History Project - Akbar

History project semester 1
DR. RAM MAHOHAR LOHIYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY
HISTORY
PROJECT ON:
(FINAL DRAFT)
POLICIES AND REFORMS OF AKBAR
SUBMITTED BY: UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF:
DEVANSH RATHI MRS. VANDANA SINGH
ROLL NO: 053 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR (HISTORY)
SECTION ‘A’ BA LLB 1st SEMESTER
SIGNATURE OF STUDENT: SIGNATURE OF PROFESSOR:
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my gratitude and deep regards to my teacher for the subject . Mrs. Vandana Singh
for giving me such a challenging topic and also for her exemplary guidance, monitoring and
constant encouragement throughout the course of this thesis.
I also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to my seniors in the college
for their cordial support, valuable information and guidance, which helped me in completing
this task through various stages.
I am obliged to the staff members of the Madhu Limaye Library, for the timely and valuable
information provided by them in their respective fields. I am grateful for their cooperation
during the period of my assignment.
Lastly, I thank almighty, my family and friends for their constant encouragement without
which this assignment would not have been possible.
DEVANSH
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
INTRODUCTION ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
RELIGIOUS POLICIES AND REFORMS .............................................................................. 5
SOCIAL REFORMS..................................................................................................................9
LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE...............................................................................................13
ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES AND REFORMS................................................................17
CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................24
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................26
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INTRODUCTION
Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar also known as Akbar the Great (November 23, 1542 –
October 17 or October 27, 1605) Born, Badr-ud-din Muhammad Akbar, his name was
changed to Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar and his birthdate was officially changed to
October 15, 1542. He was the son of Nasiruddin Humayun whom he succeeded as ruler of the
Mughal Empire from 1556 to 1605. He was the grandson of Babur who founded the Mughal
dynasty. On the eve of his death in 1605, the Mughal empire spanned almost 1 million square
kilometers.
Akbar, widely considered the greatest of the Mughal emperors, was only 14 when he
ascended the throne in Delhi, following the death of his father Humayun. He was descended
from Turks, Mongols, and Iranians — the three peoples who predominated in the political
elites of northern India in medieval times. It took him the better part of two decades to
consolidate his power and bring parts of northern and central India into his realm. During his
reign, he reduced external military threats from the Pashtun (Afghan) descendants of Sher
Shah by waging wars against Afghan tribes, and at the Second Battle of Panipat he defeated
the Hindu king Samrat Hemu Chandra Vikramaditya, also called Hemu.1 The emperor
solidified his rule by pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Rajput caste, and by admitting
Rajput princesses in his harem.
Akbar was not only a warrior and an emperor but also a policy maker and a reformer. He
formulated several policies in various fields whether it maybe administrative, social or
political that not only made his kingship stronger but also gained support from his ‘praja’.
Many of his policies have gained the appreciation of many of the historians in today’s date.
The mansabari system that came into existence in Akbar’s reign is one such policy. Despite
being a foreign ruler he reaped the love and support of the Hindu natives and this attained a
new height when he removed the pilgrimage tax that the Hindus had to pay since a long time.
He also founded his own religious cult, the Din-i-Ilahi. There are many reasons why ‘The
Great’ was appended in Akbar’s name.
1
http://www.ijrssh.com/images/short_pdf/Jul_2013_SOLE%20SANJAY%20SHRIVANT.pdf
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 Religious Policies and Reforms –
Akbar was born and brought up in comparatively liberal surroundings. Bairam Khan, a
confirmed Shia and who became Akbar’s guardian and protector, was responsible for
moulding and shaping his policy. Akbar’s most notable tutor, Abul Latif, taught him the
principle of suleh-i-kul (universal peace) which akbar never forgot. Thus heredity and
environment combined to influence his religious views in direction of liberalism.
ABOLITION OF PILGRIM’S TAX, 1563
When Akbar reached his twentieth year he experienced in himself a remarkable spiritual
change which produced a wholesome result on his attitude towards the people. By this time,
the young king had decided to be his own master and to map out his own policy for the
benefit of his dynasty and country, without being trammelled by any other consideration.
In 1563, he issued an order for the abolition of the pilgrim’s tax throughout his kingdom.
That year, while encamped at Mathura, it was brought to his notice that his government
levied a tax on the pilgrims who visited hindu places of pilgrimage.2 He felt this was against
god’s will that any person should be asked to pay tax for worshipping god.
REMOVAL OF JIZYA, 1564
The next concrete step taken by him was removal of ‘jizya’ which was mandatory for all non-
Muslims to pay. Jizya or jizyah is a per capita yearly tax historically levied by Islamic states
on certain non-Muslim subjects permanently residing in Muslim lands under Islamic law.3
While exempting women, children, elders, handicapped, the ill, the insane, monks, hermits,
slaves and musta'mins—non-Muslim foreigners who only temporarily reside in Muslim
lands. Tax was seen as a barrier by the Hindus on grounds of equality and repeatedly
reminded them they were inferior. Akbar, who had decided to remove all invidious
distinctions between various sections of his subject, caused a substantial loss to his treasury.
But he won the goodwill of the vast majority of the natives. In 1579 news came to Akbar that
2
A.Chakrobarthy & SK.Biswal, History of Medieval India, pg.146
3
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jizya
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jizya was still being practised in some parts of his kingdom, the king not only stopped it but
also issued new ‘farmans’ throughout the empire reiterating its permanent abolition.4
DIN ILAHI
Dissatisfied with tradition and authority, Akbar prescribed human reason as the sole basis of
religion and extended complete religious toleration to every creed in the empire. He was
grieved to see narrow-minded zealots preaching hatred against each other. In his anxiety to
do away with this religious discord he made an attempt to bring about a synthesis of all the
various religions known to him. It was a socio religious order, designed to cement diverse
communities in the land. It was based on the principle of ‘Sulh – i – kulh’ and comprised
good points of all the religions investigated by the emperor himself. It believed in the unity of
God and some of the important Hindu, Jain and Parsee doctrines found a prominent place in
it. However, it amounted only to a form of personality cult for Akbar, and quickly dissolved
after his death.5
AKBAR’S INTERACTION WITH OTHER RELIGION
1. Akbar and Christianity –

Akbar sent for Portuguese missionaries from Goa to be able to make a close study of
the doctrines of Christianity. In one of these missions consisting of Jerome Xavier and
Emmanuel Pinherio reached Lahore. As the king was desirous of acquiring the
complete knowledge of this religion, he not only behaved like an apt pupil but also
showed reverence to the images of Mary and Jesus and often attended the Chapel and
other ceremonies held by the Portuguese fathers
2. Akbar and Jainism –
Jainism exercised even a more profound influence on Akbar. He came in contact with
Jain Scholars very early due to his alliance with the ruling families of Rajasthan. He
even arranged a religious disputation between two Jain scholars of two rival schools
of thought. He invited living Jain divines, Hiravijay Suri of Tapa-Gachha from
Gujarat to explain to him the principles of his religion. He was received with all
possible honour and so impressed Akbar by his profound learning and ascetic
4
HV Sreenivasa Murthy, History Of India, pg 249
5
Bharat Bhushan, Medieval India, pg 215
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character that the emperor practically gave up his meat diet, released many prisoners
and prohibited slaughter of animals and birds for many days in a year. 6
IBADAT KAHANA
This period is also characterized by the discussions held at the Ibadat Khana, established by
Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575, after the Gujarat campaign. It is also known as House of
Worship. The main aim of Ibadat khana was to resolve disputes within groups through
discussions. Initially, it was open only for the Muslim sects, but later it was opened to the
representatives of other religions and faiths also. Akbar had a keen interest in the religious
and intellectual debates and disccusions, and thus took part in them in the hope that he would
educate himself in spite of the fact that he never got a chance to formally edcuate himself.
These deliberations were not conducted only for the sake of inquiry and search but most of
the participants hoped for a way to obtain favours and promotions from the court.
Contemporary historians like Badayuni often criticize the concept of Ibadat Khana and calls
it a place of worthless discussions. However, Abu Fazl, gives us an opposite picture and finds
these discussions very useful, which according to him guided the people away from the
darkness and enlightened them. As far as the composition of the intellectuals is concerned,
Ibadat khana included scholars from across the religions. The debates were open to
the Shias as well, Hindus were also being favoured as the new alliance was budding between
the crown and the Rajputs. Akbar also invited Zoroastrian priests, Jesuit missionaries and
Jain priests to widen the scope of discussions. However, later we find that the confluence of
different ideas led to confusion and led the debate to no conclusion. Thus, as professor R.P
Tripathi says, ” Instead of bringing credit, the Ibadat Khana brought growing
discredit. Thus, Akbar himself became convinced of the futility of these debates, and finally
closed the Ibadat Khana.7
OTHER POINTS
Other than the above mentioned heads, the emperor adopted many Hindu beliefs and
practices, such as, the transmigration of Soul and the doctrine of Karma. He began to
celebrate many Hindu festivals, such as Raksha Bandhan, Dushera, Diwali, Shivratri and
6
A.Chakrobarthy & SK.Biswal, History of Medieval India, pg.168
7
http://www.sansarlochan.in/en/akbars-religious-policies-and-ideologies/
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Vasant. Sometimes he would put the Hindu paint-mark (Tilak) on his forehead. He opened
the highest services to non- Muslims. Thus, he inaugurated an era of complete religious
toleration.
Akbar held discussions with the Brahmin scholars, Purushottam and Devi, and reputed
theologians of other faiths in the balcony of his bedroom during the night. He had respect for
all the faiths including Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and Christianity.
He also believed in the principle of Sulh-i-kul which is an Arabic term literally meaning
“peace with all,” “universal peace,” or “absolute peace,” drawn from a Sufi mystic principle.
It described a peaceful and harmonious relationship among different religions. In keeping
with efforts to mesh the diverse populations of his realm, Akbar proposed unity and peace
among all human beings – sulh-i kul. The concept implies not just tolerance, but also the sorts
of balance, civility, respect, and compromise required to maintain harmony among a diverse
population.8
Mughal Emperor Akbar was highly influenced by Hinduism. Akbar was acquainted with
many Hindu beliefs and practices. But as Akbar was anxious to acquire first-hand knowledge
of the principles and doctrines, of that religion as given in the Shrutis and Smritis, he
associated himself with prominent Hindu scholars, notable among them being Purushottam
and Devi. They were drawn to the balcony of the private apartments of the royal palace
during the night in order to explain to the emperor the mysteries of Hindu religion.
The Hindus but their scholars and chiefs looked upon the great emperor Akbar as one of
themselves. The religious policy of Akbar served the interests of all the religion and culture.
8
https://centerforinterculturaldialogue.files.wordpress.com/2016/01/kc75-sulh-i-kul.pdf
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 Social Reforms –
Akbar is also known because of the many social reforms he made at a time when caste
system and discrimination were at their peak.
 CHILD MARRIAGE –
Akbar was against child marriage which was prevalent both among the Hindus and
the Muslims. Orders prohibiting marriage before the age of 12 and between cousins
though permissible under Muslim law were passed by Akbar. Later the lowest age
for marriage was raised to 16 for the boys and 14 for the girls. Akbar seemed to have
possessed a very modern mind. Consent of the parents of the boy and the girl to be
married and also their mutual consent were made obligatory before marriage was
performed. A token marriage tax at varying rates was realized. Two officers called
Turbegs were appointed in big towns to inquire into the circumstances of the bride and
bridegroom. The Emperor took a tax from both the parties according to their status.
 PROHIBITING ANIMAL KILLING TO AN EXTENT –
He gave up hunting on Jumma Days (Fridays). He even remarked “It is not right that
a man should make his stomach the grave of animals”. A decree was passed by him
recommending that his subjects should refrain from eating meat on the day of his
accession as thanks-giving to Almighty in order that the year may pass in prosperity.
Badaoni deplored Akbar’s certain orders by observing that he “promulgated some of
his new-fangled decrees. The killing of animals on the first day of the week was
strictly prohibited, because the day is sacred to the Sun, and during the eighteen days
of the month of Fawardin, the whole month of Aban (the month in which his Majesty
was born) and on sacred days to please the Hindus”.9
 EDUCATION WAS OPEN TO ALL –
Akbar’s emphasis on secular studies was not liked by orthodox school of thought
but there was no intention on Akbar’s part to destroy Arabic literature. The Imperial
9
http://www.importantindia.com/12878/social-reforms-of-akbar/
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Library in fact, contained a great many works in Arabic. Akbar not only widened the
curriculum of studies but also threw open the gates of educational institutions which
had hitherto before been exclusively reserved for the Muslims. For the first time
under him Hindu and Muslim children sat side by side in the same educational
institutions. Sialkot was a famous seat of learning during his time.
 LIMITING THE USE OF LIQUOR –
Akbar recognized the social evils of intoxicants, drinks or otherwise, but he also
realized that it would be impossible to enforce total prohibition and he made a
compromise. He permitted wine-taking by only those whom doctors would certify it
to be necessary. Excessive drinking, disorderly behavior after drinking or to booze
were made punishable. The names of the purchasers of wine had to be recorded in
the shop at the time buying wine.
 AN ATTEMPT TO PACIFY THE EFFECTS OF GAMBLING –
Akbar recognized the evil of gambling but it was so wide spread that he found it
impossible to suppress the evil. Gambling brought ruin to families, resulted in strife,
yet it was almost universal. Akbar set up a state bank from which loans might be
taken by the gamblers and every gambling den was made liable to pay a fixed
charge.
 PASSING FARMANS AGAINST SATI –
Though the practice of Sati was abolished completely during the modern times when
British came to India, one cannot forget the contribution of Akbar. Akbar was the
first Mughal emperor who made an attempt to stop the Hindu custom of Sati. He put
a check on the infanticide and the prohibited the custom of sati. In 1590-91 when he
sensed opposition from the orthodox Hindus, he ordered that no woman can be burnt
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against her will. He had also appointed special inspectors keep a watch on the forced
as well as volunatry Sati.10
 DISAPPROVING THE SYSTEM OF HIGH DOWRIES AND POLYGAMY –
While the dowry system is still here even in the modern India, Akbar himself
disapproved the system of giving or receiving high dowries. It is interesting to note
that Akbar also condemned the system of polygamy. According to him it not only
ruined the happiness and the health but also the tranquility of a person’s mind. Here
he based his arguments on economic and health grounds. His argument was it is
difficult for a man with ordinary means to maintain one wife and how much it is
difficult to maintain four wives. Even on health grounds, he argued that it is not
desirable to have more than one wife. It is said that Akbar in his later days realized
how he should have married only once instead of marrying several times.
 ABOLISHING THE JAGIR SYSTEM –
Akbar abolished the Jagir system, thus ending the problems of the farmers. After this
reform the state directly collected the taxes and the officers carrying out the duty was
paid salaries for their job. All Jagirs were converted into Crownlands.
 CENSUS FORMULATION –
From 1581 several reform measures were undertaken in quick succession. In the
same year on his way to Kabul expedition Akbar passed an order from Sirhind that a
census of population should be taken. The Jagirdars, Siqdars, Daroghas of all
provinces were to record the number of the people, their trade, occupation, income,
and also the residents, i.e. not permanent inhabitants of the area. The good
inhabitants were to be classified from the bad. It is difficult, in absence of detailed
evidence, the extent to which this order for census was actually executed in those
days when there was lack of proper communication, conveyance etc.
10
http://www.preservearticles.com/2012031026033/comprehensive-essay-on-the-reforms-made-by-akbar.html
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 CEASING THE PRACTISE OF PROSTITUTION –
Akbar wanted to put an end to the institute of prostitution. But he soon realized that
it was being patronized by his own officials and nobles. He decided to regulate it.
When he built the new capital at Fatehpur Sikri a separate extension called
‘Saitangarh’ was formed to house the prostitutes. An office was set up at the main
gates where the states officials where asked to make note of addresses of the people
who frequented the extension.11
 MANUMISSION OF SLAVES –
The long barbaric process of enslaving prisoners of war which was started from the
time man first hold a weapon was brought to an end in India and that to by a foreign
ruler. Akbar abolished the system of enslavement of the wives and children of the
conquered people. All persons in India were to be free.12
 RETURNING BACK TO OWN RELIGION –
Unlike his predecessors, Akbar was more farsighted and original. He possessed a
large measure of humanity in his character. In his desire to emancipate India from
the thralldom of the religion of a minority and extricate her from the clamps of
theocracy h repealed the Islamic law in relation to non – Muslims. In 1580 he passed
an ordinance according to which the Hindus who were forcibly converted into Islam
were permitted to revert back to their own religion.
11
HV Sreenivasa Murthy, History Of India, pg 249
12
VD Mahajan, History of Medieval India, pg 111
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 Law, order and justice –
THE COMMON SYSTEM OF JUDUCIARY UNDER AKBAR
The judicial system of the under Akbar was very similar to that of the sultanate. As
compared with the judicial structure of British India, it was very simple, being based on a
different approach to many categories of disputes. Normally no lawyers were allowed to
appear. The disputes were speedily settled, often on the basis of equity and natural justice,
though of course in the case of Muslims the injunctions and precedents of Islamic law applied
where they existed. Many crimes—including murder—were treated as individual grievances
rather than crimes against society. The complaints in such cases were initiated by the
individuals aggrieved, rather than by the police, and could be compounded on payment of
compensation. The aim of the judicial system was primarily to settle individual complaints
and disputes rather than to enforce a legal code.
All foreign travelers have commented on the speedy justice of the Mughal court under Akbar
and the comparatively few cases coming before them. It was partly due to the general
prejudice against litigation, but even more to the fact that a large number of disputes,
particularly those affecting the Hindus, were settled by the village and caste panchayats, and
did not come before the official courts.13 The Hindus were not debarred from taking cases
before the qazi or the governor—and frequently did so where other arrangements did not
prove effective—but normally they had their own arrangements for settling their disputes.
Badauni has recorded that according to Akbar's orders the cases of Hindus were to be decided
by the Hindu judges and not by the qazis. The Jesuit Father Monserrate says that "Brachmane
(Brahmans) governed liberally through a senate and a council of the common people" —
referring presumably to the administration of justice by these agencies. Akbar used to spend
several hours of the day disposing of judicial cases, and governors followed the same
procedure in the provinces. In the Ain-i-Akbari we find the instructions issued to a governor
detailing the judicial procedure he should follow.
13
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_16.html#judiciary
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Governors of provinces were empowered to pass the sentence of death on persons guilty of
heinous crimes; they generally forwarded such cases to the emperor who inflicted the
punishment in extreme cases.
AKBAR ACTING AS A DESIROUS JUDGE
The king was the highest judge in the empire. According to the immemorial custom of the
East, he held court and decided cases in person. Usually the king’s court was the highest
court of appeal; but sometimes, he decided initial cases also. Akbar spent some time everyday
in listening to the complaints from the people and settling their disputes in a summary
fashion. On Thursdays he held a formal court of justice to hear and decide major cases, when
besides parties to a suit only high judicial officials and a few nobles for their probity and
integrity were allowed.
As a practical statesman with a keen sense of justice and unprejudiced mind, he was always
eager to enhance his reputation as the just monarch. Being the khalifa of the age, ‘the
foundation of all justice’; his court constituted the highest civil and criminal court of justice
which took up original as well as appellate cases. He personally heard the disputes and
administered even handed justice with the assistance of muftis and pandits who interpreted
the personal law of the Muslims and Hindus for him.14 Akbar introduced minor changes in
the judicial structure of the state and appointed right thinking men as the justices of peace so
as to make the system more efficient and purposeful.
CERTAIN CHANGES IN JUDICIARY BROUGHT BY AKBAR –
 He restricted the scope of Islamic law and extended the general or customary law of
the land so as to make it include as many causes as possible.
 Royal orders from Akbar had to be taken three times before the capital punishment
could be executed.
 A far more revolutionary ordinance led to the repeal of the law imposing punishment
of death for criticising the religion of Islam or the conduct of Prophet Muhammad.
 He introduced vital amendments relating to remarriage. Akbar ordered that a
musalman can take second wife only if the first one is barren. A Muslim woman was
not allowed to remarry if she ceased to have menses.15
14
Jl Mehta, Advanced Study In The History Of Mediveal India, Volume 2, Pg 371
15
Ak Chakrobarthy And Sk Biswal, History Of Mediveal India, Pg 193-194
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 Akbar introduced all legal disabilities imposed on the Hindus and extended the scope
of the common law by prescribing uniform rates of land revenue and other taxes.
Correspondingly the scope of the Muslim jurisprudence began to shrink paving the
way for the establishment of one common legal system.
SALIENT FEATURES OF ISLAMIC CRIMINAL LAW16 –
Islamic law which was applied in deciding criminal cases, recognises four kinds of
punishments –
 Qisas, i.e. retaliation. It was applied to cases of killing and wounding.

 Diya or compensation. It, too, was applied to cases of murder or wounding.
 Hadd or punishment ambiguously prescribed by the Muslim law relating to offences
of adultery.
 Tazir or punishment inflicted by the judge at his discretion. This related to crimes
which did not come under the category of had
Under the Islamic jurisprudence three kinds of offences, namely offences against god,
offences against state and offences against individual.
PUNISHMENTS
The law of Islam compounded offences against the state and private individuals. The usual
punishment of murder was death. But it could be compensated with money if the deceased’s
family did not insist on retaliation. If the family refused, the case was decided by the Qazi’s
court. For murdering a non-Muslim a Muslim was not put to death if the latter had not killed
the former treacherously.17
The Mughal penal code was severe; mutilation of limbs and physical torture formed an
essential part of it; albeit capital punishment could not be inflicted by any judicial authority
without approval of the king. Apart from these there were also imprisonments for various
terms, internment and fines, confiscation of property, flogging. Capital punishments were
inflicted by the king but governors had the power to pass the sentence for grave offences,
such as adultery, treason and sedition. A criminal was usually thrown under the feet of an
elephant and trampled to death.
16
Ak Chakrobarthy And Sk Biswal, History Of Mediveal India, Pg 196
17
http://www.preservearticles.com/2012041030124/get-complete-information-on-the-judicial-administration-of-
mughal-empire.html
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The following table shows punishment given for various crimes - 18
Crimes Punishments
Fornication (sexual relations between 100 strokes of the whip
unmarried persons)
False accusation of a married person with 80 strokes of the whip
adultery
Theft Loss of right hand
Robbery Loss hands and feet
Robbery with murder Death
Drinking wine 80 strokes of the whip
POLICE SYSTEM –
Akbar’s police administration was well organized and efficient. The police may be divided
into three categories of urban, district and village police. In all the cities and towns of the
empire there were kotwals charged with the duty of maintaining public order and decency.
Kotwal’s main duty was to see that the life of the city remains undisturbed and at same time
apprehend thieves, robbers and other petty criminals and to punish them. He was held
personally responsible for the value of the property stolen in case he failed to discover the
thief. In the district, law and order was maintained by the faujdar.19 His main work was the
policing of roads of the district and suppressing disorders of all kinds.
As for the police administration of the villages, Akbar, following the immemorial custom of
the country, established the principle of local authority. This authority was in the hand of
village headman. There was also a chaukidar for every village for normal police work.
The police arrangement under Akbar was fairly efficient and maintained a high standard of
public order and peace. It will, however, be idle to imagine that there were no cases of theft,
immorality, cheating or disturbances of public peace. There were professional thieves and
robbers living in the hills and the jungles who descended to the plains to ply their trade when
the local police administration lacked vigilance.
18
Hv Sreenivasa Murthy, History Of India Part 1, Pg 263
19
Ak Chakrobarthy And Sk Biswal, History Of Mediveal India, Pg 197
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 ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES &

REFORMS –
Akbar was not only a great empire builder but also a good administrator. His administration
saw the mixture of the Indian system and some ideas which the Mughals borrowed from
Central Asia and Persia.
THE SOVEREIGN, HIS POWERS AND DUTIES
Akbar was an all powerful monarch. In fact he was a despot, but enlightened and a
benevolent one. He was the head of the State, the supreme commander of the forces, and the
chief executive and possessed the supreme legislative authority. In spite of having such wide
powers, Akbar felt it binding to ascertain the wishes of the people and hardly went against
their interests. But this was more or less a matter of personal discretion of the king. There
was no written constitution to prescribe his duties, lay down his limitations and keep a check
on his despotism.
Early at sunrise, he was ready for jharokha dharshanto show himself to his people. Here he
was accessible to the natives and listened to their complaints and transacted state business.
Next he held an open court which generally lasted for four and half hours. Akbar devoted
about 16 hours a day to state business but he was wise enough to delegate much of the work
to his ministers, keeping in his hand initiation of policy and issue of instructions.20
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
The central govt consisted of four departments each presided by a minister which are –
1. The Prime Minister (Vakil) – Formerly he was the de-facto head of all the
departments of the central govt and had the power to appoint or dismiss other
ministers. But after the dismissal of Bairam Khan, the Vakil was gradually deprived
of his powers. First of all, the finance department was taken from and a separate
minister called diwan was appointed for it. Next, he was ceased to have full control
20
A chakrobarthy & sk biswal, history of medieval india, pg 178
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over other departments. The Vakil then ceased to exist. For many years, the post of
Vakil was not filled and Akbar himself took the post of prime minister. When the
office was revived, the Vakil was not entrusted with a portfolio. The post become
ornamental and did not carry with it serious duties except those of an advisor or of his
vicegerent during his illness or absence from capital.
2. Finance Minister ( Diwan or Wazir ) - As the head of the finance department diwan
was incharge of the revenues and expenditures of the kingdom. His main duties were
to formulate rules and regulations for the land revenue settlement settlement and for
fixing the rates of other kinds of revenue, and to scrutinize and control disbursements.
All official records were sent to him for inspection and storage.21 He was also
required to recommend and appoint provincial diwans and to guide and control them.
He affixed his seal on all important revenue transactions, including grants of
admission and free grants of land.
3. Pay Master General ( The Mir Bakshi ) – HIS rank was next to that of imperial diwan.
He maintained the records of the names, ranks, salaries of mansabdars. All orders of
appointment to mansabs of all ranks were passed through his office. He had to be in
touch with every mansabdar. He attended the royal durbar and stand to right of the
king. He presented candidates for service in the military department and to present
also the soldiers and horses of the mansabdars before the king. He had to prepare a
list of the guards that will keep a watch round the royal palace and was also required
to post news writers and spies in different provinces. Though he was not the chief
commander of the forces, he was sometimes required to conduct important military
operations. 22
4. Chief Sadr ( Sar–Us–Sadur ) – He was required to discharge three important
functions, namely, to at as the religious advisor to the king, disburse royal charity and
to function as the chief justice of the kingdom. As the chief religious advisor he was
required to give authoritative ruling on conflicting interpretations of Shara, and to
enforce them. It was his duty to assure that the king and kingdom did not astray from
the injuctions laid down in Quran and upheld the dignity of Islam. He was also require
to encourage Islamic learning and for this he was in touch with learned Muslim
divines and to encourage them grant by grant of scholarships, subsistence allowances
21
Jl Mehta, advanced study in the history of medieval india, volume 2, pg 332
22
18 | P a g e
and free grants of lands. He was the second highest judicial authority, next only to
Akbar.
After Akbar had reorganized his administrative and rejected the Islamic theory of
governemt, the chief Sadr naturally ceased to be his supreme religious advisor. Under
the new dispensation it was not necessary for the chief sadr to be the upholder of
Islamic law. Akbar clipped his powers regarding grant of scholarships and religious
jagirs. He was required to recommend deserving scholars, pious men and indigent
people; but generally this action was taken by king himself. Akbar took personal
interest and introduced several reforms in the department.
PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
Akbar had brought into existence highly centralized administrative machinery. For the sake
of administrative convenience, therefore it was divided into 15 provinces, namely, Allahabad,
Agra, Awadh, Ahmadabad, Bihar, Bengal, Delhi, Lahore, Kabul, Multan, Malwa, Berar,
Khandesh, Ahmadnagar and all of these were called subahs. In each subah there was a sipah
salar, a diwan, a bakshi, a sadr, a qazi, a kotwal and a waq navis.
1. Sipah Salar – He was the head of the province and headed a fairly big force. He was
appointed by Akbar and was responsible for the welfare of the people of his province
and administered even handed justice. He decided criminal cases. He was to maintain
peace and order and punish the guilty. He appointed loyal men for police duty and
intelligent service. He was to encourage agriculture and construct works of irrigation,
roads, sarais, gardens, hospitals etc.23 He was entrusted with the work of realising the
tribute from the vassal states situated within the boundaries of the subah. He was the
head of military, police and executive departments.
2. Diwan – he was the next most important officer. He was appointed on
recommendation of imperial diwan, and was responsible to him and was not
subordinate to the governor. He was in charge of the finance department and used to
collect revenue, keep accounts of balances and receipts, to disburse the salaries of
officers and to administer civil justice. He promoted growth of agriculture and a keep
a strict check on the treasury. He scrutinized the accounts of the revenue collectors
and to see that there were no arrears of revenue.
23
19 | P a g e
3. Bakshi – The provincial bakshi was appointed on recommendation of the mir bakshi
and was in charge of recruitment, organization, discipline and efficiency of the
provincial army under the command of the sipah salar. Construction and maintenance
of the courts was one of his special assignments.
4. Sadr – He was appointed on recommendation of imperial sadr by Akbar. He disbursed
royal charities and patronized education and learning on scholar lines. He awarded
land grants, scholarships and stipends to the scholars, professional artist, saints etc. He
acted as chief qazi and heard appeals against their decisions.
5. Waqaya Nawaiz -He posted newswriter and spies all over the province. He submitted
his reports to the governor but matters of serious nature were sent directly to the
imperial govt. Sometimes, the provincial bakshi acted as waqaya nawiz also although
he invariably held charge of the military intelligence.24
6. Kotwal – he was the special dignitary of the provincial administration. He was
appointed by the governor and was answerable to him. He was primarily a police
officer who combined in his office the functions of a municipal commissioner as well.
He recruited about 200-300 policemen – a sort of local militia, to establish law and
order in the town. He kept a strict watch over the outsiders and posted his man outside
sometimes in plain clothes to note the activities in the sarai of the province.25
7. Qazi – he was also appointed on recommendation of imperial qazi by the king
himself. And had the same powers as that of the imperial qazi but on a small scale.
THE ARMY: MANSABDARI SYSTEM
The soldiers performed various police and military functions; they defended international
borders, manned the forts, and fought the battles like military men but in times of peace, they
were employed as police men to apprehend the robbers and thieves and maintain law and
order within the empire. So was the case with the government officials; almost all of them
had to perform military and civil duties simultaneously. With the natures of the things as they
were, Akbar, evolved out a unique system of regulating imperial services by the introduction
of what we call as the Mansabari system which was promulgated in 1570.
24
25
20 | P a g e
The word mansab has been derived from the Arabic term mansib which means a post, an
office, rank or status; hence mansabdar means holder of a rank or an officer. 26
Mansabari system determined the rank, pay scale and the position of the imperial officer in
the royal court in respect of the govt officers. Initially, mansabs above 5000 were reserved
for princes of royal blood; highest rank of 10000 was for the king himself. But later on,
Akbar raised the highest rank to 12000 and a couple of nobles related to royal family
including Raja Man Singh and Mirza Aziz Koka were also made mansabdars of 7000.
It appeared that the system of mansabs did not function properly and caused a lot of
confusion. It was impossible for the central government to ascertain that at a given point what
the exact no of soldiers that were under a given mansabdar. The difficulty was solved after
sometime by the introduction of 2 ranks, zat and sawar.
Zat, Sawar & Three Grades.
Zat indicated the number of troops which a mansabdar was expected to maintain, while
sawar meant the actual number of troops that were under the control of a mansabdar.
However, scholars had divergent opinions about the crystal meaning of zat and sawar.27
It has been pointed out that every mansab of 5000 and below comprised three grades,
namely, first grade, second grade and third grade. A mansabdar belonged to the first grade of
a particular rank, if his sawar rank was same as his zat rank. If on other hand, his sawar rank
was less than zat rank but did not fall below half of his zat rank, he was under the second
grade. But, if his sawar rank was less than half of his zat rank or he had no sawar rank at all,
he belonged to the third grade of rank. For example, a mansabdar of 5000 zat belonged to
first grade if his sawar rank was also 5000. He would come under second grade if his sawar
rank was between 2500 and 5000. And lastly he would belong to the third grade if his sawar
rank was below 2500.
Method Of Recruitment
They were appointed exclusively by the king. He could appoint anyone to as high as mansab
as he pleased and likewise, could promote, degrade or dismiss the officer without any reason.
26
27
21 | P a g e
Akbar had a special instinct for picking the right men for the right job; very often, he selected
promising men from the ranks and appointed directly to very high mansabs.28
Salary Structure
Mansabdars received cash salaries; even if some high ranking general was to be granted jagir
in lieu of his salary to meet an emergency, he was not allowed to hold it indefinitely. Even
the personal jagirs of the royal members were also changed frequently. Every mansabdar
received a fixed rate according to his mansab and the class, out of which he had to defray
cost of his establishment, including cost of horses and burden etc. Neverthless, after meeting
the expenditure, the mansabdar was left with a handsome amount of money.
The mansabari system was not free from defects. Emperor began practising of inspecting the
army of every mansabdar once in a year or two. Yet some flaws still persisted till the end. As
the mansabdar recruited, trained, armed and paid his soldiers looked upon him as his real
master and were loyal to him than Akbar. Absence of direct control of the king led to many
serious handicaps. The general standard of morality among the aristocracy and the
mansabdars who imitated them was rather low. They started to take their wives and
concubines with them to the battlefield. Prostitutes both male and female followed them.
There is no wonder if the Mughal army after Akbar became inefficient and failed ot give a
good account of itself. 29
LAND REVENUE REFORMS
Akbar was the first Mughal emperor to introduce far reaching reforms having particular
regard for the welfare of the peasants and revenues of the state. He was benefitted by Sher
Shah Suri’s policy who had adopted measurement as the normal method of assessment,
introduced classification of land on the basis of fertility of soil to determine the average yield
and state’s share in it. The principal objectives of both these rulers were the same, to
ameliorate the condition of the peasants and to stabilize the revenue of the states.
Instead of hempen rope which contracted and expanded according to weather conditions, land
was measured by bamboos which were joined together by iron things, so that its length
28
Jl Mehta, Advanced Study In The History Of Medieval India, Volume 2, Pg 352
29
22 | P a g e
remained same. The unit of area for field was the bigha which was 60*60 yards. Peasants
were made the true owners, state’s right was just limited to demand tax only. Revenue was
realised season wise, just after the harvest and if the peasants failed to pay the whole amount,
they were not deprived of the land, but were realised on easy instalments. The collectors of
revenue were asked not to oppress the peasants for fear that the latter may desert their land
and no one may undertake to cultivate it.
Akbar attempted at the equitable distribution of burden of taxation by classifying the land
according to fertility and fixing rent in proportion to it. Accordingly land was divided into 4
types –
Polaj, which was cultivated every year and brought annual revenue to the state; Parati, which
was sometimes left fallow for 1 or 2 years; Chachar, which was left uncultivated for 3 or 4
years; and the banjar, which had not been cultivated for 5 years or more. Each land was
further divided into 3 grades – good, bad and middling. Average yield per bigha of each kind
of land in respect of every crop was totalled and divided by three. Average was treated as
standard yield of all categories of polaj land. One third of this average was state’s revenue.30
The revenue demand was shown in kind, but king preferred payment in cash and this was met
by converting the grain demand to market rates prevailing at time of harvest. However, this
faced many difficulties and disaffection among the peasants. But every problem carries a
solution with it. In 1580, Todar Mal came up with a system which was called as dahsala or
zabti system. 31
According to it, the average yield per bigha of each kind of land in respect of every crop was
ascertained dastur-wise on the basis of past ten years produce and on its basis revenue was
fixed permanently.
This system proved beneficial to both peasants and the government. In the case of peasant, he
knew what he had to pay and could calculate it himself as soon as the sowings were over. The
state could save money as it did not require revenue collectors as was before. The state knew
its income and was in a position to plan in advance disbursements and launching of new
scheme. Thus the policy introduced by Akbar continued to influence state policy even until
the end of British rule.
30
31
23 | P a g e
CONCLUSION
According to principal Sri Ram Sharma, “The greatest of monarchs in his time, Akbar is sure
of a high place among the rulers of mankind for his brilliant success in the great adventure of
governing man.”32 Among the rulers of India, he occupies a very high place, attempting to
bring Hindus and Muslims together which was praised by a lot of historians. Akbar
guaranteed peace not only to warring sects but also to different religions. In the modern age,
he was the first and almost the greatest experimenter in the field of religious toleration.
Akbar’s reign was also noted for good governance and administration. He carried out many
revenue and land reforms and so there were better and efficient revenue collections and those
of other taxes. He reformed the army and administration of the provinces which led to greater
centralization of powers and authority in Akbar himself. Despite being a monarch and that
too a monarch from a foreign land he was concerned about the needs and wants of his
subjects. He popularised the parental theory of government where the subjects were treated as
his own children. This is the reason why even the people in his reign were satisfied with him
which was more of an unprecedented event taking in account when a foreign ruler comes into
place.
He was a born soldier. He transformed the Mughal Empire into a mighty kingdom through
his successful career as military general. And this is the reason he is known to be the real
founder of Mughal Empire. The mansabdari system formulated by him turned out to be of
immense significance as it placed different officials on different positions and avoided
malpractices such as corruption and replacing a good breed horse with that of an inferior one.
However, there were few backfires also which shows that he was not impeccable but was far
above his successors or predecessors or we can say he was better than any other medieval
king.
The various social reforms that were taken under his realm like not enslaving prisoners of
war, limiting the use of liquor and gambling and deterring the use of polygamy practises were
such moves that were eulogized then and now. He was also a religious minded and a god
fearing person. He understood that every religion was based upon some elements of truth and
hence he did not discriminate between people and their religious beliefs. Akbar as a
gentleman left nothing to be desired albeit he was not a perfect man as Abul Fazal potrays
32
24 | P a g e
him to be. He consumed liquor and opium though in moderation. 33 He was the first national
monarch of medieval India. The political unification of the nation and the establishment of an
all powerful central government with a uniform system of administration throughout the land
were the ideals in his life. He even discarded the Islamic theory of kingship and he identified
himself completely with the land and its people and did his best to impart socio – cultural
unity to the empire.
Only two Indian emperors from time immemorial till date has been designated the title of The
Great, one is Ashoka and other one is Akbar. It won’t be difficult to comprehend the reason
behind such eulogy. Both of these kings have made many significant changes in the fields of
religion, administration and justice apart from being fearless and brave soldiers.
Akbar provided opportunities and inspiration to his officials and artisans to enrich the socio –
cultural life of the nation; he was like a sun round which a galaxy of patriotic and capable
warriors, statesmen, administrators, scholars, saints and pioneers in every walk of socio-
cultural life revolved in perfect harmony and brought lustre and glory to the nation as a
whole. He strove every nerve to work for the material welfare as well as moral welfare of the
people. Akbar was no doubt the real founder of the empire which he transformed into the
nation-state of India by utilising its resources for the happiness and prosperity of all of its
people. He was the greatest monarch of medieval India and one of the most celebrated rulers
of history.
33
Jl Mehta, Advanced Study In The History Of Medieval India, Volume 2, Pg 189
25 | P a g e
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 History Of India Part 1 by Hv Sreenivasa Murthy

 History Of Medieval India by Vd Mahajan
 Advanced Study In The History Of Medieval India, Volume 2 by Jl Mehta
 History Of Medieval India by A Chakrobarthy & Sk Biswal
 Medieval India by Bharat Bhushan
 http://www.preservearticles.com/2012041030124/get-complete-information-on-the-
judicial-administration-of-mughal-empire.html
 http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_16.html#judi
ciary
 http://www.preservearticles.com/2012031026033/comprehensive-essay-on-the-
reforms-made-by-akbar.html
 http://www.importantindia.com/12878/social-reforms-of-akbar/
26 | P a g e

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History project semester 1

DR. RAM MAHOHAR LOHIYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

POLICIES AND REFORMS OF AKBAR

SUBMITTED BY: UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF:

DEVANSH RATHI MRS. VANDANA SINGH

ROLL NO: 053 ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR (HISTORY)

SECTION ‘A’ BA LLB 1st SEMESTER

SIGNATURE OF STUDENT: SIGNATURE OF PROFESSOR:

RELIGIOUS POLICIES AND REFORMS .............................................................................. 5

LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE...............................................................................................13

ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES AND REFORMS................................................................17

 Religious Policies and Reforms –

ABOLITION OF PILGRIM’S TAX, 1563

REMOVAL OF JIZYA, 1564

AKBAR’S INTERACTION WITH OTHER RELIGION

1. Akbar and Christianity –

 PROHIBITING ANIMAL KILLING TO AN EXTENT –

 EDUCATION WAS OPEN TO ALL –

 LIMITING THE USE OF LIQUOR –

 AN ATTEMPT TO PACIFY THE EFFECTS OF GAMBLING –

 PASSING FARMANS AGAINST SATI –

 DISAPPROVING THE SYSTEM OF HIGH DOWRIES AND POLYGAMY –

 ABOLISHING THE JAGIR SYSTEM –

 CEASING THE PRACTISE OF PROSTITUTION –

 RETURNING BACK TO OWN RELIGION –

 Law, order and justice –

THE COMMON SYSTEM OF JUDUCIARY UNDER AKBAR

AKBAR ACTING AS A DESIROUS JUDGE

CERTAIN CHANGES IN JUDICIARY BROUGHT BY AKBAR –

SALIENT FEATURES OF ISLAMIC CRIMINAL LAW16 –

 Qisas, i.e. retaliation. It was applied to cases of killing and wounding.

The following table shows punishment given for various crimes - 18

 ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES &

THE SOVEREIGN, HIS POWERS AND DUTIES

THE ARMY: MANSABDARI SYSTEM

Zat, Sawar & Three Grades.

LAND REVENUE REFORMS

 History Of India Part 1 by Hv Sreenivasa Murthy

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