.: 7697-37-2
Chemical Name: Nitric acid
Percent: 60-71%
TLV: (TWA) 2 ppm
Hazard: Corrosive

Appearance: clear to yellow.
Effects of Acute Exposure: May be fatal by ingestion, inhalation or skin absorption. Corrosive.
Eyes: Causes severe eye burns and loss of vision. May cause permanent damage.
Skin: May cause severe skin irritation. May cause deep, penetrating ulcers of the skin.
Ingestion: Causes gastrointestinal tract burns. May cause perforation of the digestive tract. Burns
in mouth, pharynx and gastrointestinal tract. Vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, abdominal pain, kidney
damage and death.
Inhalation: May be fatal if inhaled. Effects may be delayed. May cause irritation of the respiratory
tract with burning pain in the nose and throat, coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath and
pulmonary edema. Chemical pneumonitis, bronchitis, and possible death.
Effects of Chronic Exposure: Repeated inhalation may cause chronic bronchitis. Repeated
exposure may cause erosion of teeth. May cause erosion of the teeth, lesions of the skin, bronchial
irritation, coughing, pneumonia and lung damage. To the best of our knowledge the chronic
toxicity of this substance has not been fully investigated.
113
APPENDIX-I

Eyes: Flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, holding lids apart to ensure flushing
of the entire surface. Get medical aid immediately.
Skin: Get medical aid immediately. Immediately flush skin with copious quantities water for at
least 15 minutes. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Wash clothing before reuse. Call a
physician.
Ingestion: Do NOT induce vomiting. If victim is conscious and alert, give 2-4 cupfuls of milk or
water. Get medical aid immediately. Call a physician. Never give anything by mouth to an
unconscious person.
Inhalation: Remove patient from exposure to fresh air immediately. If not breathing, give artificial
respiration. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical aid. Call a physician. Notes to
Physician. Treat symptomatically and supportively.
Section 5: Fire Figurehting Measures

General Information: As in any fire, wear a self-contained breathing apparatus in pressure-demand,
MSHA/NIOSH (approved or equivalent), and full protective gear. Contact with combustible
materials may cause a fire. Use water spray to keep fire-exposed containers cool. Substance is non-
combustible.
General Information: Use proper personal protective equipment as indicated in Section 8.
Spills/Leaks: Absorb spill with inert material (e.g., dry sand or earth), then place into a chemical
waste container. Neutralize spill with sodium bicarbonate. A vapor suppressing foam may be used
to reduce vapors. Steps to be taken in case material is released or spilled: Wear self-contained
breathing apparatus, rubber boots and heavy rubber gloves.

Handling: Wash thoroughly after handling. Remove contaminated clothing and wash before re-
use. Use with adequate ventilation. Do not get on skin or in eyes. Do not ingest or inhale.
Storage: Store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from incompatible substances, heated
areas, sparks and flame. Do not store in metal or glass containers. Do not store in direct sunlight.
Do not store near organic substances. Keep tightly closed. Empty container may contain hazardous
residue.
114
APPENDIX-I
Storage Code: White.
Section 8: Exposure Control

Controls: Use adequate general or local exhaust ventilation to keep airborne concentrations below
the permissible exposure limits Exposure Limits:
Personal Protective Equipment Eyes: Wear appropriate protective eyeglasses or chemical safety
goggles as described by OSHA’s eye and face protection regulations in 29 CFR 1910.133. Wear
face shield.
Skin: Wear appropriate protective neoprene gloves to prevent skin exposure. Wear acid-resistant
PVC or neoprene jacket, trousers and boots sufficient to protect skin.
Clothing: Wear appropriate protective clothing to prevent skin exposure.

Physical State: Liquid
Appearance: clear to yellow
Odour: strong odour – acrid odour
pH: 1.0 (0.1 M solution)
Vapour Pressure: PARTIAL PRESSURE: 70% (w/w): 0.37-0.4 kPa(2.78-3 mm Hg) at 200C
Vapour Density: 2.17 (air = 1) (calculated).
Evaporation Rate: No information available.
Viscosity: No information available.
Boiling Point: 68% (w/w): 120.5 0C (248.9 0F)
Freezing/Melting Point: 70% (w/w): -41 0C (-42 0F)
Decomposition Temperature: No information available.
Solubility: Soluble in all proportions.
Specific Gravity/Density: 68% (w/w): 1.41 g/cm3, 70% (w/w): 1.42 g/cm3
Molecular Formula: HNO3
Molecular Weight: 63.0119
Section 10: Stability and Reactivity

Chemical Stability: Decomposes when in contact with air, light, or organic matter.
Conditions to Avoid: High temperatures, incompatible materials, moisture, reducing agents.
115
APPENDIX-I

Inhalation, rate: LC50 = 67 ppm (NO2)/4H.
CAS No.7664-39-3: Oral, rat: LD50 = >90 mL/kg.
Teratogenicity: Effects on newborn: biochemical and metabolic,

Mosquito fish: TLm = 72 /96H (fresh water).
Environmental: No information reported.

Dispose of in a manner consistent with federal, provincial/state/territorial, and local regulations.
RCRA D-Maximum Concentration of Contaminants

Proper Shipping Name: NITRIC ACID, other than red fuming, with not more than 70% HNO3.
Hazard Class: 8
UN Number: UN2031
Packing Group: II
4. MSDS of Sulphuric acid

Product Name: Sulfuric acid
Catalog Codes: SLS2539, SLS1741, SLS3166, SLS2371, SLS3793
CASNo.: 7664-93-9
Chemical Name: Hydrogen sulfate
Chemical Formula: H2-SO4

Composition:
Name: Sulfuric acid
CAS No.: 7664-93-9
By Weight: 95-98%
116
APPENDIX-I

Potential Acute Health Effects: Very hazardous in case of skin contact (corrosive, irritant,
permeator), of eye contact (irritant, corrosive), of ingestion, of inhalation. Liquid or spray mist
may produce tissue damage particularly on mucous membranes of eyes, mouth and respiratory
tract. Skin contact may produce burns.

with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Cold water may be used. Get medical attention
immediately.
Skin Contact: In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15
minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Cover the irritated skin with an
emollient. Cold water may be used.Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before
reuse. Get medical attention immediately.
is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention immediately.
anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or
waistband. Get medical attention if symptoms appear.

Flammability of the Product: Non-flammable.
Auto-Ignition Temperature: Not applicable.
Flash Points: Not applicable.
Flammable Limits: Not applicable.
Products of Combustion:

Small Spill: Dilute with water and mop up, or absorb with an inert dry material and place in an
appropriate waste disposal container. If necessary: Neutralize the residue with a dilute solution of
sodium carbonate.
117
APPENDIX-I
Large Spill: Corrosive liquid. Poisonous liquid. Stop leak if without risk. Absorb with DRY earth,
sand or other non-combustible material. Do not get water inside container. Do not touch spilled
material. Use water spray curtain to divert vapor drift. Use water spray to reduce vapors. Prevent
entry into sewers, basements or confined areas: dike if needed. Call for assistance on disposal.
Neutralize the residue with a dilute solution of sodium carbonate. Be careful that the product is not
present at a concentration level above TLV. Check TLV on the MSDS and with local authorities.

Precautions: Keep locked up.. Keep container dry. Do not ingest. Do not breathe gas/fumes/
vapor/spray. Never add water to this product. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable
respiratory equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container or the
label. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents,
reducing agents, combustible materials, organic materials, metals, acids, alkalis, moisture. May
corrode metallic surfaces. Store in a metallic or coated fiberboard drum using a strong polyethylene
inner package.
Storage: Hygroscopic. Reacts. violently with water. Keep container tightly closed. Keep container
in a cool, well-ventilated area. Do not store above 23°C (73.4°F).

airborne concentrations of vapors below their respective threshold limit value. Ensure that eyewash
stations and safety showers are proximal to the work-station location.
Personal Protection: Face shield. Full suit. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified
respirator or equivalent. Gloves. Boots.
Gloves. A self contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product.
Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient: consult a specialist BEFORE handling this
product.

Physical state and appearance: Liquid. (Thick oily liquid.)
Odor: Odorless, but has a choking odor when hot.
118
APPENDIX-I
Taste: Marked acid taste. (Strong.)

Color: Colorless.
pH (1% soln/water): Acidic.
Boiling Point: 270°C (518°F) - 340 deg. C Decomposes at 340 deg. C
Melting Point: -35°C (-31°F) to 10.36 deg. C (93% to 100% purity)
Critical Temperature: Not available.
Solubility: Easily soluble in cold water. Sulfuric is soluble in water with liberation of much heat.
Soluble in ethyl alcohol.

Conditions of Instability: Conditions to Avoid: Incompatible materials, excess heat, combustible
material materials, organic materials, exposure to moist air or water, oxidizers, amines, bases.
Always add the acid to water, never the reverse.
Incompatibility with various substances: Reactive with oxidizing agents, reducing agents,
combustible materials, organic materials, metals, acids, alkalis, moisture.
Corrosivity: Extremely corrosive in presence of aluminum, of copper, of stainless steel(316).
Highly corrosive in presence of stainless steel(304). Non-corrosive in presence of glass.

Routes of Entry: Absorbed through skin. Dermal contact. Eye contact. Inhalation. Ingestion.
Skin: Causes severe skin irritation and burns. Continued contact can cause tissue necrosis.
Eye: Causes severe eye irritation and burns. May cause irreversible eye injury.
Ingestion: Harmful if swallowed. May cause permanent damage to the digestive tract. Causes
gastrointestial tract burns. May cause perforation of the stomach, GI bleeding, edema of the glottis,
necrosis and scarring, and sudden circulatory collapse(similar to acute inhalation). It may also
cause systemic toxicity with acidosis.
119
APPENDIX-I
Inhalation: May cause severe irritation of the respiratory tract and mucous membranes with sore
throat, coughing, shortness of breath, and delayed lung edema. Causes chemical burns to the
repiratory tract.

Ecotoxicity: Ecotoxicity in water (LC50): 49 mg/l 48 hours [bluegill/sunfish].
BOD5 and COD: Not available.
Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The products of degradation are less toxic than the
product itself.

Waste Disposal: Sulfuric acid may be placed in sealed container or absorbed in vermiculite, dry
sand, earth, or a similar material. It may also be diluted and neutralized. Be sure to consult with
local or regional authorities (waste regulators) prior to any disposal. Waste must be disposed of in
accordance with federal, state and local environmental control regulations.

DOT Classification: Class 8: Corrosive material
Identification: : Sulfuric acid UNNA: 1830 PG: II
5. MSDS of Sodium hydroxide

Product Name: Sodium hydroxide
Catalog Codes: SLS3298, SLS1081, SLS2503, SLS3925, SLS1705
CAS No.: 1310-73-2
RTECS: WB4900000
TSCA: TSCA 8(b) inventory: Sodium hydroxide
CINo.: Not available.Synonym: Caustic Soda
Chemical Name: Sodium Hydroxide
120
APPENDIX-I
Chemical Formula: NaOH

Composition:
Name: Sodium Hydroxide
CAS No.: 1310-73-2
% by Weight: 100%

Potential Acute Health Effects: Very hazardous in case of skin contact (corrosive, irritant,
permeator), of eye contact (irritant, corrosive), of ingestion, of inhalation. The amount of tissue
damage depends on length of contact. Eye contact can result in corneal damage or blindness. Skin
contact can produce inflammation and blistering.

with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Cold water may be used. Get medical attention
immediately.
Skin Contact: In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15
minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Cover the irritated skin with an
emollient. Cold water may be used. Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before
reuse. Get medical attention immediately.
is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention immediately.
anything by mouth to an unconscious person. If large quantities of this material are swallowed,
call a physician immediately. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband.

Flammability of the Product: Non-flammable.
Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: metals
121
APPENDIX-I

Small Spill: Use appropriate tools to put the spilled solid in a convenient waste disposal
container.
If necessary: Neutralize the residue with a dilute solution of acetic acid.
Large Spill: Corrosive solid. Stop leak if without risk. Do not get water inside container. Do not
touch spilled material. Use water spray to reduce vapors.

Precautions: Keep container dry. Do not breathe dust. Never add water to this product. In case of
insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment. If you feel unwell, seek medical
attention and show the label when possible. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Keep away from
incompatibles such as oxidizing agents, reducing agents, metals, acids, alkalis, moisture.
Storage: Keep container tightly closed. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area.

Engineering Controls:Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation, or other engineering
controls to keep airborne levels below recommended exposure limits. If user operations generate
dust, fume or mist, use ventilation to keep exposure to airborne contaminants below the exposure
limit.
Personal Protection: Splash goggles. Synthetic apron. Vapor and dust respirator. Be sure to use an
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill: Splash goggles. Full suit. Vapor and dust respirator.
Boots. Gloves. A self contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the
product. Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient: consult a specialist BEFORE
handling this product.

Physical state and appearance: Solid. (Deliquescent solid.)
Odor: Odorless.
Molecular Weight: 40 g/mole
122
APPENDIX-I
Solubility: Easily soluble in cold water.

Conditions of Instability: Incompatible materials, moisture, moist air
Incompatibility with various substances: Highly reactive with metals. Reactive with oxidizing
agents, reducing agents, acids, alkalis, moisture.
Special Remarks on Reactivity: Hygroscopic. Much heat is evolved when solid material is
dissolved in water. Therefore cold water and caution must be used for this process.
Special Remarks on Corrosivity: Very caustic to aluminum and other metals in presence of
moisture.
Polymerization: Will not occur.

Routes of Entry: Absorbed through skin. Dermal contact. Eye contact. Inhalation. Ingestion.
Toxicity to Animals: LD50: Not available. LC50: Not available.

Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The product itself and its products of degradation are
not toxic.

Waste Disposal: Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and local
environmental control regulations.

DOT Classification: Class 8: Corrosive material
Identification: : Sodium hydroxide, solid UNNA: 1823 PG: II
123
APPENDIX-II
APPENDIX-II
124
APPENDIX-II
125
APPENDIX-II
126
APPENDIX-II
127
APPENDIX-II
128
APPENDIX-II
129
APPENDIX-II
130
APPENDIX-II
131
REFERENCES
REFERENCES
1. Robert H. Perry, Perry ‘s Chemical Engineer ‘s Handbook Fifth Edition, McGraw Hill.
2. McCabe and Smith, Unit Operation of Chemical Engineering, Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill.
3. B. I. Bhatt and S. M. Vora, Stoichiometry, Third Edition, Tata McGraw Hill.
4. Coulson & Richardson’s, ―Chemical Engineering, Third Edition, Vol.6. Plant.
5. Austin H. Church, Centrifugal pumps and blowers, Krieger publishing company.
6. Peters M.S. & Timmerhaus K.D., Plant Design & Economics for Chemical Engineering, 2nd
edition: McGraw Hill company.
7. Manual of ANILINE-TDI at GNFC.
8. Unit Operation of Chemical Engineering, McCabe and Smith
9. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic design, R.K. banasal
10. Higher Engineering Mathematics, B.S. Grewal
11. Process Equipment Design, M.V. Joshi
12. Introduction to chemical Equipment design, B.C. Bhattacharya
13. Process Heat transfer, D.Q. Kern.
14. Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, Peter Max S. and Timmerhaus
Klaus D.
15. Chemical Process Safety, Daniel A. Crowl
16. https://www.Chemspider.com
17. https://www.researchget.in
18. https://www.hvac-system-blogspot.com
19. https://www.directmaterial.com
20. https://www.tameson.com
21. https://www.valvemagazine.com
22. https://www.tameson.com
23. https://www.moldex.com
24. https://www.draw.io
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Under the Guidance of

Department of Chemical Engineering

1.1 History of Nitrobenzene

IUPAC NAME: Nitrobenzene

Figure 1.1 Chemical structure of nitrobenzene[19]

1.2 Nitrobenzene production capacity

1.3 Market value

1.4 Technology providers

The technology providers are:

1.5 Reaction scheme for process

1. AMOS corporation, Ahmedabad

1. Chemieorganic Chemicals Pvt. Ltd., Jhagadia

1.8 Reaction mechanism

The nitration of benzene involves the following steps

HNO3 + 2H2SO4 NO2+ + 2HSO4- + H3O+

Figure 1.2 Formation of nitronium ion

2. Removal of proton gives nitrobenzene.

Figure 1.3 Removal of proton gives nitrobenzene

1.9 Applications of nitrobenzene

Most significant uses of Nitrobenzene

1.10 Properties of nitrobenzene*

* Refer Appendix-I for MSDS of Nitrobenzene

2.2 Process Selection

The entire plant is divided into three sections:

1. Nitration of benzene using nitric acid alone

2. Nitration of benzene using mixed acid

2.3 Raw materials

2.4 Raw materials cost

 Benzene: 45-60 Rs/kg

2.5 Raw materials availability

Raw materials Source

2.6 Properties of Raw Material

2.6.1 Properties of Benzene*

 Melting point: 5.530C

* Refer Appendix-I for MSDS of Benzene

 Explosive limit: 1.3 to 7%

2.6.2 Properties of Nitric acid*

2.6.3 Properties of Sulphuric acid**

2.6.4 Properties of Caustic soda***

* Refer Appendix-I for MSDS of Nitric acid

2.7 Process Block Diagram

Figure 2.2 Process block diagram[7]

2.8 Process Description

2.8.1 Nitration and extraction of spent acid

2.8.3 Recovery of benzene

2.8.4 Storage Crude and pure NB

2.9 Process Flow Diagram

Figure 2.3 Process Flow Diagram[7]

3.1.1 Capacity of the plant

3.1.2 Chemical Reactions

Nitric Acid 63 1500

Caustic Soda 40 2130

Nitrobenzene 123 1200

3.2 Material Balance

3.2.1 Pump Reactor

Figure 3.1 Material Balance across Pump reactor

We take 20% excess benzene for attaining 99.5% conversion of benzene.

Table 3.2 Material balance across pump reactor

Component Input (kg/hr) Output (kg/hr)

Figure 3.2 Material balance across Separator

Table 3.3 Material balance across separator

Component Inlet (kg/hr) Outlet (kg/hr)

= 506.721.8(44-0) + 11.324.184(44-0) + 4010.671.4(44-0)