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Hands On Relay School: Transformer Protection Open Lecture
Hands On Relay School: Transformer Protection Open Lecture
Transformer Protection Open Lecture
Hands On Relay School
Transformer Protection Open Lecture
Class Outline
• Transformer protection overview
• Review transformer connections
• Discuss challenges and methods of current
differential Protection
• Discuss other protective elements used in
transformer protection
Scott Cooper scottc@mantatest.com
(727)415-5843
Eastern Regional Manager 204 37th Avenue North #281
Manta Test Systems Saint Petersburg, FL 33704
Transformer Protection Overview
Transformer Protection Zones
Types of Protection
Mechanical Protection
• Analysis of Accumulated Gases
– Looks for arcing by‐products
• Sudden Pressure Relays
– Orifice allows for normal thermal expansion/contraction. Arcing
causing pressure waves in oil or gas space overwhelming the orifice
and actuating the relay.
• Thermal
– Caused by overload, over excitation, harmonics and geo magnetically
induced currents
• Hot spot temperature
• Top Oil
• LTC Overheating
Types of Protection
Relay Protection
• Internal Short Circuit
– Phase: 87HS, 87T
– Ground: 87HS, 87T, 87GD
• System Short Circuit Back Up Protection
– Phase and Ground Faults
• Buses: 50, 50N, 51, 51N, 46
• Lines: 50, 50N, 51, 51N, 46
Types of Protection
Relay Protection
• Abnormal Operating Conditions
– Open Circuits: 46
– Overexcitation: 24
– Undervoltage: 27
– Abnormal Frequency: 81U
– Breaker Failure: 50BF, 50BF‐N
Phase Differential
Overview
• What goes into a “unit” comes out of
I1 + I2 + I3 = 0
a “unit”
• Kirchoff’s Law: The sum of the I1 I2
UNIT
currents entering and leaving a
junction is (should be) zero
• Straight forward concept, but not
that simple in practice with
I3
transformers
Phase Differential
Overview
A host of issues presents itself to decrease security and reliability of transformer
differential protection
• CT ratio caused current mismatch
• Transformation ratio caused current mismatch (fixed taps)
• LTC induced current mismatch
• Delta‐wye transformation of currents
– Vector group and current derivation issues
• Zero‐sequence current elimination for external ground faults on wye windings
• Inrush phenomena and its resultant current mismatch
• Harmonic content availability during inrush period due to point‐on‐wave
switching (especially with newer transformers)
• Over‐excitation phenomena and its resultant current mismatch
• Internal ground fault sensitivity concerns
• Switch onto fault concerns
• CT saturation, remnance and tolerance
Phase Differential
Overview‐Transformer Basics
Transformer Tap Calculation‐Per Unit Concept
Compensation (2)
Change in CT Ratio 1:1, Y-Y
4:1, 3Y 1:1, 3Y
IA, IB, IC Ia, Ib, Ic
IA'*4 = Ia'
IB' * 4 = Ib'
IC' * 4 = Ic'
Phase Differential
Overview‐Transformer Basics
Transformer Tap Calculation‐Per Unit Concept
Compensation (3)
Transformer Ratio 2:1, Y-Y
1:1, 3Y 1:1, 3Y
IA, IB, IC Ia, Ib, Ic
IA' = Ia' / 2
IB' = Ib' / 2
IC' = Ic' / 2
Phase Differential
Overview‐Transformer Basics
Transformer Tap Calculation‐Per Unit Concept
Compensation (2)
Change in CT Ratio
100MVA 100MVA
IN OUT
Phase Differential
Overview‐Transformer Basics
Transformer Tap Calculation‐Per Unit Concept
Tap Calculation with Wye CTs Tap Calculation with Delta CTs
TransformerVA TransformerVA
WindingTap = WindingTap =
VL − L ∗ CTR ∗ 3 VL − L ∗ CTR
Phase Differential
Overview‐Transformer Basics
Transformer Tap Calculation‐Per Unit Concept
c -b
b
• Can be repeated for B & C, or you can assume –120 and –240
displacement from A for B&C respectively
• Ib – Ic and Ic – Ia would be the vectors
Phase Differential
Overview‐Transformer Basics
AC connected delta‐wye transformer
Ia-Ic Ia
Ic-Ib
Ia Ia
Ib-Ia Ic
Ib
Ib Ib
Ia
Ic-Ib Ic
Ib-Ia
Ib Ia-Ic
Ic Ic
Phase Differential
Overview‐Transformer Basics
• Subtracting vectors: Subtract from reference phase vector the connected non-
polarity vector…in our example Ia-Ic
b -c
• Can be repeated for B & C, or you can assume –120 and –240
displacement from A for B&C respectively
• Ib – Ia and Ic – Ib would be the vectors
Phase Differential
Overview‐Transformer Basics
Angular Displacement Conventions:
• ANSI Y‐Y, Δ‐Δ @ 0°; Y‐Δ , Δ‐Y @ X1 lags H1 by 30°
– ANSI makes life easy
• Euro‐designations use 30° increments of LAG from the X1 bushing to the
H1 bushings
– Dy11=X1 lags H1 by 11*30°=330°
or, H1 leads X1 by 30°
– Think of a clock – each hour is 30 degrees
0
11 1
10 2
C c A
US Standard Dy Example:
• H1 (A) leads X1 (a) by 30
• Currents on “H” bushings are delta quantities
US Standard Yd Example:
•H1 (a) leads X1 (A) by 30
•Currents on “X” bushings are delta quantities
B b A
• Applied with variable
percentage slopes to
accommodate CT saturation
and CT ratio errors
• Applied with inrush and over
excitation restraints
• Set with at least a 20% pick up
to accommodate CT
performance
– Class “C” CT; +/‐ 10% at 20X
rated
• If unit is LTC, add another +/‐
10%
• May not be sensitive enough
for all faults (low level, ground
faults near neutral)
Phase Differential
E‐M Relay Application
• CT ratios and tap settings are selected to
account for:
– Transformer ratios
– If delta or wye connected CTs are
applied
– Delta increases ratio by 1.73
• Delta CTs must be used to filter zero‐
sequence current on all wye transformer
windings
• Dy transformer connections compensated
by yd CT connections to make the currents
“apples to apples”.
Phase Differential
E‐M Relay Application
Zero‐sequence elimination: In E‐M relays with wye connected transformers,
delta connected CTs are used to remove the ground current.
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
Settings compensate for the following:
• Transformer ratio
• CT ratio
• Vector quantities
– Which vectors are used
– Where the 1.73 factor (√3) is applied
• When examining line to line
quantities on delta connected
transformer windings and CT
windings
• Zero‐sequence current filtering for
wye windings so the differential
quantities do not occur from
external ground faults
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
Angular displacement (IEC and SEL)
• IEC (Euro) practice does not
*1
have a standard like ANSI
*1 • Most common connection is
Dy11 (low lead high by 30!)
*2
• Obviously observation of
*2 angular displacement is
extremely important when
paralleling transformers!
*1 = ANSI std. @ 0°
*2 = ANSI std. @ X1 lag H1 by 30°,
or “high lead low by 30 ° “
Digital Relay Application
All wye CTs shown, most can retrofit legacy delta CT applications
Benefits of Wye CTs
• Phase segregated line currents
– Individual line current oscillography
– Currents may be easily used for overcurrent
protection and metering
– Easier to commission and troubleshoot
– Zero sequence elimination performed by
calculation
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
Zero‐sequence elimination: In digital relays with wye connected
transformers and wye connected CTs, ground current must be removed from
the differential calculation.
Typical Transformer Inrush Waveform
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
Harmonically Restrained Differential Element
• Inrush Detection and Restraint
– Inrush occurs on transformer energizing as the core magnetizes
– Sympathy inrush occurs from adjacent transformer(s) energizing, fault
removal, allowing the transformer to undergo a low level inrush
– Characterized by current into one winding of transformer, and not out
of the other winding(s)
– This causes the differential element to pickup
– Use inrush restraint to block differential element during inrush period
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
• Inrush Detection and Restraint
– 2nd harmonic restraint has been employed for years
– “Gap” detection has also been employed
– As transformers are designed to closer tolerances, both 2nd harmonic
and low current gaps in waveform have decreased
– If 2nd harmonic restraint level is set too low, differential element may
be blocked for internal faults with CT saturation (with associated
harmonics generated)
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
• Inrush Detection and Restraint
– 4th harmonic is also generated during inrush
– Odd harmonics are not as prevalent as Even harmonics during inrush
– Odd harmonics more prevalent during CT saturation
– Use 4th harmonic and 2nd harmonic together
– M‐3310/M‐3311 relays use RMS sum of the 2nd and 4th harmonic as
inrush restraint
– Result: Improved security while not sacrificing reliability
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
• Overexcitation Restraint
– Overexcitation occurs when volts per hertz
level rises (V/Hz)
– This typically occurs from load rejection and
malfunctioning generation AVRs
– The voltage rise at nominal frequency causes
the V/Hz to rise
– This causes 5th harmonics to be generated in
the transformer as it begins to go into
saturation
– The current entering the transformer is more
than the current leaving due to this increase in
magnetizing current
– This causes the differential element to pick‐up
– Use 5th harmonic level to detect overexcitation
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
2.0
1.5 TRIP
87T Pick Up
1.0 with 5th Harmonic Restraint Slope 2
87T Pick Up
RESTRAIN
0.5
Slope 2
Breakpoint
Slope 1
• 87T Pick Up
– Class C CTs, use 20%
– LTC, add 10%
– Magnetizing losses, add 1%
– 0.3 to 0.4 pu typically setting
• Slope 1
– Used for low level currents
– Typically set for 25%
• Slope 2 “breakpoint”
– Typically set at 2X rated current
– This setting assumes that any current over 2X rated is a
through fault or internal fault, and is used to desensitize the
element against unfaithful replication
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
• Slope 2
– Typically set at 70%
• Inrush Restraint (2nd and 4th harmonic)
– Typically set from 15‐20%
– Employ cross phase averaging blocking for security
• Over‐excitation Restraint (5th harmonic)
– Typically set at 30%
– Raise 87T pick up to 0.60 pu during overexcitation
– No cross phase averaging needed, as overexcitation is
symmetric on the phases
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
• Unrestrained 87H Pick Up
– Typically set at 8‐10pu rated current
– This value should be above maximum possible inrush current
and lower than the CT saturation current
– C37.91, section 5.2.3, states 10pu an acceptable value
– Can use data captured from energizations to fine tune the
setting
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
CT Issues:
• Remnance: Residual magnetism that causes dc saturation of the
CTs
• Saturation: Error signal resulting from too high a primary current
combined with a large burden
• Tolerance: Class “C” CTs are rated +/‐ 10% for currents x20 of
nominal
– Thru‐faults and internal faults may reach those levels depending on ratio
selected
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
CT Issues (cont.)
• Best defense is to use high “Class C” voltage levels
– C400, C800
– These have superior characteristics against saturation and relay/wiring
burden
• Use low burden relays
– Digital systems are typically 0.020 ohms
• Use a variable percentage slope characteristic to desensitize
the differential element when challenged by high currents that
may cause replication errors
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
“Point‐on‐Wave” Considerations During Energization
• As most circuit breakers are ganged three‐pole, each phase is closed at a
different angle resulting in less harmonics on one phase and more on the
others
• Low levels of harmonics may not provide inrush restraint for affected phase –
security risk!
• Most modern relays employ some kind of cross‐phase averaging scheme to
compensate for this issue
– Provides security if any phase has low harmonic content during inrush or overexcitation
– This can occur depending on the voltage point‐on‐wave when the transformer is energized for a
given phase
– Cross phase averaging uses the average of harmonics on all three phases to determine level
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
Improved Ground Fault Sensitivity:
• 87T element is typically set with 20‐40% pick up
• This is to accommodate Class “C” CT accuracy
during a fault plus the effects of LTCs
• That leaves 20‐40% of the winding not covered for
a ground fault
• Employ a ground differential element to improve
sensitivity (87GD)
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
Switch‐onto‐Fault:
• Transformer is faulted on energizing
• Harmonic restraint on unfaulted phases may work
against trip decision if cross phase averaging is used
– Un‐faulted phase will have no harmonics, other phases
may have high value
• Employ 87HS to protect winding that is being
energized
• Employ 87GD on coupled winding if it is wye
Phase Differential
Digital Relay Application
Switch‐onto‐Fault (cont):
• Employ 87HS to protect winding that is first energized
• 87HS is set above inrush current
• If fault is near the bushing end of the winding, the current will be higher
than inrush
– Typically 9‐12 pu thru current
• 87HS does not employ harmonic restraint
– Fast tripping on high current faults
Ground Differential
Digital Relay Application
• Use 87GD IA
• IA + IB + IC = 3I0
• If fault is internal, IB
opposite polarity
• If fault is external, same IC
polarity
IG
Ground Differential
Digital Relay Application
IA IA
IB IB
IC IC
IG IG
Internal External
Ground Differential
Digital Relay Application
Restricted Earth Fault Trip Characteristic
• 87GD Pick Up
– Element normally uses directional comparison between phase
residual current (3I0) and measured ground current (IG)
• No user setting
– Pick up only applicable when 3I0 current is below 140mA (5A
nom.)
• Pick up = 3I0 - IG
– If 3I0 greater than 140mA, element uses:
• –3I0 * IG * cosθ. It will trip only when the directions of the
currents is opposite, indicating an internal fault
• Using direction comparison mitigates the effects of saturation on
the phase and ground CTs
Ground Differential
Digital Relay Application
IA
Residual current
calculated from
IB individual phase
currents. Paralleled
CTs shown to
illustrate principle.
90
IC
IG IG 3I0 IG
180 0
-3IO
270
Ground Differential
Digital Relay Application
90
-3IO
IG
180 0
270
Other Transformer Protection
Over current Elements
• Fuses
– Small transformers ( <10 MVA)
– Short circuit protection only
• Over current protection
– H‐side
• Through fault protection
• Differential back‐up protection for high side faults
– X‐side
• System back up protection
• Unbalanced load protection
Other Transformer Protection
Over current Elements
H‐side over current elements:
• Protection against heavy prolonged through faults
• Transformer Category by nameplate capacity
– IEEE Std. C57.109‐1985 Curves
Cat. 2 & 3
Fault Frequency
Zones
Through Fault
Category 1
Through Fault
Category 2
Through Fault
Category 3
Through Fault
Category 4
Other Transformer Protection
Over current Elements
X‐side Over Current
Elements
• Used to protect
against un‐cleared
faults downstream
of the transformer
• May consist of phase 51
51
G
and ground
elements
• Coordinated with
line protection off
Failed Breaker
the bus
Other Transformer Protection
Over current Elements
X‐side Over Current Elements:
• Negative sequence over
current used to protect
against unbalanced loads &
open conductors 46
• Easy to coordinate
Other Transformer Protection
Over current Elements
• Overexcitation:
– Responds to overfluxing; excessive v/Hz
– Continuous operational limits
• ANSI C37.106 & C57.12
– 1.05 loaded, 1.10 unloaded
• Inverse curves typically available for values over the
continuous allowable maximum
Other Transformer Protection
Over current Elements
Causes:
• Generating Plants
– Excitation system runaway
– Sudden loss of load
– Operational issues (reduced frequency)
• Static starts
• Pumped hydro starting
• Rotor warming
• Transmission Systems
– Voltage and Reactive Support Control Failures
• Capacitor banks ‘ON’ when they should be ‘OFF’
• Shunt reactors ‘OFF’ when they should be ‘ON’
• Generator unit transformer connected to long line with
no‐load (Ferranti effect)
• Runaway LTCs
Overexcitation Curve
This is typically how the apparatus manufacturer specs it
Overexcitation Curve
This is how protection engineers enter the v/Hz curve into a protective device
References:
‐ANSI / IEEEC37.91, “Guide for Protective Relay Applications for Power Transformers”
‐ANSI/IEEE C57.12, “Standard General Requirements for Liquid Immersed Distribution,
Power and Regulating Transformers”
Protective Relaying: Principals and applications, Third Edition By J. Lewis Blackburn
and Thomas J. Domin
‐Digital Transformer Protection from Power Plants to Distribution Substations, CJ
Mozina
General Electric “Transformer Connections including Autotransformer Connections”
GET‐2J, Dec, 1970
87
T
50
51
51
G