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QatarSurveyManual PDF
QatarSurveyManual PDF
Content Page
Preface
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Purpose 1
1.3 Scope 1
1.4 Acronyms, Definitions and Abbreviations 2
1.5 Acknowledgement 3
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Qatar Survey Manual - Preface
1.1 Introduction
The objective of this Qatar Survey Manual is to provide up-to-date standards and specifications for
various types of survey and mapping activities in Qatar. It will also be based on generally accepted
principles and practices of surveying.
The Manual is also to serve as the basis for all survey and mapping activities in Qatar in the
foreseeable future. Hence, all surveys conducted in accordance to the standards and specifications
as laid out in this Manual will be assured of the same level of consistency and accuracy. This will
ensure the reliability of all the survey data and enhance the confidence level of all its users. With this
standardized survey data, it can be uploaded onto the Qatar GIS system as seamlessly as possible.
To achieve the above objectives, a series of meetings and discussions, between Surbana and
representatives from UPDA and various agencies, were held. The purpose of these
meetings/discussions is to have an in depth understanding of the current practices and the needs of
the users.
1.2 Purpose
The Standards and Specifications in this Qatar Survey Manual will enable users:
• to understand the survey datum adopted of the State of Qatar and to adopt modern survey
instrumentation and techniques to establish appropriate survey control network of
international standard
• to understand the governance, administrative authority and procedure of conducting cadastral
survey within the State of Qatar
• in completing a topographic survey from the field to the plan which supports the input to CGIS
database
• in deciding which standard to adopt in order to achieve the accuracy that is needed for
different requirements in hydrographic survey
• in achieving a good practice standard to ensure proper setting out for construction works
• to appreciate the background to, and the various techniques for, the determination of the
gravity data required for precise geoid computations
• to understand the practices for Digital Mapping photogrammetrically derived or compiled from
aerial photograph and/or satellite imagery
• to appreciate the management and framework for the development and maintenance of GIS
in State of Qatar
1.3 Scope
This Manual covers the standards and specifications for the following types of survey:
This chapter covers the establishment of horizontal and vertical control networks for land-
based surveying techniques.
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Qatar Survey Manual - Preface
This chapter covers cadastral survey of land parcels and strata units within the State of Qatar.
It serves to provide the procedures, practices and a technical guide relating to the conduct of
cadastral surveys in the State of Qatar. It does not list details of established practices which
accredited surveyors are fully aware of and have been practicing them.
This chapter covers the execution of topographic surveys using Total Stations, GNSS and 3D
Terrestrial Laser Scanner.
This chapter states the level of competence of hydrographic surveyors permitted to conduct
hydrographic surveys in Qatari waters, the orders of accuracy and purposes of the
hydrographic surveys.
This chapter covers both the work procedures and practices governing horizontal and vertical
setting out survey for various infrastructural construction work.
This chapter concentrates upon the specifications required for gravity surveys conducted
specifically for geoid computation and not intended, or applicable, for gravity surveys
conducted for geophysical exploration.
This chapter covers the specifications and practices for Aerial Photography, Aerial
Triangulation, Digital Image Mapping, Satellite Image Mapping, Digital Vector Mapping, Digital
Elevation Model and 3D Model, to be used in support of the production of Digital
Orthoimagery, Vector, DEM, 3D City Model or Photogrammetrically compiled products of
National Mapping Project for CGIS.
This chapter concentrates on the management and initiation, evaluation, preliminary system
design, implementation management, maintenance and feedback for the development of GIS.
It also covers the geospatial data overview and database specifications.
Below is a list of acronyms, definitions and abbreviations used throughout this Preface of this Manual:
i. 3D – 3 Dimension
ii. CGIS – Center for Geographic Information System, Qatar
iii. DEM – Digital Elevation Model
iv. GIS – Geographic Information System
v. GNSS – Global Navigation Satellite System
vi. GSD – General Survey Department
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Qatar Survey Manual - Preface
1.5 Acknowledgement
We would like to take this opportunity to thank the Qatar Survey Manual Technical Evaluation Group:
for their support, cooperation, patience, and most of all, guidance provided.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
Abbreviations
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1.1.0 Datum
Geometric spatial reference data (3D position, position and height) must be presented in standardized,
geodetic spatial reference systems, the so-called coordinate reference system. According to the EN ISO
19111:2007 standard (Spatial Referencing by Coordinates), a coordinate reference system (CRS) consists of
two components, the “datum” and the “coordinate system”.
The datum, often also designated as the reference system, is the physical part of a CRS which establishes
the reference to the Earth by definition of the zero point, the orientation of the coordinate axes and the scale.
A datum can be a geodetic datum, a vertical datum or an engineering or local datum:
The coordinate system is the mathematical part of a CRS which establishes how coordinates are assigned
to a geometry, e.g. a fixed point, using rules. The coordinates of a geometry can be stated, e.g. as Cartesian
coordinates (X, Y, Z), ellipsoid coordinates (width, length and, where applicable, ellipsoidal height) or
projected coordinates (Qatar National Grid, Gauß-Krüger mapping, UTM mapping, etc). As well as the CRS
for 2D and 3D position data, some coordinate reference systems are defined for managing height data or
coordinates (e.g. mean sea level heights). Transformations are necessary for the transfer of coordinates of a
datum or reference system to another datum.
Underlying any coordinate used for Surveying & Mapping, or indeed any positional information, is a Geodetic
Datum. It is imperative that the datum is well defined and reproducible so that any positioning activity may be
related to it.
Most geodetic datums use Greenwich as their prime meridian. Default values for the attributes prime meridian
name and Greenwich Longitude shall be “Greenwich” and 0 degree, respectively.
An ellipsoid specification shall be provided if the datum is geodetic. An ellipsoid shall be defined either by its
semi-major axis and inverse flattening, or by its semi-major axis and semi-minor axis, or as being a sphere.
Geodetic datum’s in use in the State of Qatar are World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) and Qatar National
Datum 1995 (QND95). QND95 is the datum used for surveying, mapping and related activities while WGS84
is the datum realized through the use of surveying techniques involving the Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS). Coordinates derived through the use of GNSS are immediately transformed to QND95 except in a
few circumstances such as the Civil Aviation Authorities who use WGS84 to maintain compatibility with their
world-wide counterparts.
Similar to most jurisdictions, the State of Qatar uses a map projection of the reference ellipsoid so that users
may use grid {N, E} coordinates rather than the more complex geodetic coordinates { φ, λ, H }. Two
projections are used in Qatar; Qatar National Grid (QNG) and Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM). QNG is
encouraged throughout the State and is the only projection supported on QND95. UTM is available on the
WGS84 datum only.
The parameters of the reference ellipsoid for the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) are:
Qatar National Datum 1995 (QND95) uses the International (Hayford) reference ellipsoid whose parameters
are:
Semi - major axis (a) = 6,378,388.0 m
Flattening (f) = 1 / 297.00
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WGS84
WGS84 used in Qatar is defined by the United States Defense Mapping Agency in their document
“Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984 - Its Definition and Relationship with Local
Geodetic Systems”, DMA TR 8350.2, dated September 30 1987 [Second Printing].
QND95
X X ∆X ∆s rz − ry X
Y Y ∆Y + − r ∆s
rx Y
= + z
Z QND 95 Z WGS 84 ∆Z ry − rx ∆s Z WGS 84
X - translation = ∆X = +119.42480 m
Y - translation = ∆Y = +303.65872 m
Z - translation = ∆Z = +11.00061 m
X - rotation = rx = - 1.164298” } The – sign must change to + sign for the
Y - rotation = ry = - 0.174458” } 3 rotations in some software, considering
Z - rotation = rz = - 1.096259” } its direction of rotation.
The 7 parameters, { ∆X ∆Y ∆Z rx ry rz ∆s } are exact values, that is, QND95 is defined by taking
a WGS84 coordinate and applying the above transformation. The Qatar95 geoid model is
incorporated into the transformation parameters. To obtain geodetically correct transformed
coordinate values, the geoid model must be used.
X X ∆X
Y = Y + ∆Y
Z QND 95 Z WGS 84 ∆Z
X - translation = ∆X = +127.78098 m
Y - translation = ∆Y = +283.37477 m
Z - translation = ∆Z = -21.24081 m
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
The Qatar Vertical Datum is defined as the Mean Sea Level 1970-1972 being 8.0036 meters below the
Fundamental Bench Mark B (FBMB, Private Mark) located at the north end of the runway at Doha
International Airport.
The UTM map projection used in Qatar is the standard definition of UTM. It is only used on the
WGS84 datum and not QND95. All UTM values in Qatar fall in zone 39 (Central Meridian 51° East
Longitude).
In order to relate the ellipsoidal height derived from GNSS surveys to the desired orthometric height (sea level
height) a geoid model is required. The State of Qatar has defined its own geoid model, Qatar95. It was
derived by using the OSU91a geoid model and supplementing it with “known” geoid ellipsoid separations at
71 primary geodetic stations.
For users in the State of Qatar, program QTRANS is available from the Centre for GIS that computes both
coordinate transformations between WGS84 and QND95 and also the Qatar95 geoid components (Geoid -
Ellipsoid separation, and deflections of the vertical).
1
QNG is defined in terms of the scale factor at the origin (central meridian) not the zone width.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
1.2.0 Standards
1.2.1 Introduction
This section defines the fundamental requirement for a set of technical standards and specifications for
horizontal and vertical control. These standards and specifications must always directly relate to the national
coordinate reference systems and to the control of geodetic, engineering, mapping, cadastral surveys and
spatial elements of geographic information systems.
Stations in horizontal control surveys are assigned an ORDER commensurate with the precision of the survey
and the conformity of the survey data with the existing coordinate set.
The ORDER assigned to the stations in a new survey network following constraint of that network to the
existing coordinate set may be; not higher than the ORDER of existing stations constraining that network.
The allocation of ORDER to a station in a network, on the basis of the fit of that network to the existing
coordinate set, may generally be achieved by assessing whether the semi-major axis of each relative
standard error ellipse or ellipsoid, with respect to other stations in the fully constrained network, is less than or
equal to the length of the maximum allowable semi-major axis. This technique makes use of the formula
adopted from “Standards and Practices for Control Surveys Special Publication 1 (SP1) V1.6” published by
The Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping (ICSM), Australia:
1
r = c ( d + 0.2 )
Where
The values of “c” for various ORDERs of survey are shown in Table 1.1(a) which is taken from SP1 V1.6.
0 3
1 7.5
2 15
3 30
4 50
1
Experience has shown that with most modern methods of establishing closely spaced control, the overall pattern of error propagation is
not proportional to distance but rather to: the combination of instrumental and centring errors, the effects of network configuration and a
host of other contributing errors - most of which defy individual identification. The errors of measurement contributing to this pattern can
be divided into two groups:
(a) those proportional to distance which are dominant on lines longer than one kilometre; and
(b) those non-proportional to distance which are dominant on lines shorter than one kilometre.
The adoption constant “0.2” as one element of the formula in the determination of ORDER will generally provide these specifications
with the flexibility necessary to accommodate survey networks containing control stations which are closely spaced, widely spaced or
with variable spacing.
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A survey network is adjusted in a constrained least squares process which satisfies the a posteriori statistical
tests. In the adjustment output, standard (1 σ) line error ellipses (relative ellipses) are generated from each
point to adjacent points in the network. The allowable limit, for instance of 1st Order position, is calculated for
each of these lines and compared to the ellipse’s semi-major axis.
If all the line error ellipses from a point are less than or equal to their limit for 1st Order, and the constrained
points in the least squares adjustment are 1st Order or better, then hypothesis is true and the position may be
adopted as 1st Order.
If line ellipses from a point are greater than the limit for 1st Order, or the constraint stations in the least
squares adjustment are less than 1st Order, the hypothesis is false and the position should be tested for a
lower Order.
Example:
The line error ellipses and distances from point 1 to points 2, 3 & 4 are as shown:
As the semi-major axes of the line error ellipses from Point 1 to Points 2,3 & 4 are all less than their respective
1st Order limit, provided all constraint stations in the constrained least squares adjustment are 1st Order or
better, Point 1 may be classified as 1st Order.
With ORDER, it is recognized that assessment of the quality of a network following a constrained adjustment
remains dependent upon a subjective analysis of the adjustment, the survey, and the ties to the existing
coordinate system. The ultimate responsibility for the assignment of ORDER to the stations in a survey
network must remain within the subjective judgment of the geodesists of the relevant authority. As a
1
comparison, Table 1.1(b) depicts the conventional order of horizontal control survey based on relative
distance accuracy.
1
Table 1.1(b): Conventional ORDER of Horizontal Control Survey in the State of Qatar
Classification Equivalent
Order
(Relative Distance Accuracy) ppm
0 1:1,000,000 1 ppm
1 1:100,000 10 ppm
2 1:50,000 20 ppm
3 1:25,000 40 ppm
4 1:10,000 100 ppm
ORDER assigned to the height of a mark following a constrained adjustment will be commensurate with:
1
All horizontal control coordinates values should be shown up to 3rd decimal of meter
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
ORDER of height of a mark from a survey is allocated on the basis of the fit of that survey to existing
(constraining) heights. This technique makes use of the formulae adopted from (SP1) V1.6 published by The
Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping (ICSM), Australia. The formulae are shown in Table
1.2(a) for the different surveys:
Where:
r = maximum allowable error, in mm.
c = an empirically derived factor for each particular ORDER of survey result.
d = distance between two stations in km
Example:
Consider a closed spirit-leveling network with a closure of 0.007 m, around a 15 km long loop. The standard
deviation of each of the heights assigned to the 5 newly established Benchmarks, after a minimally
constrained network adjustment, is approximately 0.001m.
3
Despite the closure rate and height values of better than ORDER 1, the equipment and procedures used
requires that ORDER 3 or lower be assigned to the network.
The survey is connected to one ORDER 1, two ORDER 2 and three ORDER 3 existing Marks. Though the
constrained adjustment of the leveling loop achieved better than ORDER 1 agreement with the existing
control, the highest ORDER to be allocated for the survey is ORDER 3
With ORDER, it is recognized that assessment of the quality of heights following a constrained adjustment
remains dependent on a subjective analysis of the adjustment, the survey, and ties to the existing height
system. The ultimate responsibility for the assignment of ORDER to the heights in a survey network must
remain within the subjective judgment of the Authority or personnel in charge of the survey or of the vertical
adjustment. Table 1.2 (b) depicts the conventional criteria used in the State of Qatar for the order of vertical
control survey based on elevation closure. It could be used for comparison.
1
For differential leveling - the standard deviation of each height observation is less than or equal to the maximum allowable value (r).
2
For GNSS and trigonometric heighting - the standard deviation of each height observation is less than or equal to the maximum
allowable value (r).
3
See Table 1.5 in Section 1.2.5.3
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Table 1.2 (b): Conventional ORDER of Vertical Control Survey in the State of Qatar
For maintaining accuracy levels, internal consistency of the Horizontal & Vertical control networks and CGIS
data backup procedures, following guidelines to be followed in executing control surveys.
(i) Fixed or Reference stations must be in a higher order than the intended horizontal order of the
new stations.
(ii) Fixed or Reference stations to be selected to equally distribute in all quadrants.
(iii) Observation schemes and observation log sheets to be properly maintained.
(iv) Sufficient baselines between fixed or reference stations to be observed in an equally distributed
manner. At least three fixed/reference stations to be connected in every network.
(v) Including perimeter baselines, at least three baselines with every new station to be observed with
other new stations when network has more than four stations.
(vi) Few baselines to be observed connecting new stations lying at the extreme locations of the
perimeter in the network when possible (more than 5 stations) for good strength of the network.
(vii) When Spatial Technique (GNSS) is used, STS (Static) and RSTS (Rapid static) modes are
accepted. A minimum observation time is ten (10) min. for dual frequency receivers and can go
up depending on the length of the base line.
(viii) For better network adjustment at least three GNSS receivers to be occupied for one session
observations simultaneously.
(ix) Least-squares adjustment to be done for network constraint adjustment.
(x) For checking internal consistency with existing control stations, few baselines to inter-visible or
nearby stations to be observed. However, these baselines should not be included in the final
adjustment & computations.
rd
(xi) Final coordinates values must be given in QNG coordinates (QND95 Datum) showing to 3
nd
decimal. GNSS heights must be showing to 2 decimal.
(xii) For getting correct GNSS height values, QATAR95 Geoid model to be applied in the
computations.
(i) Fixed or Reference stations must be in a higher order than the intended vertical order of the new
stations.
(ii) For Second or Higher, order leveling must be done both ways (up and down) with standard
th
manner. Final height values must be showing to 4 decimal.
nd
(iii) Least-squares adjustment must be done for level network adjustment (specially 2 Order and
above)
(iv) Field records and level line route diagrams to be maintained properly and attached to the final
report.
1
√K = square root of distance in kilometres
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
th nd
(v) GNSS heights are always in 5 order classification. Values showing up to 2 decimal.
Separate sections for Horizontal network and Vertical network in same report or two different reports will be
acceptable.
(i) GNSS Raw data - Leica system 1200 raw data is accepted. For other brand GNSS receivers,
RINEX format digital raw data is a must.
(ii) Digital level Data – Field raw data & Edit data.
(iii) Computation & adjustment listing files, summary files and output files.
(iv) Survey report Project summary file in MS word, MS excel or Plain text format.
(v) Digital copies of other files included in Survey report.
(vi) Digital copies of Survey stations' description sheets.
1.2.4.3 Digital Data Structure (To be Used for CGIS Data Backing Up Requirements)
1
Following Directory structure is to be followed. All data files are to be in unlocked mode.
1
Directory structure levels 1-3 are a must.
2
Appropriate sub directories under the level 3 depend on the requirements of the control project.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
Control networks are produced by making suitably accurate measurements and referring them to identifiable
adjacent control points in the existing network. The combination of survey design, instrumentation, calibration
procedures, observation techniques and data reduction methods comprise a control survey system.
The required ORDER of fit to the control points of the proposed survey will determine the field methods and
reduction techniques to be employed to achieve them.
The purpose of this section is to provide the surveyor with a guide to the minimally acceptable practices which
apply to the equipment, and to the appropriate reduction methods to meet the standards of a particular
ORDER of survey.
Adherence to the Recommended Practices described in this section is NOT mandatory in order to achieve a
given ORDER. However, if not used, the onus is on the user to prove that the practices used will achieve the
desired level of precision.
Survey Techniques
Each of the following sections deals with a specific surveying technique. The sections are not designed to be
used as a text book and may not contain comprehensive lists of techniques and procedures. It is assumed the
user of this document has a basic understanding of the techniques being used. If not, a suitable reference text
should be consulted.
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ORDER 0 1 2 3 4
Number of days of
2 1 1 1 1
observations
Number of sets of
1 4 4 2 1 1
full measurements
2
Move prisms between sets Yes Yes Yes Optional --
3
Range of fine readings <2(5+d)mm <2(5+d)mm <2(5+d)mm 7ppm 15 ppm
3
Difference between two sets <2(5+d)mm <2.5(5+d)mm <2.5(5+d)mm -- --
Difference between means of
3 < 3(5+d)mm -- -- -- --
each day's measurements
Observation between 2 hours
before local noon, and 2 hours Yes Yes Yes Optional Optional
4
before local sunset
Atmospheric dial setting
Zero Zero Zero Optional Optional
(where possible)
5
Allow minimum warm up time Yes Yes Yes Optional Optional
Mercury in Mercury in Mercury in Mercury
Thermometer type Mercury in glass
glass glass glass in glass
0 0 0 0 0
Graduation Interval <1 C <1 C <1 C <1 C <1 C
0 0 0 0 0
Estimate temperature to 0.1 C 0.1 C 0.1 C 0.1 C 0.1 C
Estimate pressure to 0.3 hPa 0.3 hPa 0.3 hPa 0.3 hPa 0.3 hPa
Wet bulb readings or relative
Yes Yes Yes Optional --
humidity readings
Metrology at both ends of
At time of
measured lines before and Yes Yes Yes --
observations
after measurements
6 Yes Yes
Reciprocal vertical angles Yes Optional Optional
simultaneous simultaneous
National standard traceability
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
of EDM
Calibration Requirements
All ancillary equipment should be regularly calibrated, carry unique identifiers, and (where relevant) be
regularly compared against each other.
The frequency standard should be traceable to the national standard, and calibrated once per year.
The additive constant and the oscillator frequencies of the EDM unit should be determined at least annually,
and after each repair or maintenance of the EDM unit.
1
A full measurement with a direct readout instrument shall consist of a number of readings (e.g. 6 to 10) over several minutes, after
which the instrument should be re-pointed and electronically realigned, for a further group of readings. This comprises a set. A full
measurement with an indirect readout instrument shall consist of a series of fine readings on the relevant different frequencies. A set is
defined as two full measurements, taken one after the other.
2
Not required if the coarse distance is known.
3
Where d is the length measured, in km.
4
Observations may be performed outside of the specified times (except at Sunset or Sunrise) as long as a statistically proven correction
factor is applied.
5
The minimum warm-up time to be determined during frequency determination.
6
Simultaneous reciprocal or reciprocal vertical angles are not required if the heights of both ends of the line are known accurately. A one
way vertical angle is sufficient to determine K, the coefficient of refraction accurately.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
ORDER 0 1 2 3 4
Additive constant
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
correction
Reflector additive constant
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
correction
Cyclic error correction Yes Yes Yes Yes Optional
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The observation requirements for horizontal angle measurement are shown in the table below. Adherence to
these requirements should ensure that the appropriate level of precision is achieved.
1 1
ORDER 0 1 2 3 4
4. Set
2 2
A. Minimum number of sets 6 6 2 2 1
B. Number of rounds per set 6 6 6 4 4
5. Field Checks
A. Residual from mean of any direction within each set
(i) should seldom exceed 3” 3” 3” 3” 5”
(ii) should never exceed 4” 4” 5” 6” 10”
B. Ranges within each set
(i) should seldom exceed 4” 6” 6” 6” 10”
(ii) should never exceed 6” 8” 10” 12” 20”
For applicable sets, an additional round should be observed when a range is exceeded, however if
two rounds exceed the range the sets should be re-observed, under improved conditions:
C. Ranges between sets
(i) should seldom exceed 1.5” 2” 3” N/A N/A
(ii) should never exceed 3” 4” 4” N/A N/A
6.Observation Corrections
Instrumental Systematic Errors Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Signal Phase Errors Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Dislevelment of the Trunnion Axis Yes Yes Yes Yes
Minimize using appropriate procedures for
Horizontal Refraction
prevailing conditions.
Deflection of the Vertical Yes Yes
Skew Normals Yes Yes
1
Instrument and tripod should be shaded.
2
Sets should be observed in equal proportion over two days.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
Differential leveling is the conventional method of leveling for the propagation of orthometric heights. Heights
are commonly propagated using spirit, automatic and digital levels. Alternatively, heights can be propagated
by EDM Height Traversing, using Total Stations.
ORDER 0 1 2 3 4
0.4mm/km
automatic
1.5mm/km
non digital
1.0-1.5 or upward
0.2mm/km level with
mm/km or (ie. less
spirit level parallel
Level-minimum As for better sensitive)
or 0.4 plate
requirements Order 1 automatic or auto-
mm/km micrometer
1 digital collimating
digital level or 1 1
level . or digital or
0.4mm/km
spirit level.
digital
1
level .
Rigid Invar
Staff construction minimum Folding or Folding or
2 or folding &
Requirements (Analog or Rigid Invar. Rigid Invar. telescopic Telescopic
3 telescopic
bar coded ) staff staff
staff
Rigid or
Tripod construction Rigid Rigid Rigid Rigid
telescopic
1
Digital Levels have been developed by several manufacturers in recent years to offer automated staff reading and digital recording of
leveling observations. These instruments offer protection against both staff reading errors and booking errors.
2
Analog refers to staves that have accepted metric or foot face patterns that have been developed over time for optical levels.
3
Bar coded refers to staff face patterns developed specifically for digital levels.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
ORDER 0 1 2 3 4
1
5’ is equivalent to 4.5mm movement at the top of a 3m staff. Supporting braces are essential.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
ORDER 0 1 2 3 4
Orthometric
Yes Yes Yes Optional N/A
correction to be applied
Differential leveling is the conventional method of leveling for the propagation of Orthometric Heights. A
variant of the common technique of spirit leveling is EDM-Height-Traversing where the difference in height
between change points is determined using observations of zenith angles and slope distances. The most
convenient mode is that of Leap-Frog EDM-Height-Traversing to two reflectors of fixed height in the usual
backsight / foresight mode used in leveling.
ORDER 0 1 2 3 4
2 mm + 2 ppm 3 mm + 2 ppm
Electronic Tacheometer
- - - distance and distance and 5”
(Total Station)
3” zenith angle zenith angle
requirements
Accuracy of Level Sensor
- - - 1.5” 2.5”
or compensator
Diametrical Circle Reading
on Vertical Circle (or - - - Optional Optional
equivalent)
Entry of Temperature and
Pressure for on-line First - - - Yes Yes
Velocity Correction
Refraction and Earth
Curvature Correction - - - Yes Yes
enabled
1 - 2 Standard 1 - 2 Standard
Target / Reflector
Reflector Reflector Rods
construction: Minimum
- - - Rods with with balanced
requirements
balanced and and tilting
tilting Prism Prism
Bipod/ Two
Reflector Rod Support - - - Optional
Leg Struts
Bubble attached to
- - - Yes Optional
Reflector Rod
Solid, portable change
1 - - - Yes Yes
points
Umbrella for instrument - - - No No
1
All temporary (change plates) and permanently marked change points must feature a small central hole so that the reflector rod does
not slide off.
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ORDER 0 1 2 3 4
ORDER 0 1 2 3 4
1 Leap-Frog or Leap-Frog or
EDM Height Traversing Method - - - 2 2
Reciprocal Reciprocal
Number of sets to target - - - 1 1
BS(FL), BS(FR), BS(FL), BS(FR),
Pointing in first set: (In second set, BS(FR), BS(FL), BS(FR), BS(FL),
- - -
if applicable, first FS, then BS) FS(FL), FS(FR), FS(FL), FS(FR),
FS(FR), FS(FL) FS(FR), FS(FL)
Max Spread per set - - - 1.5 mm 3.0 mm
Height difference recorded to
- - - 1 mm per pointing 5 mm per pointing
nearest
Temperature and Pressure
At start, middle and finish of each ‘leveling ‘run At start of ‘leveling’
measured and entered into the
and at pronounced changes of temperature run
instrument
Maximum length sight In Leap-Frog
- - - 120 m 150 m
EDM Height Traversing
Slope distance recorded (for
- - - 1.0 m 1.0 m
balancing FS and BS distances) to:
Minimum ground clearance of line
- - - 0.3 m 0.2 m
of sight
1
Leap-Frog” EDM-Height-Traversing: "Leap-Frog" EDM-Height-Traversing involves the one target remaining at a particular change
point for both sightings. To avoid the possibility of the target being placed on a different point the target is not to be moved between the
back-sight and foresight. Two target/reflectors are employed (on reflector rods with struts). As in spirit leveling, it is imperative that the
electronic tacheometer (total station) is set up in the middle between the two reflectors. Recorded are the height differences (between
the instrument’s trunnion axis and the reflector) that are computed by the electronic tacheometers. In consequence, the ambient
temperature and pressure must be input into the instrument since the slope distances must be corrected for temperature and pressure
(first velocity correction) online. See Rüeger & Brunner (1982) and The Canadian Surveyor, 36(1): 69-87.
2
“Non-Simultaneous Reciprocal” EDM-Height-Traversing: Normal EDM traversing equipment is employed with one electronic
tacheometer, two reflector/target assemblies and two to three tripods. To connect to bench marks, the instrument has to be set up
within 20 m. The height difference between instrument and bench mark is obtained by zenith angle measurements to some marks on a
leveling staff on the bench mark (or to a prism on reflector rod with struts on the bench mark). Between tripods, the zenith angles and
the slope distances are measured forward and backwards. Since this provides two height differences per leg, reciprocal EDM-Height-
Traversing is only done one-way. Depending on the accuracy requirements, the lengths of the legs in reciprocal EDM-Height-
Traversing can be significantly longer than in Leap-Frog EDM-Height-Traversing. See Rüeger & Brunner (1982).
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
ORDER 0 1 2 3 4
ORDER 0 1 2 3 4
Orthometric
correction to be - - - Yes N/A
applied
24
Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
Trigonometric heighting is achieved using several individual items of survey equipment. Unless directly
specified to achieve a desired ORDER of trigonometrical heighting, use procedures and standards for the
particular observation type (e.g. vertical angle, distance).
ORDER 1 2 3 4
Number of sets - - - 1
After applying correct geoid model to the ellipsoidal height obtained using GNSS, the resulting orthometric
th nd
height is classified as 5 Order and is round up to 2 decimal place.
0 4
1 4
2 4
3 3
4 3
5 2
(i) Introduction
• Over recent years the surveying profession has witnessed the growing capability and widespread use of
the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) for a number of surveying operations.
25
Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
• These guidelines indicate best practice for the use of GNSS for surveying applications. The purpose of
this section is to present these principles in general terms so that they can be applied by users to achieve
a quality result.
• It should be noted that these guidelines do not represent legal traceability of measurement.
• The WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984) is the geocentric datum, used for broadcast and precise
ephemerides associated with GPS satellite systems.
• All adjustments of GNSS data should be 3 dimensional on the WGS84 ellipsoid.
• Horizontal survey measurements, once completed, should form a closed figure, and where possible, be
connected to a minimum of three (3) existing stations in the geodetic network with an Order appropriate
to the survey being undertaken. Reference station coordinate values in the national geodetic datum
should be obtained from CGIS
• The vertical datum used in Qatar is Qatar National Datum (QND)
• Where orthometric heights are to be calculated from the GNSS observations, the selected control
stations should have, when possible, accurate vertical datum heights. Otherwise, additional GNSS
connections should be observed to BenchMarks with good vertical datum heights. These connections,
along with the geoid model, enable fitting to the vertical datum
• Qatar geoid separation values (n values) should be obtained from the Qatar95 Geoid model, available
from the CGIS.
• If required, the equipment and software can be validated over existing, high quality geodetic network
marks. The relevant authority can be contacted for more information.
• Another useful method is to measure a ‘zero baseline’, which is achieved by connecting a single GNSS
antenna to two GNSS receivers using a special antenna cable splitter. The positions obtained from the
two receivers should agree at the sub centimeter level.
These guidelines generally refer only to relative GNSS positioning, which requires two or more GNSS
receivers, observing carrier phase observations. The exception to this is the section on GNSS observations
for global/regional processing where only one survey quality GNSS receiver is required, but the data collected
is later processed with data from global and regional GNSS sites, using on-line processing services.
It is the responsibility of the user to assess which GNSS technique or combination of GNSS techniques
should be used to achieve the task being undertaken, having regard to the manufacturer's specifications for
the equipment and survey specifications.
– When planning a GNSS survey, the first step should be choosing the appropriate technique for the
precision required. Table 1.14 provides a guide to the user as to what technique should be used in order
to achieve a particular class of survey.
– The location and distribution of points in a GNSS survey do not depend significantly on factors such as
network shape or inter-visibility, but rather on an optimum layout with sufficient redundancy for carrying
out the intent of the survey.
– All GNSS surveys should be connected to the state control where it is available, for the purposes of
survey integration, legal traceability and quality assurance. Such connection may be a regulatory
requirement in some local authorities.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
– The planning of the observations should be such that the error budget is sufficiently minimized.
Redundancy in the observations is the best way of dealing with most of the error sources.
– Important issues are positive mark identification, centering, height of antenna phase centre as well as
antenna orientation and independent re-occupation of the same point, after a sufficient lapse of time.
– Horizontal survey measurements, once completed, should form a closed figure; reference station
coordinate values in the national geodetic datum should be obtained from CGIS.
– A supplement or alternative to independent reoccupations could be the inclusion of conventional
observations of appropriate accuracy (for example to create ties between unavoidably unclosed GNSS
polygons in the same adjustment).
– The higher Order reference stations should be used for controlling the network accuracy with equally
distributed manner.
ORDER 0 1 2 3 4
Technique
Classic Static
The Stop & Go and RTK GNSS methods are used only in establishing temporary controls without any
classifications/Orders.
Independent Baselines
– An independent baseline measurement in an observing session is achieved when the data used are not
simply different combinations of the same data used in computation of other baseline vectors observed in
that session.
– In the one session, observing with n receivers, the total number of baselines that can be computed is n(n-
1)/2. However, only n-1 of those baselines are independent. The remainders – trivial baselines - are
formed from combinations of phase data used to compute the independent baselines. The results from
observations of the same baseline made in two different sessions are independent.
– Generally independent baseline processors assume that there is no correlation between independent
vectors. Trivial baselines may be included in the adjustment to make up for such a deficient statistical
model. If the mathematical correlation between two or more simultaneously observed vectors in a
session is not carried in the variance-covariance matrix, the trivial baselines take on a bracing function
simulating the effect of the proper correlation statistics, but at the same time introducing a false
1
Minimum station spacing is illustrated using a 5 mm noise level after adjustment. Below these minimum distances, special efforts are
required to reduce the error budget. For a noise level of 10 mm these values are to be approximately doubled.
2
These values relate to the using of conventional equipment and proprietary software.
3
Independent occupations per station may be back to back, but the antenna should be re-set for each occupation. The minimum
observation period should be observed with each occupation as per the manufacturers’ recommendations.
4
For example for a ORDER 1 network aim for:
(i) 20% of stations are to be occupied at least three times;
(ii) 100% of stations are to be occupied at least twice.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
redundancy in the count of the degrees of freedom. In this case the number of trivial baselines in an
adjustment is to be subtracted from the number of redundancies before the variance factor (variance of
unit weight) is calculated. If this approach is not followed, trivial baselines are to be excluded from the
network altogether.
Single Frequency
Double Frequency
Observation times and accuracy are functions of GDOP (should be less 7), number of satellites (more than 5),
ionospheric disturbances but mainly distance.
Observation times are determined avoiding both the worst “observing window” and optimum “observing
window” while traditionally assuring a fixed ambiguity integer solution.
Below are some industry standard occupation times that are acceptable.
Recommended epoch rate: Static -15s, Fast/Rapid Static - 5 or 10s, stop and go & RTK – 1s
The following guidelines refer to different types of GNSS survey techniques such as static, fast static and
pseudo-kinematic.
– Users should be familiar with the procedures and recommendations contained in the GNSS equipment
and software manuals and the stipulated survey standards and specification documents.
– In the event of a conflict between these guidelines and the manufacturer’s instructions, the
manufacturer’s recommendations will prevail. As part of the process of keeping these guidelines current,
any conflict between these guidelines and the manufacturer’s recommendations should be forwarded to
the CGIS with all relevant details to allow the conflict to be resolved.
1
Indicates a range of time proportional to the vector distance.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
– All ancillary equipment must be in good adjustment and repaired and operated competently by trained
personnel. This is of particular importance with GNSS because it is a three-dimensional (3D) technique
requiring accurate location of the antenna horizontally and vertically over any survey mark. All GNSS
measurements relate to the exact location of the antenna. Therefore its precise relationship to the ground
mark is critical to the process of obtaining quality results.
– Receivers and baseline reduction software are to be of the "geodetic" type.
– Only carrier beat phase observations using two or more receivers for baseline measurements are
considered in these guidelines.
– Satellite geometry during the field observation phase of any survey must be sufficient to ensure accurate
results. The maximum geometric dilution of precision (GDOP) should be no greater than 7. The user
should comply with the GNSS manufacturer’s recommendation’s on GDOP values during observation
periods. This can aid in resolution of integer ambiguities if required when using the GNSS manufacturers
processing software.
– The elevation mask should be generally set according to the manufacturer’s recommendations, but
typically should not be less than 15°.
– Inaccurate starting coordinates adversely affect the accuracy of the baseline results. Therefore, an initial
geocentric coordinate within 10 m of the true position should be used for the reduction of observations.
With the cessation of Selected Availability and the improvement in the receiver algorithms, the receiver-
generated position is usually within this limit.
– It is not necessary to take meteorological readings. Use the GNSS reduction software defaults for
tropospheric modeling.
– Antenna heights for re-occupations are to be changed by at least 0.1 m unless set up on a pillar.
– The GNSS signal may be degraded or blocked by nearby buildings, trees or topography. There should be
clear visibility to the sky in all directions, down to the elevation mask being used (typically 15°)
– Multipath can be a significant source of errors, particularly when short occupation times are used. A
typical high multipath environment is in the proximity of corrugated iron roofs, wet trees, high rise
buildings and chain wire fences. As well as its direct effect, multipath appears as noise and can affect
ambiguity resolution. Where multipath is likely, occupation time should be increased to allow the effect to
be averaged away as satellite geometry changes.
Within the fundamental relative GNSS positioning technique there are several methods that have developed
since the introduction of GNSS. They all employ carrier phase measurements. Whilst most of the
observational requirements are comparable, there are also some specific conditions:
The following guidelines apply to Classic Static baselines, in conjunction with the general guidelines:
− The observation period for shorter lines (approximately 10 km) should be at least 30 minutes.
Observation periods for longer lines should increase as stated in the manufacturer's specifications or in
accordance with any CGIS specifications.
− The epoch recording rate is recommended to be 15 or 30 seconds.
− The satellite geometry should change significantly during the observation period.
− At least four, but preferably as many satellites as possible should be common to all survey sites
simultaneously occupied
− Dual frequency receivers are preferred but single frequency survey quality receivers may be used for
short lines (less than 10 km) for non high precision applications.
− Sufficient data should be collected to resolve ambiguities. This is particularly important for lines less than
15 km.
The following guidelines apply to Fast Static baselines, in conjunction with the general guidelines:
− Enough data should be collected to resolve ambiguities. Please refer to the manufacturer’s
recommendations in relation to the length of observation periods, number and geometry of satellites and
the suitability of single or dual frequency receivers.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
− Multipath can be a significant source of errors, particularly when short occupational times are used and
special attention should be paid to this issue.
− The epoch recording rate normally may vary between 5 and 15 seconds.
In relation to the above-described techniques, the guidelines for processing GNSS baselines are as follows:
− The quality of the results of a GNSS survey is determined by both the method of observation, including
choice of equipment, and the quality of the reduction, adjustment and transformation procedures. The
initial satellite datum station position for any baseline calculation should be no more than 10 meters, in
error, for each part per million accuracy required and is best obtained by a transformation, or by
connection to another point with its coordinates known in the satellite datum.
− Because of the effect of the ionosphere, dual frequency receivers are used on lines over a certain length.
"L1-only" solutions often show less noise for vector lengths below 10-15 km. Single frequency receivers
can still satisfy Order 0, 1, 2, 3 etc. requirements up to 20-odd km, but need an increasing number of
hours of observation if the higher Orders of survey or longer baselines are observed. Dual frequency
ambiguity fixed L1 and L2 solutions in their ion free linear combination are usually obtained for vector
lengths above 10 -15 km to up to 40 or 50 km. An ambiguity fixed solution is preferred, but the longer the
distance becomes the harder it is to achieve this. Ion free ambiguity float L1/L2 solutions become more
common for vectors of over 40 or 50 km in lengths up to about 90 km.
− For longer baselines eventually even triple difference solutions are used, if the observation duration is
sufficiently long, to enable a sufficient change in the satellite geometry during the recording session. As a
guide use 30 minutes + 20 minutes per 10 km of the baseline length. Order of coordinates of new points
should be based also on the distance between them Unequal baselines need to be considered in Nearby
existing points should be used as Base Station. If that is not possible, Order of coordinates of a new
point, unconnected to a nearby coordinated point, should be commensurate with distance between them.
Some new points should be occupied from three base Stations. Additional control should be connected to
check the fit of the survey to the Datum Coordinates of new base stations should be determined before
commencing RTK survey Base Station with known coordinates New Point Legend.
In the case of classic static and quick static, least squares adjustments of the network, both minimally
constrained and constrained by all suitable geodetic stations coordinates, should be carried out to verify that
the survey meets the required standards.
Most proprietary baseline processing packages contain a suitable least square adjustment module. However,
separate, specialized 3-D adjustment software should be used when adjusting a very large number of
baselines, when combining GNSS and terrestrial observations or when the proprietary software does not
produce relevant statistical output.
• Unconstrained Adjustment
− The processing software should be able to produce the variance/covariance statistics of the observed
Cartesian vectors so that these can be input to a three-dimensional adjustment program. A least squares
adjustment should be performed when deriving values for control surveys. This software should be
capable of determining transformation parameters between the observed Cartesian vectors and the local
geodetic system.
− Error ellipses should be calculated, after a minimally constrained least squares adjustment. They mainly
prove quality of the net design rather than the quality of the observations. The error ellipses should be
scaled by the a priori variance of unit weight (generally equal to one), unless the a-posteriori estimate of
variance does not pass the Chi-square test. In case of the latter, the observations, the statistical model or
even the mathematical model should be examined, the problem remedied and the adjustment rerun. In
the case of not being able to remedy the situation, the error ellipses should be scaled by the a-posteriori
variance factor.
− To confirm the quality of the observations, the standardized residuals should be checked for outliers, and
these should be dealt with. The checking of the statistics often involves critical evaluation of the a priori
standard deviations of the observations. If the baseline variance/covariance matrix is routinely modified
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
For users in the State of Qatar, program QTRANS is available from the Centre for GIS that computes both
coordinate transformations between WGS84 and QND95 and also the Qatar95 geoid components (Geoid -
Ellipsoid separation, and deflections of the vertical only on WGS84 ellipsoid).
• Constrained Adjustment
The final step is a fully constrained Least Squares adjustment. This adjustment is subjected to the same
analysis as the above minimally constrained adjustment. Again error ellipses are calculated and the network is
allocated an accuracy Order which enables its orderly integration with the database containing the existing
data set of established coordinates.
• Field observation recording sheets (log sheets) should be completed for each session. The receiver type,
serial number and software used for reductions should be recorded on these sheets.
• An indication of independent checks on height of antenna is essential.
• Field Book (or log sheet) should contain a sketch of the relevant part of the network as well as the name
and/or identifier used for each station. Each baseline measured should be clearly indicated. The
reduction software may produce a printout of these details.
• The GNSS field recording sheets are available at relevant department of CGIS.
A
(xi) Digital Data Storage
• Raw observational data should be archived in case an auditing process is required by the examining
authority. (Note: raw data is equivalent to the surveyor’s field book and should be retained for the same
length of time)
• If required by the examining authority, result files from the baseline processing and final adjustments
must be supplied in digital form. The recipient may recommend the processing and/or adjustment
software digital format. This enables automatic inclusion of the results in the recipient’s data base
systems.
• Final adjusted coordinates are to be provided in the QND95 coordinate system.
Accurate positions can be determined by GNSS observations using a single geodetic quality receiver.
Although this relies on a regional or global framework of continuously operating geodetic GNSS stations, it is
generally transparent to the user. The data can be processed by a variety of methods which automatically
provides the results in terms of the International Terrestrial Reference Framework (ITRF) (e.g. JPL’s
AutoGypsy and the Canadian CSRS-PPP). It is also possible to produce similar results from regional
processing of geodetic GNSS data using specialized software (e.g. Bernese, Gamit).
1
Geoid Separation (n) values only for WGS 84 ellipsoid
A
For Sample Directory structure for digital data storage, see page 16.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
Table 1.16 gives guidelines to achieve typical Positional Uncertainty values using this type of technique.
However, as this technique depends on many local & global variables the results may vary from the guidelines
shown below. These guidelines do not override those which may be recommended by individual jurisdictions.
1
Positional Uncertainty (m) (Horiz / Vert) 0.025 / 0.05 0.05 / 0.1 0.1 / 0.2
2
IGS products (minimum standard IGS Final (~14 IGS Rapid (~2 IGS Ultra-rapid
accepted) day delay) Delay) (partly predicted)
Geodetic, dual Geodetic, dual Geodetic, dual
3
GPS Receiver frequency, carrier frequency, carrier frequency, carrier
phase & code phase & code phase & code
4 IGS/NGS IGS/NGS
GPS Antenna IGS/NGS modeled
modeled modeled
5
GPS data format RINEX RINEX RINEX
6
GPS data sampling 30 sec 30 sec 30 sec
7 Multiple 24 hour Multiple 6 hour Multiple 2 hour
Duration of observations
sessions sessions sessions
Repeatability between sessions (m) (Horiz
8 0.025 / 0.05 0.05 / 0.1 0.1 / 0.2
/ Vert)
9
Transformation to QND95 Yes Yes Yes
10
Solution statistics satisfied Yes Yes Yes
11 Make, model & Make, model & Make, model &
Antenna type
serial number serial number serial number
12
Antenna height mm mm mm
13 At least 3 within
Reference stations At least 3 At least 3
1500 km
1
Positional Uncertainty is a 95% confidence value, in metres, with respect to the datum.
2
Refer to the IGS product guidelines at http://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/components/prods.html to see the usual delay for the various IGS
products to become available. Some services may use their own products equivalent to IGS’s (e.g. orbits, earth orientation, satellite
clock corrections). The use of the IGS ultra rapid products may sometimes produce results with unacceptable uncertainty.
3
Some hand-held receivers may provide phase & code, but the quality of their data cannot be guaranteed for this type of processing
4
The processing must account for antenna phase centre variation with the azimuth & elevation of satellites. See
ftp://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/igscb/station/general/igs_01.pcv & http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/ANTCAL/ for the latest list of antenna calibrations.
The standard naming convention should be used to eliminate ambiguity, see ftp://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/igscb/station/general/rcvr_ant.tab
(see also note 11).
5
Most commercial geodetic GPS software packages will convert the proprietary observed data to the Receiver Independent EXchange
format (RINEX) (see ftp://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/igscb/data/format/rinex210.txt for a full explanation). TEQC is a freely available quality
checking package that also converts the most popular geodetic GPS receiver data types to RINEX format, see
www.unavco.org/facility/software/preprocessing/preprocessing.html for details.
6
Most processes use 30 second data, but will accept any sampling rate less than 30 seconds that can be stripped back to 30 seconds
(e.g. 1, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30 sec).
7
Each session should be entirely within a UT day. Although shorter duration sessions may give adequate results, they cannot be
guaranteed, particularly if local conditions are unfavourable (e.g. multi-path, interference, obscured sky view). Repeat shorter duration
sessions should be observed at different times of the UT day to minimise systematic effects from the GPS system and ambient site
conditions (e.g. similar satellite constellation).
8
Multiple sessions are recommended to ensure repeatability and hence confidence in the result. If two sessions do not agree within the
required precision, a third session is required to resolve the discrepancy. Equipment should be set up again at the commencement of
each session, as per normal multi observation geodetic practice, to isolate setup errors.
9
Transformation to the local datum is required. At least three fiducial positions known in both systems (ITRF and local datum) and
include tectonic motion and transformation from ITRF to local datum.
10
To ensure that the data used is of an acceptable standard, the service provider’s solution statistics must be examined and acceptable.
This may vary between systems, but typically should include: estimated coordinate precision and observation fits.
11
The calibration for an antenna can be different, even for the same brand with only slight variations in the model. Exact identification is
essential to ensure that the correct calibration is applied (see note 4 above).
12
If the results are to be reduced to a fixed survey mark, the vertical height of the Antenna Reference Point (ARP) above this mark must
be accurately measured, preferably by several independent means. Check the manufacturer’s specifications in conjunction with the
IGS document at ftp://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/igscb/station/general/antenna.gra and the NGS documentation at
http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/ANTCAL/ to identify the ARP, as it can vary subtly even within one manufacturer.
13
Most processing services will automatically select the nearest three IGS stations as reference stations for the processing. While this
can generally be relied on, for critical projects the operation of appropriate reference stations and reliability of their ITRF station
coordinates (e.g. sites affected by recent earthquake movements or GPS antenna changes) should be checked before proceeding.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
1 2 3 4 5,6
Specifications Basic Construction Aerial Cadastral Engineering
Minimum number of
connections to higher
3 3 2 2 2
order fixed known
horizontal/vertical
control per network
Minimum number of
Vectors
independent vectors to 2 2 2 1
1 scalar
individual control points
Max number of network
traverse legs without 3 2 4 4 4 N/A
independent vectors
Dual frequency Y N N N N
Minimum satellite mask
13 13 13 13 13
angle above horizon
Minimum number of
satellites 5/7 5/6 5/6 5/6 5/6
tracking/GDOP
Epoch recording Rate
15 15/5 15/5/1 15/5/1 15/5/1
(seconds)
Field data log required Y Y Y Y N
Point description with
Y Y Y Y N
unique name required
Recommended
min/max station 0.5/15 0.3/0.6 Max 10 Max 10 Max 0.5
spacing(km)
Survey Method
Static
Fast Static
Stop & Go
RTK(post processing)
RTK(calibration)
Conventional
Control Surveys
1
BASIC CONTROL SURVEY: The basic control survey or control densification, based directly upon zero order control, provides control
for all other project surveys and is a connected series of independent vectors, properly weighted, constrained, and adjusted least
squares network.
2
CONSTRUCTION CONTROL SURVEY: This survey, based directly upon previously adjusted and fixed Basic control and being
intervisible between adjacent monuments.
3
AERIAL CONTROL SURVEY: This survey, based directly upon, as a minimum, previously adjusted and fixed higher order
Construction control, provides for the placement of survey aerial targets.
Cadastral Boundary Surveys
4
CADASTRAL BOUNDARY SURVEY: This survey, based directly upon and as a minimum, previously adjusted and fixed Construction
control, providing for positions of property monuments is used to identify properties and boundary locations.
Engineering Surveys
5
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY: This survey, based directly upon and as a minimum, previously adjusted and fixed Construction control,
provides for the location of topographic features, including utilities, surfaces, and other detail.
6
CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS: This survey, based directly upon and as a minimum, previously adjusted and fixed Construction
control, marks the horizontal location (line) as well as the vertical location, or elevation (grade) for proposed fixed works.
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
Reference is made to the “Draft Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived Orthometric Heights (Standards: 2
1
cm and 5 cm) V1.4” published by National Geodetic Survey dated October 2005.
The following guidelines for performing GNSS surveys intended to achieve orthometric height network
accuracies of 5 cm and orthometric height local accuracies of 2 cm or 5 cm, both at the 95 percent confidence
level. Network accuracy - a value that represents the uncertainty in the coordinates of the point with respect to
the geodetic datum. Local accuracy - a value that represents the uncertainty in the coordinates of the point
relative to the coordinates of other local, directly connected, adjacent points.
Orthometric heights (O) are referenced to an equipotential reference surface, e.g., the geoid. The orthometric
height of a point on the Earth's surface is the distance from the geoidal reference surface to the point,
measured along the plumb line, normal to the geoid. Ellipsoid heights (H) are referenced to a reference
ellipsoid. The ellipsoid height of a point is the distance from the reference ellipsoid to the point, measured
along the line which is normal to the ellipsoid. At the same point on the surface of the earth, the difference
between an ellipsoid height and an orthometric height is defined as the geoid height (n) (Figure 1.2).
Rule 1: Follow the specific guidelines for desired orthometric heights. For example, use the guidelines for
achieving 2 cm GPS-derived orthometric heights for 2 cm ellipsoid heights, and the guidelines for 5 cm
GNSS-derived orthometric heights for 5 cm ellipsoid heights.
Rule 2: Use Qatar95 Geoid Model when computing GNSS-derived orthometric heights.
1
Download from http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/DRAFTGuidelinesforEstablishingGPSderivedOrthometricHeights.pdf
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
Rule 3: Use the latest QND height values to control the project’s adjusted orthometric heights.
Requirement 1: Occupy stations with valid QND orthometric heights. Stations should be evenly distributed
throughout project. A previously determined GNSS-derived orthometric height, accurate to 2 cm, is
considered a valid QND height if it is in the national spatial reference system. In these requirements, a ‘valid
QND bench mark’ includes vertical control that has been leveled and/or has an orthometric height valid to 2-
cm accuracy.
Requirement 2: For project areas less than 20 km on a side, surround project with valid QND bench marks,
i.e., minimum number of stations is four, one in each corner of project.
Requirement 3: For project areas greater than 20 km on a side, keep distances between valid GNSS-
occupied QND bench marks to less than 20 km.
Requirement 4: For projects located in mountainous regions, occupy valid bench marks that are at both the
lowest elevation and the highest elevation of the area, even if the distance is less than 20 km. Consider
adding additional bench marks to get a good range of elevation change.
Procedure 1: Perform a 3-D minimum-constraint least squares adjustment of the GNSS survey project, i.e.,
constrain the latitude and longitude of one control station, and one orthometric height value.
Procedure 2: Detect and remove all data outliers, i.e., high residuals, for a base line using the results from
the adjustment in procedure 1 above.
The user should repeat procedures 1 and 2 until all data outliers are removed.
Procedure 3: Compute differences between the set of GNSS-derived orthometric heights from the minimum
constraint adjustment using Qatar95 from procedure 2 above and published QND orthometric heights.
Procedure 4: Using the results from procedure 3 above, determine which vertical control stations have valid
QND height values. This is the most important step of the process. Determining which bench marks have valid
heights is critical to computing accurate GNSS-derived orthometric heights. All differences between GNSS
observations on valid bench marks need to agree within 2 cm for 2-cm surveys and 5 cm for 5-cm surveys.
Large areas (i.e. 50 km by 50 km) may have a systematic tilt - this tilt can be accounted for in the final
constrained adjustment, with QND vertical control stations occupied with GNSS, every 20 km. However, for
detecting QND height outliers, the user should estimate local systematic differences between GNSS-derived
heights and leveling-derived heights, by solving and removing this systematic difference.
Procedure 5: Using the results from procedure 4 above, perform a constrained orthometric height adjustment
by fixing the latitude and longitude of one control station and all valid QND heights. The user should always
ensure the final set of heights is not overly distorted by the adjustment process.
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Table 1.18: Summary of Draft Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived Orthometric Heights
(Standards: 2 cm and 5 cm) V1.4” published by National Geodetic Survey dated October 2005
Geodetic
Quality
Antenna with Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Ground
Plane
Min. Number
3 3 3 No Minimum No Minimum No Minimum No Minimum
of Stations
Occupation 30 30 30 No
5 Hours 5 Hours 5 Hours 1 1 1 1
Time Minutes Minutes Minutes Minimum
Number of
2 2 2 2
Days Station 3 3 3 2 2 2 2
is Occupied
Max.
Distance
Between
Same 75 km 20 km 30 km 10 km 15 km 5 km 10 km
or
Higher-Order
Stations
Repeat 3 3 3 3 3
YES YES YES YES YES YES YES
"Base Line"
Collect Met
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
Data
Fixed Height
Yes Yes No Yes No Yes No
Pole
Precise
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Ephemerides
4 4 4
Fix Integers Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
1
Analyses have indicated that when following all guidelines in this document, 30 minutes of observations over base lines that are
typically less than 10 kilometers will meet the standards. For base lines greater than 10 km, but less than 15 km, 1 hour sessions
should meet the standards. For observing sessions greater than 30 minutes, collect data at 15-second epoch interval. For sessions
less than 30 minutes, collect data at 5-second epoch interval. Track satellites down to at least 10-degree elevation cut-off.
2
Base lines must be re-observed on different days with significantly different satellite geometry.
3
The observing scheme requires that all adjacent stations have base lines observed at least twice on two different days with significantly
different geometry.
4
If base line is greater than 40 kilometers, a partially fixed or float solution, is permitted.
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Triangulation and trilateration methods are now rarely used for expanding or densifying horizontal control.
Before GNSS, they were extensively used for this purpose. Localized triangulation and trilateration techniques
using precise total station / EDM are still used sometimes for accurate structural deformation monitoring work.
However, these specialized surveys are only performed around a dam or hydropower project.
(i) General - A triangulation network consists of a series of angle measurements that form joined or
overlapping triangles in which an occasional baseline distance is measured. The sides of the network are
calculated from angles measured at the vertices of the triangle. A trilateration network consists of a series of
distance measurements that form joined or overlapped triangles where all the sides of the triangles and only
enough angles and directions to establish azimuth are determined.
(ii) Networks - When practicable, all triangulation and trilateration networks should originate from and tie into
existing coordinate control of equal or higher accuracy than the work to be performed. An exception to this
would be when performing triangulation or trilateration across a river or some obstacle as part of a chained
traverse. In this case, a local baseline should be set. Triangulation and trilateration surveys should have
adequate redundancy and are usually adjusted using least squares methods.
(iii) Accuracy - Point closure standards listed in Sections 1.2.2 and 1.2.3 must be met for the appropriate
accuracy classification to be achieved.
(iv) Resection -. Three-point resection is a form of triangulation. Three-point resection may be used in areas
where existing control points cannot be occupied or when the work does not warrant the time and cost of
occupying each station. Triangulation of this type should be considered Fourth-Order, although Third-Order
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accuracy can be obtained if a strong triangular figure is used and the angles are accurately measured. The
following minimum guidelines should be followed when performing a three-point resection:
• Location - Points for observation should be selected to give strong geometric figures, such as with
angles between 60 and 120 degrees of arc.
• Redundancy - If it is possible to sight more than three control points, the extra points should be included
in the figure. If possible, occupy one of the control stations as a check on the computations and to
increase the positioning accuracy. Occupation of a control station is especially important if it serves as a
control of the bearing or direction of a line for a traverse that originates from this same point.
• Measurements - Both the interior and exterior angles should be observed and recorded. The sum of
these angles should not vary by more than three (3) arc-seconds per angle from 360 degrees. Each
angle should be turned not less than 2-4 times (in direct and inverted positions).
A Part 2 Section 12 of the Survey Practice Handbook published by the Surveyors Registration Board of
1
Victoria, Australia covers the Validation of GNSS equipment.
Successful validation will also demonstrate the competence of the surveyor in using GNSS technology to
achieve the required accuracy. Ideally, GNSS validation would consist of a combination of various
methodologies i.e. zero baseline test, a coordinated network, an RTK test site and a coordinated EDM
calibration baseline. The combinations would be dependent on the GNSS available to a surveyor e.g. static
technique only, RTK or a combination. It would be advisable for the surveyor to undertake validation once a
year or as often as deemed necessary to satisfy professional due care, best practice and competence.
This can be carried out to check the correct operation of a pair of GNSS receivers, associated
antennas/cabling, and data processing software. As the name implies, a zero baseline test involves
connecting two GNSS receivers to the same antenna via an antenna splitter (as recommended by the
manufacturer). The computed baseline should be theoretically equal to zero and any variation will represent a
vector of receiver errors (usually results should give sub millimeter results).
A zero baseline test does not examine satellite ephemeris, time or atmospheric errors. However, making
measurements and processing data over known baselines or a network of coordinated points can achieve
this.
This can be undertaken to ensure that the operation of GNSS receivers, associated antennas/ cabling, and
data processing software, give high accuracy baseline/coordinate results. Satellite ephemeris errors, clock
biases and atmospheric effects must be removed or minimized during baseline processing. Network validation
allows GNSS equipment to be tested under realistic field conditions which includes the dynamic nature of the
1
The document can be found in the following website:
http://www.surveyorsboard.vic.gov.au/documents/surveypracticehandbook/SPH_S2_Sect12.pdf
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satellite constellation and the atmosphere. Mission planning (finding what time of day gives acceptable
GDOP for observations) is as essential for GNSS validation as it is for real survey applications. The test
network should:
• consist of extremely stable ground marks with almost perfect sky visibility
• be of a very high precision e.g. first or second order
• have stations which are ALL coordinated in both the local geodetic system (φ, λ, h or x, y, z) and
plane projection (E, N and QND elevations)
• have a variety of baseline lengths and directions
• consist of points with varying elevations – to check for the correct modeling of the atmosphere as
well as geoid determination to obtain QND values
Network validation is suitable predominantly for static/ rapid static surveys because the baselines are
generally longer than for kinematic surveys. However, RTK GNSS equipment/firmware can be checked on a
network to validate the equipment and the procedures used to obtain acceptable final results. Figure 1.4
illustrates an example of a GNSS Test Network with 11 stations with the above guideline in view. The length
of the baselines of the GNSS Test Networks varies from about 1 km to 8 km.
After observing the network, the surveyor can process the data to produce a network of vectors. These
vectors can then be reviewed, adjusted and analyzed following conventional methods:
(a) Independent vectors can be used to determine loop closures and precision.
(b) By holding the values of one of these sites fixed, coordinates for all other sites are derived using the
GNSS observations initially using a minimally constrained least squares adjustment. The ensuing
statistics can be reviewed and assessed. Any flagged outliers can be noted and examined.
(c) A subsequent adjustment can then be undertaken holding multiple stations fixed to calculate 3D final
coordinates of all stations. This ensures that the adjustment has attempted to solve the transformation
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parameters of the local area. Final coordinates and baseline vectors can be compared to the known
values.
(d) QND elevations may be required and can determined using two methods:
• During the final least squares adjustment process using Qatar95 geoid model within the software
package,
OR
• Manually, after the adjustment, by calculating height differences from known benchmark QND
values and comparing with corresponding ellipsoidal heights differences. A geoid model for the
local area can be interpolated from this data for all other points.
Kinematic surveys are generally restricted to baselines of less than 10 km and involve occupying points for a
short period of time e.g. less than one minute. A test site, designed for techniques such as RTK (and possibly
as a simplistic rapid static check), can be established that is an array of points to be coordinated from a fixed
base station. At the end of the observation session final coordinates can be compared to a set of known
values (E, N, and QND elevations).
The inclusion of obstructions such as trees could be planned into the array to test the accuracy of the re-
initialization processes of the On-The-Fly (OTF) hardware and firmware. The surveyor should re-observe the
array under different satellite configurations to ascertain possible precision under varying conditions i.e. for
horizontal coordinates and height determination.
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A pair of GNSS receivers (plus ancillary equipment) can be tested over the various pillars of a validated EDM
baseline. Measurements would involve setting up one receiver on the start pillar and simultaneous
observation would be made to the other one on each pillar along the baseline. Surveyors can then make a
comparison the GNSS-derived distances with the known lengths of the EDM baseline.
GNSS can be used to measure the 3D geodetic vector of a baseline e.g. ∆x, ∆y, ∆z. This can then be
reduced to ground distance for comparison purposes. Traditionally, EDM baselines are used to validate the
distance component of a measurement and not the vector as a whole. EDM baselines are rarely longer than
one kilometer (i.e. well short of the operating range of GNSS) and therefore only comparatively short
distances can be checked. Finally, if the reduced GNSS measurements can verify the known distances
between the markers on the pillars of the EDM baseline, it can be considered that:
This method of GNSS validation would be useful for post processed and real time techniques e.g. static
GNSS and RTK respectively. It is important that the surveyor is well trained in GNSS methodology and has a
full understanding of the achievable accuracy of each technique so that baseline comparisons are realistic.
One useful addition to an EDM calibration baseline for GNSS validation would be for the end points to be
coordinated to a high accuracy i.e. via connection to first/second order marks in a surrounding observed
network. Therefore, GNSS validation could include a coordinated network followed by a baseline comparison
test. This combination would verify final 3D vectors and GNSS derived distances
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All GNSS equipment, software and procedures should be tested before general usage. Unlike EDM
equipment, GNSS receivers cannot be calibrated for scale because the definition of scale is inherent in the
satellites and orbit data. However, Antennae should be checked for centering errors. These should not
generally be significant if geodetic quality equipment is used for cadastral surveys.
Antenna offsets may also be present when mixing different antenna types. Measuring a line of a few meters
with GNSS and comparing the results with a direct EDM or taped measurement can easily test this.
If any significant modifications or upgrades are made to the GNSS receiver or the post-processing software,
then the validation must be repeated. To avoid additional fieldwork for every software upgrade, reprocess the
original validation raw data with the new version and check for any changes in the results.
Another advantage of the validation process is that it allows the surveyor to train and evaluate the
competency of staff employed on GNSS surveys. This is important for total quality management.
The calibration of electronic distance measurement equipment should be taken at least once a year. Letter will
be issued stating that the contractor’s instrument measures to within the manufacturer’s tolerance.
The Sprent method was chosen as the calibration method. This method allows the determination of the zero
error and scale factor independently of the effects of cyclic error. The option also exists for a full least squares
determination of the three errors using the same data.
Basically, the method relies on choosing a set of five base lengths that are spread over the fine measurement
wavelength (unit length) of the instrument. Two instrument stations are established that are separated by half
the unit length of the instrument. Thus for each of the base lengths two measurements can be made which
differ by half the unit length.
Cyclic errors affecting infra-red distance measuring equipment are generally simple harmonics in nature with
wavelengths equivalent to the unit length of the instrument. In addition, higher order cyclic errors also occur,
but these are usually small in magnitude and are not considered here.
The cyclic error in distances that differ by half the unit length will be of the same magnitude but of opposite
sign. Therefore the pairs of measurements made which differ by half the unit length will eliminate the effects of
cyclic errors if subjected to linear regression. Even though the effects of cyclic errors are removed for a simple
linear regression, because the ten measurements are spread over the unit length of the instrument the data is
well conditioned for use in a full analysis to determine the cyclic error components as well as the zero error
and scale factor.
Since the method relies on knowing the "true" length of each base length it is most important that a pillared
base is used so as to eliminate centering errors.
Site Description
The location of the base line required several conditions to be fulfilled. The following were thought to be the
most important:-
1. It should be situated on stable ground with the pillars preferably attached to the bed rock.
2. It should be free from obstructions such as overhead power lines, underground cables and vehicular
movement.
3. It should be situated in an area that is set aside specifically for the base line and will not be disturbed by
other developments.
4. The ground along the line of the base should be preferably level with a slight concavity.
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With the above points in mind a site that fulfilled the requirements was identified in the Salwa Road Industrial
Estate. A strip of land, 1000m x 75m, adjacent to the pipeline reservation running through the Industrial Estate
was provided by Doha Municipality.
It was decided to design the base line around electronic distance measurement (EDM) equipment with unit
lengths of 10 m, 20 m and 30.77m (the main values used by EDM equipment, and certainly covering all types
of EDM currently in use in Qatar.
The total length of the base is 920 m and has nine pillars. The first four pillars are placed 5 m, 10 m and 15.38
m apart respectively, thus giving the three half unit length separations required. The remaining five pillars are
positioned evenly at 182 m spacing.
The pillars consist of a two meters length of twelve inch diameter asbestos cement pipe set into a concrete
footing 1.5 m square and a minimum of 0.8 m deep. Holes were excavated to the 0.8m minimum depth or until
firm bed rock was reached. Reinforcing rods were keyed into the bed rock and extend up through the pipe.
The pillar plates are of a simple vandal proof design with tribrachs screw directly onto the pillar plates.
It is recommended to carry out measurements of each base length using a 1 mm ± 1 ppm electronic distance
meter once every five (5) years or when there is a suspicion of pillar movement. Over a period of one week
four sets of measurements are taken at different times of the day. Each set of measurement consists of
distances measured from pillars one, two and three to each of the remaining five pillars. The measured
distances are adjusted for meteorological conditions and then reduced to the horizontal.
These distances were then used in a least squares adjustment to obtain values for each bay length. From the
bay length values, adjusted slope distances were determined and these are used as the “true” lengths.
An instrument that is to be calibrated is first set up on pillar one and distances measured to each pillar in turn
(excluding pillars two and three). The instrument is then moved to either the second or the third pillar,
depending on the unit length of the instrument, and the distances to each of the pillars are measured again.
Temperature and pressure are measured to determine the meteorological correction. Height of instrument and
prism are measured to allow the measured distance to be reduced to the horizontal.
With the distances obtained from the above procedure and the "true" distances, values for the scale factor
and zero error can be obtained using the standard linear regression equations:
n∑ ( xi yi ) − ∑ xi ∑ yi
Scale Factor = 2 2
n∑ x i − ( ∑ xi )
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2
∑ yi ∑ xi − ∑ xi ∑ ( xi yi )
Zero Factor = 2 2
n∑ x i − ( ∑ xi )
Where,
n = number of measurements undertaken
th
yi = "true" length of i section
th
xi = length of i section as measured by instrument under calibration
The residuals remaining from the above linear regression can be plotted over the unit length of the instrument
to obtain an indication of the presence or otherwise of cyclic error. At present the analysis of the data has
been taken no further than the linear regression analysis, but it is intended also to use a least squares
approach to determine values for the three error parameters.
Reference is made to “Guidelines for New and Existing Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS)”
published by National Geodetic Survey (February 2006).
A CORS site is expected to have high data quality and a lifetime of at least 15 years. The latter also applies to
the critical volume of space around the antenna that should remain undisturbed throughout the lifetime of the
CORS site. Power and Internet outages should be infrequent and short-lived,
Monument
A CORS monument should be designed to maximize its stability (maintain a fixed position in three
dimensions) and minimize measurement of near-surface effects. The uppermost part of the ground is subject
to the greatest amount of motion e.g. soil expansion and contraction due to changes in water saturation, frost
heave, soil weathering, thus increasing the depth of the monument improves its stability. A detailed discussion
of benchmark stability that is equally applicable to CORS monuments is given in “NOAA Manual NOS NGS 1
Geodetic Bench Marks”.
Equipment
It is strongly recommends that equipment be upgraded and/or replaced as technology changes, e.g. new
GNSS signals added. Equipment changes should however be minimized as they have the potential of
resulting in a change in position:
• Antenna
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− Provide L1 C/A-code pseudo range or P-code pseudo range and L1 and L2 full wavelength
carrier phase
− Sample at a frequency of at least 30-seconds
Receivers must have an uninterrupted power supply with a minimum of 5 minutes backup power, 30+ minutes
strongly preferred.
To ensure data quality the following verifications will be made on a daily basis using TEQC (Translating,
Editing, Quality Checking) to check the quality of the incoming 24-hr RINEX files decimated to 30-s epochs.
TEQC is freeware available for a variety of computer platforms and operating systems from:
http://www.unavco.org/facility/software/teqc/teqc.html
- MP1 represents the RMS multipath in meters on the L1 pseudo range observable, averaged for a 50-
point moving window (25 minutes for 30-s epochs).
- MP2 represents the RMS multipath in meters on the L2 pseudo range observable, averaged for a 50-
point moving window (25 minutes for 30-s epochs).
- o/slp represents the average number of complete observations before a slip occurs simultaneously on
the derivative of the ionospheric delay observable and/or both MP1 and MP2.
- IODslp represents the number of slips on the derivative of the ionospheric delay observable.
The TEQC statistics will be supplemented with those obtained by forming the ionospheric free linear
combination of the L1 and L2 phases by the method of double differences. This is the method used by NGS to
calculate daily site coordinates. Note that double differences are dependent on data quality from two sites,
unlike TEQC statistics.
The combination of the aforementioned performance measures will be used to recommend equipment
upgrades for prospective or existing sites whose data under-perform compared to its established peers
(CORS network). In addition, these results will be used to search for systematic effects in the CORS network,
such as a tendency for a model of receiver or antenna to under-perform when compared to its peers.
A modern geodetic control station should be suitable for three dimensional positioning. In addition they should
be permanent and stable. Pillars used in the State of Qatar are excellent monuments for horizontal control
surveys. Detailed descriptions of type of monuments used in the State of Qatar for control stations are given
in Appendix 1B. Monument types proposed for each type of horizontal and vertical control survey are given in
Tables 1.19(a) and (b), respectively.
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0 J2
1 Above + J1, J4, G1, H1 & H2
2 Above + J3
3 Above + K1, P1, P2, K2, L1 & P3
4 Above + L2, J6, A1 & M1
5 Above + B1, C1, E1 & J5
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References
1. “Standards and Practices for Control Surveys Special Publication 1 (SP1) V1.6” published by The
Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping (ICSM), Australia.
2. “Guidelines for New and Existing Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS)” published by
National Geodetic Survey (February 2006)
3. “Draft Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived Orthometric Heights (Standards: 2 cm and 5 cm) V1.4”
published by National Geodetic Survey dated October 2005.
4. “Survey Practice Handbook” published by the Surveyors Registration Board of Victoria, Australia.
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Appendix 1A
The following coordinates are for the Centre for GIS’s GPS Base Station. They were computed using
the QTRANS software which incorporates the Qatar95 geoid model. Results are given for both
the exact 7-parameter solution and the approximate 3-parameter solutions.
1
Geoid Ellipsoid Separation n -29.083 m 0.000 m
1
To obtain geodetically correct transformed coordinates the geoid model must be used.
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3,589,721.311 m 3,589,849.092 m
Cartesian X
Cartesian Y 4,518,778.589 m 4,519,061.964 m
1
The signs of the Transformation Parameters are correct when using QTRANS software. For other transformation software packages
you may have to change the signs. Changing signs is not an error but may be as a result of defining the coordinate systems as right
handed or left handed (QTRANS uses a left handed coordinate system) or defining which is the from coordinate” and which is the “to
coordinate” in computing the transformation parameters. If you use the 7 parameters and the results are correct that is fine. Otherwise
it is best to use the 3-parameter transformation to get the translations correct and then introduce the rotations and scale (parameters 4
to 7) to refine the transformation. In either case, if the signs need to be changed then all the transformation parameters should be
changed or all the rotation parameters should be changed (that is, you cannot change the sign of only 1 translation or rotation - they
must all be changed as a group). To obtain geodetically correct transformed coordinates the geoid model must be used. If you have
any problems, or require further information, please contact the Centre for GIS.
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A surface mark of reinforced concrete separated by a layer of sand, earth or small stones from the
concrete mark beneath it. The fine mark is a 2 centimeter diameter hole through the centre of both
holes. The surface mark is 30 centimeters square at the top and, where possible, 80 centimeters deep.
The separation between surface and buried mark is 30 centimeters. The buried mark is 20 centimeters
thick. A cairn of whitewashed stone at least 150 centimeters high is constructed 200 centimeters south
of the station. Station number is inscribed in the cement of the surface mark. Tripod is required.
An elevated pillar consisting of a 550 centimeters length of steel tube that is 30 centimeters in diameter
and 0.5 centimeters thick. The steel tube is surrounded to a height of 130 centimeters below the top of
the pillar by a mound of compacted desert fill. This is paved with stone and surmounted by a 15
centimeter thick concrete observing platform. A permanent stairway is incorporated in the construction.
A concrete block with a brass mushroom headed bolt is constructed at the foot of the steps to serve as
a benchmark. The station number is stamped on to the centre of the pillar and on the head of the
mushroom bolt benchmark. There is a brass spider on top of the tube. Pillar plate is required.
An elevated pillar consisting of a 180 centimeter length of steel tube that is 30 centimeters in diameter.
The steel tube is surrounded to a height 130 centimeter below the top of the pillar by a thick concrete
foundation. A brass mushroom headed bolt is inserted in the concrete foundation on the south side of
the pillar. There is a brass spider on top of the tube. The station number is stamped on to the centre of
the pillar and on the head of the mushroom bolt benchmark. Pillar plate is required.
Used in sand dune areas only. The mark consists of a number of 120 centimeter sections of 2
centimeter diameter cast iron conduit, threaded at both ends. The sections were vibrated into the sand
either to refusal or to a minimum depth of 10 meters. A 130 centimeter length of conduit was left
protruding from the sand, and two triangular metal vanes were bolted to the top of the pipe, at right
angles to one another. Tripod required, not possible to directly occupy.
A black mild steel pipe, 30 centimeters in diameter and 310 centimeters long, was set into a concrete
foundation and keyed into bedrock where possible. Around the base an observing platform, size 150 x
150 x 100 centimeters, is available. A brass spider on top of the pillar serves as the centre mark. A
step formed with building blocks was built beside the mushroom benchmark bolt. Pillar plate is
required.
A Bronze plaque embedded well into a concrete block. The block is 80 centimeters high and 50
centimeters square at the base narrowing to 30 centimeters square at the top and set 60 centimeters
into the ground. There is an aluminum plaque set horizontally on top of the block. This contains the
words, in Arabic and English, “State of Qatar Survey mark” & “Do not destroy”. The monument is
surrounded by a 200 centimeters square guard frame of 7.5 centimeters galvanized mild steel tubing.
The monument is painted white while the guard frame was painted red and white. In a few cases the
guard frame is omitted where it was felt it would cause an obstruction. Tripod required.
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A bronze plaque on a cylindrical concrete block, 25 centimeters below ground surface that is covered
by a cast iron surface box. The plaque is 5 centimeters in diameter and driven onto a 2.5 centimeter
diameter galvanized mild steel pipe 100 centimeters long. The surface box is set with the centre of the
lid vertically above the centre mark. The words “State of Qatar” and “Survey Mark” were cast into
the top of the lid in Arabic and English. Where the location is in a tarmac roadway a collar of tarmac
was reinstated around the lid of the box, otherwise this collar was of concrete. Tripod required.
A bronze mushroom bolt, marked with a cross on top, on a cylindrical concrete block, 25 centimeters
below ground surface that is covered by a cast iron surface box. The head of the bolt is 2.5 centimeters
in diameter and driven onto a 2.5 centimeters diameter galvanized mild steel pipe 100 centimeters long.
The surface box is set with the centre of the lid vertically above the centre mark. The words "State of
Qatar" and "Survey Mark" were cast into the top of the lid in Arabic and English. Where the location is
in a tarmac roadway a collar of tarmac was reinstated around the lid of the box, otherwise this collar
was of concrete. Tripod required.
A bronze mushroom headed bolt is set on a reinforced concrete block 80 centimeters high and 50
centimeters square at the base and 30 centimeters square at the top. The top of the concrete block is
flush with ground level. Tripod required.
This consisted of a chamber excavated to a depth of 100 centimeters or until solid rock was
encountered. The inside of the chamber was lined with 15 centimeter’s wall of concrete. The private
mark consists of a bronze mushroom headed bolt is set into the base of the chamber. The public mark
consists of a bronze mushroom headed bolt set onto the concrete surround at ground level. The
chamber was covered with a heavy duty manhole and the finished chamber has the appearance of a
heavy duty manhole. The size of the manhole varies from point to point. Tripod required.
A brass bolt, with a cross mark at top, with a head of 2.5 centimeters diameter, and 15 centimeters long
is buried vertically inside a concrete block. The base of block is 30 centimeters high and 30
centimeters square, narrowing to 25 centimeters square at the top. About 0.5 centimeter of the bolt is
left protruding above the concrete surface. A concrete layer of at least 10 centimeters thick should be
placed beneath before the mould for the concrete block is placed. The concrete block is flush with the
ground level. Point number is usually inscribed on the concrete.
On solid rock, a hole, 15 centimeters deep, was drilled and a brass mushroom headed bolt grouted into
the hole. Three additional holes were drilled at varying distances around the central hole, to serve as
witness marks. Tripod required.
A brass mushroom headed bolt grouted into position on the roof. Where possible, four reference points
were established with Hilti nails. Tripod required.
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A brass stud is fixed with a resin mix into a small hole drilled on kerbstones, concrete manhole
surrounds, etc. Four hilti nails in suitable locations serve as reference points. Tripod required.
A steel pin 30 centimeters long with a diameter of 1 centimeter buried vertically inside a concrete block
of 30 x 30 x 30 centimeters, with 2 centimeters protruding above the concrete surface. Point number is
usually inscribed on the concrete. Tripod required.
A hilti nail 10 centimeters long, with a head of 1.5 centimeters and diameter 0.6 centimeters is driven to
tarmac/Bitmac/Asphalt with a washer. Tripod required.
A hilti nail 5 centimeters long and with a head of 0.5 centimeters is driven to the gap between two
kerbstones, or other suitable location, with a washer. Tripod required.
An open ended steel pipe is set in concrete. The top edge is projecting 1 to 3 centimeters above the
top surface of concrete block. Point number is inscribed on concrete. Tripod required.
A survey mark, represented as M, in rectangular concrete block having variable dimensions and
represented as follows: length = L, width = W and height above ground = H. The monument is usually
surrounded by a square guard frame. Please refer to the remarks field for the type of the survey mark
and the monument dimensions. Tripod required.
A survey mark, represented as M, in circular concrete block having variable dimensions and
represented as follows: diameter = D and height above ground = H. The monument is usually
surrounded by a square guard frame. Please refer to the remarks field for the type of the survey mark
and the monument dimensions. Tripod required.
A survey mark, represented as M, in concrete cast in place with no particular shape whatsoever. Please
refer to the remarks field for the type of the survey mark. Tripod required.
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Date
Observer
Inst.Model
Serial No.
Company
SET 1 Horiz. Angle Vert. Angle Horiz. Angle (D-R) Vert. Angle (D-R)
A
D 00 - 00 - 00
R
B
D
R
SET 2
A
D 30 - 00 - 00
R
B
D
R
SET 3 Horiz. Angle Vert. Angle Horiz. Angle (D-R) Vert. Angle (D-R)
A
D 60 - 00 - 00
R
B
D
R
SET 4
A
D 90 - 00 - 00
R
B
D
R
Remarks:
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 1 – Control Survey
Page of
Job # Place Date
Observer Recorder
Ins. Station No. Ins. Height Stn. Descr.
RO Station No. RO target Ht. Stn. Descr.
Instrument Used Make Serial No.
Beginning Time Ending Time Temp. Pres.
Object Description
Face L
Face R
SET 2 Mean
Ang. Diff.
Face L
Face R
SET 3 Mean
Ang. Diff.
Face L
Face R
SET 4 Mean
Ang. Diff.
Slope Dist. 1
Slope Dist. 2
Slope Dist. 3
Slope Dist. Mean
Horizontal Distance
Remarks
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 2 – Cadastral Survey
Abbreviations
BP Boundary Pillar
CAE Committee on the Admission of Engineers
CORS Continuously Operated Reference Station
DGNSS Differential Global Navigation Satellite System
DGPS Differential Global Positioning System
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
GPS Global Positioning System
GSD General Survey Department
LAD Land Acquisition Department
LD Land Department
LIS Land Information Section
MMUP Ministry of Municipalities and Urban Planning
PD Property Document
PIN Parcel Identification Number
PRD Property Regulation Department
QARS Qatar Area Reference System
QND95 Qatar National Datum 1995
QNG Qatar National Grid
RERD Real Estate Registration Department
RINEX Receiver Independent Exchange format
RS Requisition Survey
RTK Real-Time Kinematic
TC Temporary Control
UPDA Urban Planning and Development Authority
WDD Working Data Disk
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 2 – Cadastral Survey
The General Survey Department (GSD) is the governing and administrative authority for Cadastral Survey in
the State of Qatar. The organization chart of GSD is depicted in Figure 2.1.
Cadastral Survey shall comprise all types of land survey executed in the State of Qatar for the purpose of
demarcation and registration of land boundaries.
“Land" includes:
(a) a parcel of land which is in actual possession of the owner by himself or other person holding by,
through or under him;
(b) foreshore land;
(c) a building or a structure erected on land or water;
(d) any parcel of airspace or any subterranean space held apart from the surface of the earth; and
(e) any estate or interest in land;
(a) Demarcation Survey – survey made to define the land boundary of registered and unregistered land of
private and government ownership. These include farm, beach and desert house survey.
(b) Re-demarcation Survey – survey made to re-set out previously defined land boundary.
(c) Consolidation Survey – two or more parcel of lands are consolidated and defined as one parcel.
(d) Subdivision Survey – a parcel of land is subdivided into two or more parcels.
(e) Land Adjustment Survey – survey made to define the new boundary of parcel of land determining the
given area and the taken area of a parcel or (both) from the original area of the parcel. This includes:
(i) personal adjustment – the owner of a private land requests for additional land area
(ii) developmental adjustment – a privately owned land where a portion of the land is acquired for
development purposes by the Government
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(iii) partial acquisition and total acquisition survey – privately owned land that is partially or totally
acquired by Government for urban planning purposes.
(f) Strata Survey – survey made to define the boundary of a strata unit/flat of a building.
The highest authority for Cadastral survey in the state of Qatar is the Ministry of Municipalities and Urban
Planning. The authorized representative is the Director of General Survey Department, MMUP.
A permanent Committee to be called "the Committee for the enrollment of Engineers and Engineering
Consultancy Offices" shall be formed in the Authority – defined as the General Authority for Planning and
Urban Development - and constituted as follows:
(a) Two Engineers from the authority one of whom shall be Chairman.
(b) One Engineer from the Ministry of Energy and Industry ,
(c) One Engineer from the Ministry of Municipalities and Urban Planning,
(d) One Engineer from Qatar General Electricity and Water Corporation,
(e) One Engineer from Qatar Petroleum,
(f) One Engineer from the Public Works Authority,
1
Block boundaries and property boundary limits (parcel) are defined by General Survey Department (GSD).
2
Zone, City, Municipality and District boundary limits are defined by planning.
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Each body shall select its representative in the Committee. A decision of the Council of Ministers, who may
form the Committee, shall be issued. The membership in the Committee shall be for three (3) years
renewable for another period or periods by decision of the Council of Ministers which may reform the
Committee. The Committee shall make the internal regulations to organize its own works.
The Committee shall be entrusted with the acceptance and registration of Engineers and Engineering
Consultancy Offices, and with determining the Engineering Professions according to their technical
specializations, and the Committee shall classify the engineers and Local and International Engineering
Consultancy Offices of each specialization into categories, specifying the volume and kind of engineering
works to be practiced by each category.
“The Engineering Consultancy” refers “to the work of preparing architectural and construction drawings,
diagrams, designs and topographic surveys; supervising over performance; giving advise; conducting
feasibility studies; computation of quantities and cost estimates; and managing projects in various engineering
professions”.
“The Engineering Professions” refers “to the engineering activities practiced by those qualified in the division
and branches of specializations of architectural, civil, electrical, mechanical, chemical, mining and other fields
of engineering”.
The role of GSD in the accreditation on Survey Firms is to recommend the firm to be accredited upon
compliance with the accreditation criteria, specified in the following sections.
All companies that intends to practice and deal with cadastral, topographic or any Land or Hydrographic
related surveys in the State of Qatar are required to be registered and accredited with General Survey
Department (GSD) of the Urban Planning and Development Authority (UPDA). The companies should meet
the following requirements:
(i) A registered and licensed company according to Law of Qatar, to operate in the State of Qatar.
(iii) One of the major trade/services of the company or establishment should be in the field of
surveying.
(v) Shall provide information with regards to its financial condition and stability.
The Company or Establishment shall present through its organizational set up that one of its major
trade/services is in the field of surveying. Its authorized representative in all dealings with GSD shall
represent the company in the field of Survey.
(C) Personnel
(i) It is required from the company or establishment to submit the qualifications of their personnel,
educational attainment and diploma certificate, years of experience in the field of surveying.
(ii) GSD requires the company or establishment to maintain a set of regular key personnel for their
offices, in the field of Survey, as follows:
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Who may qualify as the authorized representative of the company; who will sign for all survey
documents and drawings submitted to GSD; and with the following qualifications;
- Holds a Bachelor degree in Civil/Geodetic Engineering/Surveying or equivalent;
- Must have at least 5 years experience in office management that deals with surveying or related
engineering field.
- Must have at least 5 years experience in the practice of cadastral land surveys.
- Good knowledge in laws and procedures governing land surveys and property registration in the
State of Qatar.
- Experienced and knowledgeable in up to date survey equipment.
- Well oriented in the geography of State of Qatar.
- Conversant with modern computer software in surveying and will be able to produce documents
when needed.
- Must have a valid Qatar driver’s license.
Who may act as Senior Surveyor or Officer in charge at the time the Senior Surveyor is out of the
country provided that GSD is informed beforehand of the changes (see Section (g), General
Conditions), with the same qualifications as of the above with a minimum experience of 2 years in
office management.
(D) Equipment
There should be at least two (2) sets of survey equipment complete with accessories for the purpose of
carrying out survey field work operations for land surveys, in gathering data and its application.
The equipment shall have an annual certificate of calibration issued by an authority approved for the
purpose of test and examination.
The company should submit to GSD the registration numbers of the set of equipment, where the set of
equipment is thereby registered.
GSD has the right to inspect the equipment for its completeness.
In case the company will be involved in Hydrographic survey, they will be required to own or lease a set
of equipment for the purpose with the approval of GSD;
In case the registered set(s) of equipment is replaced or new sets were added, the company shall
report to GSD such replacement or new sets to be added which will be subjected for all necessary
calibration.
All survey projects of the company shall bear the registration number of the survey equipment used.
(E) Vehicle
The company or establishment should provide at least three (3) 4x4 vehicle (category “A”) either owned
or leased for the purpose of transporting for the surveyors in carrying out field survey works and two (2)
4X4 vehicles for category “B”.
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GSD should be provided with the registration papers of the said vehicles.
This covers the operating technology of the company or establishment (i.e. computer facilities).
The company should have the resources to maintain up to date operating procedures and the ability to
deliver up to a certain standard.
The company may use any commercially developed software as long as it produces data compatible
with the existing programs and software of GSD.
GSD shall conduct inspection of their office facilities prior to the approval of their application for
registration, to make sure that they have the capability to deliver the services required and the ability to
extend equitable warranty provisions.
It is required from the company to submit their Method Statement in processing their data, from
fieldwork operations to finalizing the data prior to submittal.
(i) Any Applicant, whose registration is approved by GSD, will have its name added to the list of
Registered Survey Companies of GSD, and this list will be made freely available to the public upon
request.
(ii) Before the authorized representative of any Registered Company goes on leave or change in
position, GSD should be notified in writing at least two (2) months before the scheduled leave or
change in position, according to the existing policy of GSD, where the latter has the discretion to
approve or reject the request.
(iii) Any Registered Company who, upon examination of their work, was found to have deliberately
falsified any submitted data shall immediately be removed from the Register and neither that
Company nor the approved person that represent that company is allowed to register again. The
decision of GSD shall be final in this matter.
(iv) If the work delivered, upon careful verification, does not meet the standard imposed by GSD, the
company will be notified with a warning letter. If the standard does not improved and was given the
third warning letter, GSD may remove the company from the Register.
(v) Any Registered Company will not be allowed to sub-contract their contract with GSD to another
Registered Company;
(vi) Any Applicant who fails to obtain approval for registration may apply again no sooner than three (3)
Gregorian calendar months after the first attempt.
(vii) Any registered company which has been removed from the Register, for any reason other than
falsifying survey data may re-apply for registration no sooner than three (3) Gregorian calendar
months after the date of their removal from the Register.
(viii) GSD has the option to categorize the company based on the documents submitted on their
application.
(ix) Any Registered Company shall inform GSD in writing for any changes in their operations,
procedures, manpower, and equipment.
(x) In case the Company will be involved in hydrographic survey; they must have an
accredited Hydrographic Surveyor who will accept responsibility for the hydrographic survey; the
Hydrographic Surveyor must have successfully completed FIG/IHO/ICA accredited Category A
hydrographic surveying course in a recognized institution worldwide or hold a degree in Surveying,
Geodesy or Geomatics and minimum five years experience in hydrographic surveying practices.
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Category “A”
Category “B”
Subject to the provisions of the CAE, every person who is 21 years of age and above shall be entitled to be
accredited if:
(b) he has passed a professional interview conducted by the GSD or CAE to determine whether he has the
aptitude and knowledge to effectively perform or engage in survey work in the State of Qatar.
Cadastral Survey can only be executed upon the receipt of “Survey Request Form”, documents from Real
Estate Registration Department (RERD), policy plan and any other related drawings.
(a) A cadastral survey for any parcel of land shall not be taken to have been completed until:
(i) the boundaries of the land have been determined by straight lines;
(ii) the physical boundaries of the land have been demarcated by boundary marks or defined by
approved co-ordinates or, if it is impossible or impracticable to do so, by reference to floors and
walls so as to enable the boundary lines of the land to be ascertained;
(iii) the area of the land has been determined;
(iv) a cadastral parcel number and point number has been assigned to the land by the GSD (see
Section 2.3.3.2); and
(v) the property document showing the location of the land and its boundaries, area, cadastral parcel
number and the boundary marks placed on the land or the approved co-ordinates, has been
processed, approved by, and stored on GSD Cadastral Database which is accessible to other
authorized government agencies.
(b) The property document (see Appendix 2A (a) and Appendix 2A (b)) shall be prima facie evidence of the
boundaries of the parcel of land to which it refers, and of its area and PIN.
(c) Any plan for a cadastral survey of a parcel of land approved by, and filed in the office of GSD may be
executed as per requested by the Land Department.
All cadastral surveys conducted shall conform to these survey procedures, format and standards as listed
below.
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(a) All boundary points are defined with unique beacon numbers as specified in Section 2.3.3. No beacon
number is duplicated.
(b) Shape of the land is defined by these beacon numbers and is allocated with a unique PIN as specified
in Section 2.3.3.
1
2.3.2 Survey Datum
The QND95 datum which uses the International (Hayford) reference ellipsoid on Qatar National Grid (QNG) is
to be adopted for cadastral surveys in Qatar.
(a) PIN is an unique number that identifies the cadastral land; and
(b) Beacon number is a unique number that identifies the boundary corner of a cadastral parcel.
Refer to Section 2.3.3.2 for the parcel and beacon numbering system.
(a) Every accredited survey firm or their authorized personnel shall obtain from GSD all parcel, beacon and
PD numbers to be used in connection with the survey they will execute.
(b) Application can be done on prescribed form (see Appendix 2C) or through internet. GSD will verify their
request and will allocate parcel, beacon and PD numbers to the accredited survey firm. All requests for
parcel and beacon numbers should be accompanied by a drawing with an appropriate scale, showing
job limits and grid coordinates. This is being undertaken to prevent duplication of beacon and parcel
numbers and to initially check the Qatar Area Reference System (QARS) block location.
The parcel and beacon numbering system is based on the Qatar Area Reference System (QARS). Qatar is
divided into registration zones which are further subdivided into a number of blocks within each zone. Within
the individual blocks, a unique reference number for each individual parcel is allocated on a sequential basis
and as well as the beacon numbers.
The numbering of parcel numbers, which is unique for every parcel, shall be of the following formats:
Each parcel has a unique reference number in the form of XXYYZZZZZ where:
XX =QARS Zone
YY =QARS Block
ZZZZZ =Land Cadastral parcel Number allocated
The reference number for each beacon will have the form XXYYAAAAA where:-
1
Refer to Chapter 1: Control Survey
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XX =QARS Zone
YY = QARS Block
AAAAA =Unique number allocated by Survey Section.
Using the QARS zones/blocks as the initial parameter has the advantage that the vast majority of parcels
surveyed within individual survey requests will have a common prefix. This will remove the necessity of full
annotation on the survey plans as the individual beacons can be labeled with the suffix of the reference
number only, the reference number prefix forming part of the data on the survey plan.
This system of beacon referencing eliminates any chance of anomalies occurring along common boundaries.
(b) The numbering of temporary control stations, established by traversing or GNSS, shall be as follows:
Alphabet “T” for temporary follows by JOB No : JJJJJ and alphabet “A”, “B”, “C”, ….etc…
nd rd
Example : T12345A, T12345B (2 point), T12345C (3 point) and etc..
Private accredited survey firm can only make use of the existing geodetic survey control network, temporary
control stations or Continuously Operated Reference Station (CORS) to commence Cadastral Survey. Method
of establishing control markers should refer to Chapter 1 Section 1.2.0.
Accredited surveyor shall check on the availability of control markers in the intended survey area.
In the event that there are insufficient control markers within the surveyed area, accredited surveyors
should install and survey the new markers using static DGNSS technique.
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(a) GNSS equipment, software and procedures should be tested before general usage. This can be
achieved by making measurements and processing data over known baselines or a network of points.
For validation of GNSS, GSD shall assign Government control stations to accredited survey firm to
validate the GNSS equipment. Report on how the observations, in static or rapid static method, were
taken is required to be submitted together with the raw data. Reference could be made to Chapter 1
Section 1.2.5.8 for the validation. Processing of the calibration shall be done and the certificate issued
by the respective department.
(b) A survey must be connected to at least 2 existing approved Government survey marks adequate to
prove its reliability, orientation, and scale. GNSS observations can be made directly between three or
more appropriate existing survey marks to prove the origin in the conventional manner, eg, by
comparing bearing and distances between origin marks.
Alternatively, where a base station is used outside the area of the survey, 3 or more appropriate existing
surveys marks in the area of the survey need to be tied to. A transformation of the GNSS data to the
local coordinate system of the origin marks may be required. The transformed data must then be used
to prove the origin of the, e.g. by calculating the GNSS joins between the origin marks and comparing
with the bearing and distances between origin marks.
(c) GNSS provides the ability to operate over greater distances than with conventional equipment. Often
base stations outside of the area of the survey can be employed. All GNSS surveys must be undertaken
in accordance with accepted good survey practice as follows:
(i) As a general rule GNSS marks should be inter-visible, particularly boundary and witness marks,
to aid future surveys where conventional techniques may be used.
(ii) Where surveyors deem it helpful they may annotate lines that are not visible “NV”.
(iii) GNSS observation procedures should be designed to detect and eliminate:
• ambiguity initialization errors;
• the effects of multipath;
• interference from electrical interference such as substations, microwave or other spurious
radio signals;
• poor satellite geometry due to satellite configuration and/or sky coverage obstructions.
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(iv) All GNSS observations are to be checked by independent observations from another
(independent) base station. Where re-measurement of the same vector is carried out
observations are to be made at a different time (at least 30 minutes after the first observation) to
enable satellite geometry to change and thus ensure that any multipath errors will be detected.
Where vectors are re-measured proof that no transcription errors have occurred on the plan must
be provided.
(d) Sufficient GNSS observations shall be shown on the survey plan, and annotated “GNSS”, to indicate
the general method of survey. If all observations are made using GNSS, a note in the side panel
indicating that all observations are GNSS can be used in place of annotating each line. Where a line is
calculated between two GNSS points it shall be annotated “calc”.
(e) Where heights are to be shown on the plan, spheroidal heights must be transformed to an orthometric
height datum acceptable to the GSD, e.g. when heights are required for strata titles.
(f) Where coordinates derived from GNSS observations are being shown, they shall be provided as local
circuit grid coordinates (e.g. N, E), and NOT as geocentric Cartesian coordinates (e.g. X, Y, Z) or
geographic coordinates (e.g. φ, λ, h).
• a brief statement as to the purpose of the survey to enable the type of survey carried out to be put
in context of the GNSS methodology used;
• what observations were made [e.g. how were ties made to permanent reference marks, witness
marks and boundary marks. Were they direct GNSS
• vector measurements or were they calculated from GNSS observations;
• how check observations were made;
• a description of precautions taken to identify and minimize the effects of multipath and of gross
errors.
(h) A list of the type and model of equipment used is to be provided. This should also include information
on any base station service that has been used.
(j) Assessment of GNSS data quality shall be provided so that the appropriateness of the methodology
used for the survey can be assessed. This may be provided by:
• the repeatability of observations e.g. the maximum difference or standard deviation of repeated
observations on each line;
• a comparison of GNSS observations with underlying work;
• summary of independent checks to verify quality assessment e.g. loop closures or network
analysis.
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The “corners” of the cadastral land surveys are those points that determine the boundaries of the various
subdivisions represented on the official plan – be it private or government lands.
The “corner” is also defined as Beacon where a unique number is allocated (See Section 2.3.3).
2.3.7.1 Area
Before the definition of the final parcel area, approval from the concerned department, ie. LD, RERD, LAD &
PRD, is required.
2
Area is shown to the nearest 1.0 m on plans.
Areas shall be computed using any appropriate mathematical formula from the coordinates of the boundary
corners, in clockwise direction. The boundary corners coordinates should be correct to 3 places of decimal
If a parcel is subdivided into several parcels, the total area of each subdivided parcel shall conform to the
original parcel area by applying adjustments, if necessary.
If a defined parcel is re-demarcated, its original area is to be adopted and all site discrepancies are to be
reported.
Every cadastral boundary corner position shall be determined on the ground from any of the adjusted control
stations to within 0.050 meters.
All new Government Cadastral Marks shall be approved Survey Marks (see Figure 2.3). The anchor "Type A"
is to be used in preference, where less hard ground conditions permit.
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Where conditions prohibit the use of either type of mark, the Technical Advisor may authorize the use of an
alternative marker, being a steel pin (sp), feno mark (fm) (See Figure 2.4) or hilti nail (hn).
Existing, as built wall and building corners, concrete boundary pillars, or other physical features approved by
the Technical Advisor, may be adopted as cadastral marks. Appendix 2D “Cadastral Survey Feature Codes”
illustrates such cadastral marks.
It is unnecessary to renumber cadastral points where no change in coordinates has occurred. Original
numbers should be used unless they are found to be incorrect or outdated as a result of QARS block errors or
alterations.
7.5 cm
6.5 cm
9 cm
9 cm
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Any beacons which have been allocated a code as part of a previous job must be checked to ensure the code
is still appropriate. Any problems concerning beacon descriptions from old jobs or the correct usage of codes
should be resolved before submission of the job to Survey Section.
It is essential that codes are allocated without variation - i.e. spaces, hyphens, slashes and commas are not to
be used. If it is found that a suitable code does not exist, companies should consult Survey Section and
resolve the problem before submission.
(a) Scale
(i) The scale on which the plan is drawn and the plan size shall be selected such that the
coordinates of each station and the area of each cadastral parcel can be clearly seen.
(ii) On plans, if stations or boundaries are illegible or difficult to interpret, a diagram drawn on a scale
larger than that of the plan, or drawn not to scale, may be added as an inset.
(iii) Built-up areas - Plans shall be drawn at scale of 1:100, 1:200 or 1:500.
(iv) For other surveys – Plan shall be drawn at scales of 1:1000, 1:2000 or 1:10000.
Boundary lines shall be represented by firm black lines, and connection lines and traverse lines in sketches
shall be represented by broken black lines.
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(b) Abbreviations
The abbreviations, symbols and conventional signs adopted by GSD shall be used on plans.
(c) Text
The following information and references shall be shown on land cadastral plans:
(i) the North Point;
(ii) the name of the accredited surveyor who conducted the survey and, where applicable, the name of
the assistant employed by the accredited surveyor who assisted in the conduct of the survey and
the date of the completion of the survey;
(iii) the field book number and pages;
Every land cadastral plan shall bear the names of the draftsman and the person who checked the plan and
the dates of completion.
Every land cadastral certified plan shall bear a certificate containing the accredited surveyor’s stamp with
entries of his signature and date.
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The beacon numbers, the Eastings, the Northings and the Elevations of the beacon are to be tabulated.
The numerical data essential on land cadastral plan shall be clearly presented and shall include:
(i) station numbers;
(ii) coordinates of boundaries which can be tabulated or be placed alongside the boundaries on plan
body;
(iii) the area of each lot under survey be shown beneath the lot number or, for clarity, be tabulated with
the lot number;
(iv) the adjacent lot numbers;
(v) the lot numbers of lots under survey shall be significantly shown near the centre of the respective
lots to which they refer;
(vi) the PD number; and
(vii) occupational details need not be shown on PD
Every PD shall contain a schedule showing the original cadastral parcel number and the number of the
previous PD and, in the case of a subdivision and amalgamation, the new parcel numbers shall also be
shown.
(a) A survey report shall be submitted to GSD together with the completed cadastral survey and relevant
documents. This gives the Surveyor an opportunity to review the exact nature of the original request,
and assess whether the final product conforms to that request. A standard form of Survey Report is
filled in by the Surveyor-in-charge.
(b) The report should include, as appropriate, details of the following items:
(i) The nature of the plot/boundary description (i .e. open land with B.P.; existing house; compound
wall, etc).
(ii) Method used to define/locate the boundary.
(iii) Accuracies/residuals of relevant computations.
(iv) Field checks used.
(v) Problems encountered (i .e. restricted access to site).
(vi) Any instructions given by planning which cause a deviation in the original job request.
(vii) Discrepancies (i.e. areas and dimensions, encroachments, shortfalls, clashes with utilities,
planning conflicts).
(c) The report should be as brief as possible, consistent with all essential information. The data to be
submitted include:
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Example
• AutoCAD Drawings (DXF File) Containing ONLY the Final created Parcels and Beacons
(Polygons, Points).
• ASCII File (CSV file) containing ONLY the Final coordinates of Beacons Points Final Beacon
name must be in a defined font ("F" & NUMBER & "-" & Point Code)
Example
F1-0WC, 323223.221,214587.554
F2-FM, 343223.221, 224587.554
• Raw Data File (ASCII, SDR, GSI)
(d) When the Survey meets all the requirements, the PD is issued and signed by the unit head concerned
and countersigned by the Section Head concerned. A standard letter, in Arabic, is attached to the file at
this point. This letter gives the following details where appropriate:
(i) Area quoted on the registration documents.
(ii) Actual area occupied by the plot.
(iii) Additional area/areas.
(iv) Taken area/areas.
(v) Final allocated area.
(e) Should the case need an explanation of any sort, it will be accompanied with an English report detailing
the survey work done and any specific problems.
The function of quality control is to ensure that the final product is of a consistent format, is an accurate
representation of that on the ground and meets the requirements of the UPDA.
(a) Manufacturer test/calibration certificate as per ISO standard for total stations and GNSS instruments is
verified for each instrument.
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(e) Graphic check: The location of the surveyed land parcel is checked on Arc Cadastre Database and
"charted" onto the relevant record sheet held in Archive Unit of GSD.
Calibration of Total Station could be found in Section 1.2.7, Appendix 1D and 1E of Chapter 1 and all
calibration for Total Station shall be performed on government baseline only.
Validation of GNSS instrument for cadastral is done on government control stations and process should test
for equipment, measurement techniques, processing and transformation.
The following factors apply to any cadastral survey submitted for approval.
(b) Copy of original request for survey to be supplied, accompanied by relevant Policy Plan. (Any policy
plan more than one year old must be submitted to the Planning authority, through the Section Head of
GSD concerned, for updated certification).
(c) Copies of any other documents associated with the case, e.g. Design Review Committee approval,
Earthworks approval, Adjustment drawings, RERD drawings etc.
(d) Original Property Documents. These must be signed (by the Company's Senior/Chief Surveyor) and
dated. A3 format PDs must include a backing sheet unless otherwise approved by the GSD. For any
land owned by the Government, individual PDs are required.
(e) Submission of soft copy in magnetic medium, providing the coordinates for each cadastral beacon. This
data disk is to be of WDD format compatible with current GSD software.
(f) A comprehensive job report to be supplied to include a printed coordinate list and annotated point
description (e.g. feno mark, steel pin, hilti nail in concrete, old boundary pillar, building corner, etc.). The
report should include, as appropriate, details of the following items:
(i) Nature of the plot/boundary description
(ii) Method used to define/locate the boundary
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(g) Where control of a permanent nature has been established and station numbers have been allocated,
all original traverse and computation sheets must be submitted, including station descriptions.
(h) Surveyor to ensure that QARS data is consistent with the most recent data held by Field Survey
Section.
(i) Note that any other documentation (e.g. original field sheets) must be available, for examination by the
GSD, upon request.
A strata survey is a legal survey which describes a volume of space for a flat/unit in a condominium building;
an apartment in an apartment building; a store in a shopping centre; and underground tunnel or overhead
walkway.
Each strata cadastral parcel has a unique reference number in the form of PINUUUNNNBBB where:
(a) Final architectural drawings in hard & soft copy (3D dwg) and other related documents are to be
provided to GSD before survey;
(b) Surveyor will survey the as-constructed units with reference to the final architectural drawings.
(c) If there are any discrepancies, surveyor is to report the discrepancies to the developer and request
developer to amend the architectural plan for re-submission to GSD
(i) Every strata cadastral parcel shall be surveyed and the linear measurements of the survey
rounded off to the nearest centimeter.
(ii) The total & internal length and width of the strata cadastral parcel shall be measured. The
physical height shall be measured.
(iii) At least a minimum of two (2) bench marks shall be established within or near the parcel. Easting,
northing and elevation (orthometric height) shall be derived from government control station (QND
95).
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(i) The building comprising the strata cadastral parcels shall be fixed directly in relation to the
boundaries of the cadastral parcel.
(ii) If encroachment is detected, the amount of encroachment shall be measured, and reflected on
every strata cadastral plan submitted to the Director of GSD for approval. A note stating the
nature of encroachment shall be entered in the field diagram.
Where the strata cadastral parcels involve land, they shall be demarcated with
the approved survey marks on the ground.
Unless otherwise specifically required the boundaries of a strata unit should follow features such as the
inner surfaces, median plane, or outer surface of walls, floors, and ceilings.
(f) Certification
The surveyor’s report of every cadastral strata survey shall bear the accredited surveyor’s certification
with entries of his signature and date.
Strata cadastral Plans shall be drawn in the Strata Title Plan format size of A3.
To fit the entire index, floor & unit plans into one A3 size plan and the scale of the unit plan shall be in
1:100 and any other regular scales.
(d) The scale on which a plan is drawn shall be so selected such that the area of each strata cadastral
parcel and all relevant details can be clearly seen.
(e) If on any part of a plan, measurements or details would otherwise be illegible or difficult to interpret, a
diagram drawn on a scale larger than that of the plan, or drawn not to scale, may be added as an inset.
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(a) Text
(b) Line
Description Size
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The following information and references shall be shown on strata cadastral plans or in surveyor’s report:
(i) the North Point;
(ii) the name/signature of the accredited surveyor who conducted the survey and, if applicable, the
name of the assistant employed by the accredited surveyor who assisted in the conduct of the
survey and the date of the completion of the survey;
(iii) the field book number and pages, where applicable;
(iv) where applicable, the number on the approved building plans from which the details on the strata
cadastral plan have been compiled;
(v) where applicable, the number of the approved subdivision plan (which has been approved by the
Chief Planner under the Planning Act);
(vi) where applicable, the date of the plan for the subdivision of the building which has been
authorized by a notification from the Minister under a section of the Planning Act.
Every strata cadastral plan shall bear the signature of surveyor and the person who checked the plan and the
dates of completion.
Every strata cadastral certified plan shall bear a certificate containing the accredited surveyor’s stamp with
entries of his signature and date.
(i) The strata cadastral number and strata area to two decimal place shall be shown near the centre
of the respective strata cadastral parcel to which they refer.
(ii) The lengths of the strata cadastral boundary should be shown to two decimal place.
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(iii) The vertex of the strata cadastral boundary should be shown as 4 digit number against the vertex.
The vertex numbers, the eastings, the northings and the elevations of the vertex are to be tabulated.
(a) Raw data derived from establishing bench mark and observation of as-built building
(b) Sketch of each unit and each floor, showing observed point, final point, dimensions, area of the
unit and other related areas and services.
(c) Elevation sketch showing the height of every floor derived from government control station.
(d) Pictures of existing building in four (4) views in jpeg or pdf format.
(e) CSV files (observed points, final points, control stations)
(f) Text file to define the area of strata unit.
(g) Hard copy of each Strata Property Document and Autocad dxf file.
Follow the structure provided in the autocad dxf file provided as reference.
(h) Autocad dxf of building plan, floor plan and unit/flat plan.
(i) And other relevant information, in digital format, as may be required.
2.5.0 Encroachment
(a) Accredited survey firm must detect and record all encroachments in their survey sketch plans under any
situation of the encroachments. The encroachment may be on the ground, above-ground or below-
ground level.
(b) Accredited survey firm shall consider the datum to be used for a survey and positional accuracy is
within ±0.050m when reporting encroachments.
(c) Offsets and radiations are to be taken and recorded to determine the extent of encroachments of the
structures in relation to cadastral parcel boundaries.
(a) GSD surveyors and accredited survey firms must indicate whether there are any encroachments in the
Survey Report form when submitting the job to the GSD. For any encroachment reported in the Survey
Report form, the accredited surveyors are to give a brief description of the encroachment in the
Remarks column of the form. See Appendix 2E for a sample form to report encroachment.
(b) Where encroachment is reported in strata survey, it is to be shown and clearly described in the Site
Plan and / or Storey Plans of the Strata cadastral plan. Accredited surveyors are to ascertain whether
the common properties or strata units or both are affected. If strata units are affected, the amount of
encroachment (in sq m) is to be scaled and shown in the field book and Strata cadastral plan. In such a
case, the strata cadastral parcel and its area cannot include the part of the flat unit that encroaches onto
adjacent land.
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REQUESTED ALLOCATED
JOB NO.
BEACONS
QARS NO.
NUMBER OF BEACONS
PARCELS
NUMBER OF PARCELS
JOB NO.
BEACONS
QARS NO.
NUMBER OF BEACONS
PARCELS
NUMBER OF PARCELS
JOB NO.
BEACONS
QARS NO.
NUMBER OF BEACONS
PARCELS
NUMBER OF PARCELS
JOB NO.
BEACONS
QARS NO.
NUMBER OF BEACONS
PARCELS
NUMBER OF PARCELS
JOB NO.
BEACONS
QARS NO.
NUMBER OF BEACONS
PARCELS
NUMBER OF PARCELS
Companies are reminded that they are responsible for supplying the correct QARS data
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CODE : FM
DESCRIPTION : Code to be used for all “feno type” marks currently or previously
approved by Survey Section.
CODE : GBP
DESCRIPTION : A concrete pillar, between 0.2m and 1.5m in height, previously used by
government survey departments to mark plot corners, road reserves and city limits.
CONVENTION : Observations to be taken to the back of the pillar in the centre, and at ground level
wherever possible.
CODE : PBM
SKETCH :
Observation points – examples only
CONVENTION : The shape of the mark will often indicate the correct points to coordinates when
observing. If this is not the case then an observation should be taken to an easily
identifiable point and suitable comments, with sketch, added to the field sheets. N. B.
Land owners often erect blockwork marks around established survey marks, for
protection. If the original survey mark is still intact this should be the observed points
and the code will be the appropriate code for the mark, NOT PBM.
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CODE : SPC
DESCRIPTION : A length of reinforcing steel set in concrete, approximately 0.25m cube, used as a
Government approved plot boundary marker prior to the introduction of Feno Marks.
The top of the concrete was originally constructed flush with the existing ground level.
CONVENTION : The steel pin may be mark by painted rocks. A suitable annotation can be added to
field sheets and coordinate lists in such instance, if desired.
CODE : SP
DESCRIPTION : A length of steel reinforcing bar driven into the ground, without concrete surround.
CONVENTION : The steel pin may be marked by painted rocks. A suitable annotation can be added to
field sheets and coordinate lists in such instance, if desired.
CODE : HN
DESCRIPTION : A length galvanized or steel nail at least 12cm in length and head of at least 2cm.
CONVENTION : Mark used in surfaces where other boundary marks are inappropriate e.g. in road or
pavement.
CODE : NSO
DESCRIPTION : A point which has not been set out due to prevailing site condition.
CONVENTION : This code is used for cases such as points inside existing properties or the nature
ground is obscured by spoil or construction is in progress.
CODE : WC
CONVENTION : The observation will usually be taken on the outside face of the wall but if another part
of the wall is observed this should recorded as a remark on the field sheets and
coordinate listings. The number and spacing of observations will be such as to ensure
that an acceptable representation of the curved wall-line is obtained.
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CODE : WS
SKETCH :
CONVENTION : The observation will usually be taken on the outside face of the wall. If another part of
the wall is observed this should be recorded as a remark on the field sheets and
coordinate listings.
CODE : OWC
SKETCH :
CONVENTION : Horizontal angle and distance measurements to be taken to the points of in change in
direction of the wall. Suitable corrections will be made to EDM distances if it is not
possible to locate the reflector exactly on or alongside this point.
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CODE : MWC
DESCRIPTION : The intersection of the outer face of external and the centerline(s) of internal
boundary wall(s) without pillars.
SKETCH :
CONVENTION : When observed, suitable corrections will be made to EDM distances and horizontal
angles if it is not possible to locate the reflector exactly on or alongside this point.
CODE : CWC
SKETCH :
CONVENTION : When observed, suitable corrections will be made to EDM distances and horizontal
angles if it is not possible to locate the reflector exactly on or alongside this point.
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CODE : OWP
SKETCH :
CONVENTION : When observed, suitable corrections will be made to EDM distances and horizontal
angles if it is not possible to locate the reflector exactly on or alongside this point.
CODE : MWP
DESCRIPTION : The intersection of the outer face of external and the centerline(s) of internal
boundary wall(s) with pillars
SKETCH :
CONVENTION : When observed, suitable corrections will be made to EDM distance and horizontal
angles if it is not possible to locate the reflector exactly on or alongside this point.
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CODE : CWP
SKETCH :
CONVENTION : When observed, suitable corrections will be made to EDM distance and horizontal
angles if it is not possible to locate the reflector exactly on or alongside this point.
CODE : CW
DESCRIPTION : Code to be used when using historical data for a point which is described as
“wall corner” or similar.
Use of this code is limited to specific circumstances and requires the appropriate
authorization. Usages :
a) When entering historical data onto the Cadastral Survey Database where the
surveyed position of the wall was not defined and field checking of data is not
practical or possible.
b) When the point is used in day to day cadastral work and field checks prove
inconclusive.
CODE : F
DESCRIPTION : An observed point at the turning point of a fence line or at the intersection of two
fence lines.
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CODE : FC
CONVENTION : The number and spacing of observations will be such as to ensure that an
acceptable representation of the curved fence is obtained.
CODE : FS
CONVENTION : Any observation of a point along a straight fence line which is not an intersection or
corner.
CODE : CLC
CONVENTION : The number and spacing of observations will be such as to ensure that an acceptable
representation of the curve road centerline is obtained. When a curve centerline is
being coordinated each end of the curve must be identified and observe with
observations along the straight at either end to establish correct alignments of each
tangent.
CODE : CLS
CONVENTION : When observing an existing road alignment every effort must be made to locate and
coordinate the end of each straight. Additional on line observations should then
between the ends as appropriate. A minimum of three observations are for any
straight.
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CODE : KCC
DESCRIPTION : An observed point at the bottom of a kerb faces along a curve kerbline.
SKETCH :
CONVENTION : The number and spacing of observations will be such as to ensure that an acceptable
representation of the curved kerb is obtained.
CODE : KCS
DESCRIPTION : An observed point at the bottom of a kerb faces along a straight kerbline.
SKETCH :
CONVENTION : Every effort must be made to locate and coordinate the end of each straight.
Additional on line observations to be taken between the ends as appropriate.
CODE : TEC
DESCRIPTION : An observed point on the edge of curved metalled road without kerb.
CONVENTION : The number and spacing of observations will be such as to ensure that an acceptable
representation of the curved edge is obtained.
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CODE : C
CONVENTION : All control stations designated as Geodetic Control by Survey Section or stations
based on specifications currently in use at Survey Section for the establishment of
such stations.
CODE : TC
FEATURE : TREE
CODE : T
CONVENTION : Horizontal measurements will be made to the centre of the trunk with distance
measurements taken at the side of the trunk level with its centre.
FEATURE : POLE
CODE : P
CONVENTION : Horizontal measurements will be made to the centre of the pole with distance
measurements taken at the side of the pole level with its centre. Remarks to be made
to identify the type of pole.
CODE : LP
CONVENTION : Horizontal measurements will be made to the centre of the pole with distance
measurements taken at the side of the pole level with its centre.
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FEATURE : ROADSIGN
CODE : RS
CONVENTION : Horizontal measurements will be made to the centre of the pole with distance
measurements taken at the side of the pole level with its centre.
CODE : TL
CONVENTION : Horizontal measurements will be made to the centre of the pole with distance
measurements taken at the side of the pole level with its centre.
FEATURE : PYLON
CODE : PYL
SKETCH :
CONVENTION : The coordinated point is to be determined as the intersection of lines connecting the
centre of each pylon base (foot).
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(v) Address
2 Encroachment Details
Yes
(i) Was any encroachment discovered in survey? See _______ No
page _______
Is the encroachment depicted on a Product
(ii) Yes No
Document?
See
(iii) Is the encroachment resolved? Yes No
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Abbreviations
A/E/C Architecture/Engineering/Construction
CGTC CADD/GIS Technology Center (CGTC) for Facilities, Infrastructure, and Environment
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3.1.0 Introduction
Topographic surveys are performed for the master planning, design, and construction of installations,
buildings, housing complexes, roadways, airport facilities, flood control structures, navigation locks, etc.
Topographic plans are developed using electronic total stations and GNSS. Some of the more common
surveys are described below:
Reconnaissance surveys are typically performed at scales from 1:5,000 to 1:10,000. They provide a basis for
general studies, site suitability decisions, or preliminary site layouts. General location of existing roads and
facilities are depicted, and only limited feature and rough elevation detail is shown – 2 m to 3 m contour
intervals usually being adequate.
General or Preliminary site plans are performed at scales from 1:2,000 to 1:5,000. They depict general layout
for potential construction, proposed transportation systems, training areas, and existing facilities.
These surveys are performed at scales from 1:200 to 1:2,000 and at contour intervals of 0.2 m or 0.5 m. They
are performed to prepare a base map for detailed site plans (general site layout plan, utility plan, grading plan,
paving plan, airfield plan, demolition plan, etc.). The scope of mapping is confined to an existing/proposed
building area. These drawings are used as a base for subsequent as-built drawings of facilities and utility
layout maps, i.e., Automated Mapping/Facility Management (AM/FM) databases.
As-built drawings may require topographic surveys of constructed features, especially when field modifications
are made to original designs. These surveys, along with original construction site plans, should be used as a
base framework for a facility's AM/FM database. Periodic topographic surveys also may be required during
maintenance and repair projects in order to update the AM/FM database.
General guidance for determining project-specific mapping accuracy standards is contained in Table 3.1. This
table may be used in developing specifications for map scales, feature location and elevation tolerances, and
contour intervals for typical Architecture/Engineering/Construction (A/E/C) projects.
Table 3.1 provides commonly used map scales and contour intervals for a variety of A/E/C applications. The
selected target scale for a map or construction plan should be based on the detail necessary to portray the
project site. Topographic elevation density or related contour intervals are specified consistent with existing
site gradients and the accuracy needed to define site layout, drainage, grading, etc., or perform quantity take
offs. Accuracy of fieldwork and the density of surveyed points required of in a topographic survey are
depending on the intended map scale and contour interval. In practice, design or real property features are
located or laid out during construction to a far greater relative accuracy than that which can be scaled at the
target (plot) scale, such as property corners, utility alignments, first-floor or invert elevations, etc.
Coordinates/elevations for such items are usually directly input as feature attributes in a Computer-Aided
Design (CAD) or AM/FM database.
Table 3.1, adapted from U.S. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Geospatial Positioning Accuracy
Standards: Part 4, Standard for A/E/C and Facility Management, indicates recommended positional and
elevation tolerances of planimetric features at the 95% confidence level. These tolerances define the primary
topographic mapping effort necessary to delineate physical features on the ground. A/E/C feature tolerances
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are defined relative to adjacent points within the confines of a specific area, map sheet, or structure - not to
the overall project, installation boundaries, or an external geodetic control network. These relative accuracy
tolerances are determined between two points that must functionally maintain a given accuracy tolerance
between themselves, such as adjacent property corners; adjacent utility lines; adjoining buildings, bridge
piers, approaches, or abutments; overall building or structure site construction limits; runway ends; catch
basins; levee baseline sections; etc. Feature tolerances indicated are determined from the functional
requirements of a typical project/structure (e.g., field construction/ fabrication, field stakeout or layout,
alignment, etc.). Few A/E/C projects require that relative accuracies be rigidly maintained beyond the range of
the detailed design drawing for a project/ structure (or its equivalent CAD design file limit). In many instances,
a construction feature may need to be located to an accuracy well in excess of its plotted/scaled accuracy on
a construction site plan; therefore, feature location tolerances should not be used to determine the required
scale of a drawing. In these instances, surveyed coordinates, internal CAD grid coordinates, or rigid relative
dimensions are used.
1
Table 3.1 : Recommended Accuracies and Tolerances:
Engineering, Construction and Facility Management Projects
Maintenance and Repair (M&R)/Renovation of Existing Installation Structures, Roadways, Utilities, Etc
1
Table adapted from U.S. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards: Part 4, Standard for A/E/C
and Facility Management
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Design, Construction, Operations and Maintenance of Civil Transportation & Water Resource Projects
Site Plans, Maps & Drawings for Design Studies, Reports, Memoranda, and Contract Plans and Specifications,
Construction plans & payment
Maps, Plans, & Drawings Associated with Military and Civil Projects
3.3.0 Specifications
GNSS specifications for topographical survey can be found in Chapter 1 – Control Survey.
(a) Standard operating procedures should require that control points be measured and noted immediately
on the data collector and/or in the field book after the instrument has been set up and leveled. In making
observations for an extended period of time at a particular instrument location, re-observe the control
points from time to time, also before the instrument is picked up.
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Topographic features are usually cut in by multiple radial sideshots from a primary project control point.
This is usually a straightforward process: the remote point is occupied with the prism pole, the height of
reflector and feature code recorded, and the angle and slope distance observed and recorded. If
necessary, supplemental feature attributes may be added. The process is similar when using a
reflectorless total station or robotic total station where the data collector is at the prism pole.
Quite often objects cannot be directly occupied with a prism pole or targeted with a reflectorless total
station. Off-center (or eccentric) corrections are automatically available in most data collectors to cover
these situations. Offset cases include trees or circular tanks where only direction to the centre of the
circular object can be sighted (Figure. 3.1(a)); a distance to the circumference and a direction to the
centre of the circular object (Figure. 3.1 (b)); or high objects that are beyond the reach of a prism pole
(Figure. 3.1(c), or invert elevations.
Figure 3.1(a): Horizontal Distance Offset Measurement to Circular Object (Pole, Tree)
Figure 3.1(b): Offset Distance and Angle Measurement to Circular Object (Pole, Tree)
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Laser scanners operate similarly to reflectorless total stations. However, instead of a single shot point being
observed, a full field-of-view scan is performed - at a speed upwards of 500,000 points per second. Unlike a
total station, the location of the scanner is not usually a required input - resulting in points that are spatially
referenced to the instrument and not real-world coordinates. This is somewhat analogous to an uncontrolled
photogrammetric model. Newer models allow input of the scanner coordinates from which all observed pixels
may be directly georeferenced. The resultant imagery from a scan (termed a “point cloud”) provides a full 3D
model of the facility, utility, or terrain that was scanned. Objects can be scanned at a high density - with output
pixels smaller than 5 mm. Relative 3D accuracies approaching the millimeter level are claimed, based on
redundant observations over a surface. However, 5 to 10 mm accuracy is more realistic in practice. Scans can
be rapidly made - a full field-of-view scan of a site or structure can be performed in 5 to 15 minutes per setup
(multiple setups generally are required to fully detail a given site or structure). Unlike a total station, however,
laser scanners have no means of assigning feature codes or attributes to the measured points - this must be
done in post-processing, and is often a tedious and time-consuming process. They can be used to perform
traditional topographic surveys (detailed planimetry and elevations) of project sites and facilities - providing
ground elevations at a high density.
(a) Accuracy - The accuracy of a scanned object can be relative or absolute. Relative accuracies are
very good (5 mm or better at close ranges). Absolute accuracies depend on the accuracy of the
control network developed for the site, how accurately the instrument is aligned to this network, and
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how well overlapping images (i.e., picture points or targets) are transferred and adjusted (best fit). In
general, absolute accuracies can be kept within 1 or 2 cm over a small project/structure site.
(b) Density of scanned points - Laser scanners can be set to any desired scan density, e.g., from 1 mm
onwards, usually based on some short nominal distance. The higher the density, the larger is the
resulting dataset and more time-consuming the data editing and processing. The purpose of the
project determines the required density. For general 3D planimetry or buildings or ground elevations,
a low density can be set. For detailed maps of structural members or concrete cracks, a high density
is set.
(c) Field-of-View - Depending on the model and project requirements, scanners can be set to scan a full
360 degree field or zoomed (windowed) into a narrowly set field-of-view. Some laser scanners have a
o o
field-of-view of 360 horizontal by about 300 vertical. The reality of scanning means that even a 360º
field of view does not guarantee full area coverage; in fact, it rarely does. Laser-shadowing forces
data to be collected from multiple angles for complete data coverage. A large field of view does not
alleviate this requirement. Also, the angle of incidence of a measurement will have a profound impact
on its accuracy and the resolution of the data in general. Keeping this fact in mind, imagine surveying
a long, flat wall. If the scanner has a 180º horizontal field of view it will be able to survey the wall in a
single scan. Depending on the length of the wall, measurements may be collected from angles that
approach 90º, but the reliability of these measurements will be very poor.
(d) Range - In general, most detailed scans of facilities, buildings, and structures are kept at close range
- usually less than 200 m and not much beyond 300 m. The laser eye safety classification may also
be a factor in longer-range scanners - a Class 3 type laser may not be desirable for surveying a
populated beach but would be acceptable at a remote site. (A Class 1 laser device “denotes exempt
lasers or laser systems that cannot produce a hazard under normal operating conditions” and a Class
3a laser device “denotes visible lasers or laser systems that normally would not produce a hazard if
viewed for only momentary periods with the unaided eye. They may present a hazard if viewed using
collecting optics.”).
(e) Scanner Operation and Data Processing - Scanners are normally mounted on a tripod, directly
onto the plate or in a standard tribrach. The scanner is set up at any arbitrary location that affords the
best view of the area or object to be mapped. No absolute geospatial orientation of the scanner is
required (unless the scanner model is designed to incorporate geospatial references). Most structures
require multiple scans in order to develop a complete 3D model, as illustrated in Figure 3.2. In
addition, multiple scans are required to cover hidden, shadowed, or obstructed areas in a single scan.
These overlapping scans allow a full 3D model of the target object to be generated using imagery
correlation (optical recognition) software (similar to soft-copy photogrammetry). The overlapping “point
clouds” from each scan are edited for data spikes - often a lengthy process. They are then merged to
form the full 3D model. This resultant 3D model is referenced only to a relative/internal coordinate
system. If real-world geographic E-N-H coordinates are required, targeted points are required to be
set in the scanned area/structure in order to perform a standard coordinate transformation. Once the
model is generated, a variety of computer graphic enhancements can be performed. These include
coloring, wire meshing, rendering, and smoothing objects. Rough point cloud images of solid objects
can be smoothed using various software-fitting routines - e.g., items such as wall faces, cylindrical
pipes, etc. If the resultant model is going to be exported to a CAD or GIS platform, then additional
descriptor, attribute, or layer/level assignments may be required. Final data processing can represent
a significant effort on some projects - a structure that is scanned in 4 hours may take as much as 40
hours or longer to process the data to a CAD compatible format. The software used for processing
scanned datasets is a critical component in the overall efficiency and economy of the process.
Refer to Appendix 3A for template specification for collection of point cloud data.
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Figure 3.2: Typical Four Scan Locations Needed to Fully Model a Building and Cover
Obscured Areas. In Practice, Additional Scan Points May be Needed.
Figure 3.3 outlines the various routes by which topographic data are processed into a final site plan map
format. As indicated in the figure, a number of processing options exist, depending on the software.
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The following subparagraphs detail some of the basic concepts and features required for field-collected
topographic data that is exported to a CAD or GIS platform. These include descriptions of data dictionaries,
types of feature codes and attributes, methods of feature code collection, and processing features with
attributes.
A data dictionary is created using software designed for that purpose. Features and attributes are
selected, along with attribute values and expected ranges. The edited data dictionary is uploaded to
the data collector. Feature symbols can also be selected for display on the field data collector. The
data dictionary software should also have an ability to import a file containing existing GIS table
structures or CAD layers and symbols.
(b) Feature Code - Feature Codes are descriptors identifying some unique property associated with a
topographic feature.
(c) Cartographic Data - Cartographic data are observations (or shots) on spatially distributed features,
activities, or events, which are definable as:
• Points
• Lines (Arcs)
• Areas (Polygons)
(d) Attribute - Attributes are descriptive information in a database about the cartographic features
located on a map. Attributes describe the characteristics of a feature - they are often referred to as
non-cartographic data. Attributes can be any numeric or character value that describes the feature.
Examples of attributes assigned to a tree might include:
• Height
• Diameter
• Species
• Condition
• Age
(e) Attribute Value - Attribute values are sub details given to an attribute. For example, possible values
for the attributes of the above Tree feature might include:
• Height = 15 m
• Diameter = 0.75 m
• Species = Oak
• Condition = Good
• Age = 8 years
When attribute data is collected in the field, the user may be prompted on the data collector when a
particular feature is shot. Attribute values can be classified as character, numeric, date, or temporal
fields. This prevents the input of an incorrect value into an attribute field; for example, preventing the
entry of characters into a numeric field. Attribute range limitations (or domains) are also held in the
dictionary to prevent gross blunders in entering attribute data.
(f) Point Features - A point feature represents a single geographical location (such as a
latitude/longitude and altitude). A point feature type is used to represent a feature that has no length
or width. Examples of point features are:
• Tree
• Sign Post
• Electric Pole
• Fire Hydrant
• Manhole
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(g) Line Features (breaklines, arcs, strings, or polylines) - A GIS line feature type is a series of
geographical locations that are connected - so-called “arc-nodes.” A line feature type is also used to
represent a feature which has a length but no width. Some GISs refer to line features as arcs. CAD
software will mathematically define line strings as opposed to connected points in GIS. Breaklines are
connected strings. Examples of line features are:
• Railways
• Wall
• Kerb
• Ditch
Line features will have various attributes similar to point features, e.g., storm sewer pipe diameter,
type, thickness, date set, etc.
(h) Area Features - Areas (polygons) are a series of geographic coordinates joined together to form a
boundary. An area feature type is a closed line. An area feature has a length and a width and can
have attribute data. In GIS, area features are referred to as polygons. A polygon is a single arc or a
series of arcs that are connected together in order to enclose an area. Examples of area features are:
• Shoreline
• Sabkha
• Wadi
• Lakes
• Parking Area
• Building
There is no standard process for moving digital field observations into a CAD platform. The steps taken vary
with the type of total station used, including its internal or external data collector. Field data collection
procedures can vary from simple single shot points to fully attributed polyline strings. A variety of data formats
can be output from the different data collectors on the market. The field data may be imported directly into a
CAD package or processed through intermediate survey software before being uploaded into the CAD
package. Given the numerous variety of CAD/survey software, there are numerous methods used to process
data from the field to finished CAD or GIS product. However, most data collector software is geared more
towards export to AutoCAD. The following steps highlight a general process used in most systems. However,
the trend today on some total station systems is to develop data on the data collector that imports directly into
the CAD platform without all the intervening steps and varied format conversions described below.
Step 1 - Observations. In the first step of the process, the field survey vertical and horizontal angles are
measured along with slope distances using the total station. The angles and distances are stored with a point
number and description in the data collector. Optionally, attribute data may also be stored with each point,
including line/area string codes. COGO routines in the data collector may be employed to convert raw
observed data to local grid E-N-H coordinates; optionally, these conversions may be made on a PC after the
data are downloaded. If a RTK system is used, radial E-N-H coordinate data for each observed point is
attached with a descriptor identifier code and saved in the data collector.
Step 2 - Transfer data from data collector to PC. After completing the survey, the data are then transferred
to a field or office computer via telephone, cable, or infrared modem for data processing and editing. The
computer is either an in-office desktop system or a laptop model that can be used on site. A number of
software systems contain modules for performing this data transfer process. One or more files may be
downloaded from the data collector. Depending on the data collector software, these downloaded datasets
might include:
• Raw data files in ASCII format containing all original survey, project, and attribute observations
keyed or processed in the data collector.
• Native binary format of the above file
• Coordinate file containing reduced E-N-H-attribute data for each observed point
• Other types of field recorded data may also be downloaded, e.g., pen tablet field sketches and
notes, digital photo images, etc.
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Step 3 - Reformatting. If a coordinate file was not directly generated in the field, then the raw data files must
be processed in the computer to produce a coordinate file that contains point number, point code, E-N-H
coordinate values, and a point descriptor. Survey software packages provide review and edit capabilities at
this stage of the processing, checking point codes and descriptors before they are imported into the CAD
platform. These software packages are also useful in generating standardized feature and attribute codes
which can be uploaded to the data collector to ensure consistent observing methods.
Step 4 - Convert data into a graphics design file for use in a CAD program such as MicroStation or
AutoCAD. A number of software conversion programs are available to convert raw data collector files into a
CAD file.
Step 5 - CAD specific applications. Once data are contained in the CAD platform, the basic topographic
data can be plotted for review and edit. Digital terrain models (DTM) can be generated that can be used to
generate contours, quantity take-offs, etc. Final editing and addition of notes are completed, yielding
topographic data in a digital format or as a plotted map. Sheet layouts are assigned and the topographic data
are ready to be used for their intended engineering, design, planning, or construction function.
As stated previously, many of the above steps can be skipped if field data are collected using procedures,
software, and coding that is directly compatible with the final CAD platform. Thus, uniform operating
procedures are needed when collecting and processing survey data. The use of proper field procedures is
also essential to prevent errors or omissions in generating the final site plan or map products. Collection of
survey points in a systematic and meaningful pattern aids in this process. If consistent field procedures are
employed, then a minimal amount of post-processing or editing on the CAD platform will be required.
Reference is made to “A/E/C CADD Standard Release 3”, published by The CADD/GIS Technology Center
(CGTC) for facilities, infrastructure, and environment, and Singapore Standard CP 83 on Code or Practice for
Construction Computed-Aided Design (CAD).
3.7.1 Introduction
The A/E/C CAD Standard Manual developed by the CADD/GIS Technology Center (CGTC) for Facilities,
Infrastructure, and Environment is to eliminate redundant CAD standardization efforts. The manual is part of
an initiative to develop a nonproprietary CAD standard that incorporates existing industry, national, and
international standards and to develop data standards that address the entire life cycle of facilities
development.
When CAD files are transferred between different systems and organizations, their contents need to be
understood to locate information, for identification of the source and to manage files. These processes will be
enhanced if all parties involved in a project use a commonly understood filename convention.
The concepts, formats and codes are used to name CAD files. This guideline covers three (3) filename
formats and a recommended directory structure. All the filename formats and directory structure can be
further sub-divided into fields. Each field describes certain attributes of the file or directory.
The format requires 6 mandatory fields and an optional user-defined field. The length of project
identification filed may vary from 3 to 5 characters depending on the user's need. To enhance
computer processing and readability, the project identification field is to be separated from the
remaining fields by means of an underscore character "_".
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Number of
Name of field Description of field
characters
Project 3 -5;
Represent files of the same project.
identification 4 is recommended
Individual/company/organization
Author 2
responsible for creating the file.
Type-of-work Nature and scope of work. 2
Level in a multi-storey building or orientation
View plane 2
of an elevation view.
Zone Zone of the construction site 2
Version Major revisions 2
User-defined code for in-house applications.
User-defined -
(optional field)
The seven fields in filename format are to be arranged in the format as shown in Figure 3.4.
Project identification field represents files under the same project. The user may use between three (3) to
five (5) alphanumeric characters to describe the project identification. Four characters are recommended.
Author field represents the individual/company/organization responsible for creating the CAD file. Two (2)
alphanumeric characters are used for this field.
This first character indicates the discipline of the originator of the layer. It is a single alphabet in capital letter
as shown in Table 3.3.
The second character provides further definition of the author whenever necessary. If the first character is
sufficient to define the author of the layer, a hyphen "_" shall be used as the second character of this field.
Example: A- for architect and S- for structural engineer.
This second alphanumeric character can also be used to denote different authors from the same discipline
involved in the same project. Example: A1 & A2 represent two different architects working on the same
project.
Type-of-work field represents the nature and scope of work in the CAD file. Two (2) alphanumeric characters
are used for this field. Please refer to Appendix 3B and Appendix 3C for the list of codes.
View plane field represents the level in a multi-storey building or the orientation of the elevation view. Two (2)
alphanumeric characters are used for this field. In Table 3.4, numeric variables are represented by "1". Table
3.5 illustrates some examples of the view plane field.
1
Optional field
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A Architect
C Civil Engineer
E Electrical Engineer
L Land Surveyor
M Mechanical Engineer
N Equipment Supplier
S Structural Engineer
T Telecommunication/Signal Engineer
V Other disciplines
X Contractor
Code Description
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Code Description
05 Level 5
B3 Basement 3
M2 Mezzanine 2
CC Section view CC
When the CAD file contains only page information such as notes, legend, diagrams, or schedules instead of
CAD models, the view plane is no longer relevant and the two characters can be used for description of the
form of information presented. Table 3.6 depicts the forms of information and codes.
DG Diagram
LG Legend
NT Notes
SH Schedule
SD Standard drawings
Zone field represents the construction zone or block number of the project. One (1) alphanumeric character is
used for this field. The codes allowed in this field are A to Z, 1 to 9 and the hyphen. character (-). "-"
represents all the zones in the project. If the three characters allocated for the view plan and zone fields are
not relevant to the type of construction, they can be used for further description of the type-of-work with in-
house codes. However, these codes are required to be documented and communicated between different
parties of the project.
Version field represents major revisions of the CAD file. One (1) alphanumeric character is used for this field.
The sequence of codes denoting the version is A, B, C ... Z, 1, 2, 3, ..., 9. The character "X" is reserved for
referenced files so that the filename does not have to be amended each time it is updated.
User-defined field can be used for further identification or to provide additional information. The filename will
be more than 8 characters if this field is used.
Example 1: EWOO_A2FP31B2C
A file of the East Wood project in the year 2000 (EWOO in the Project Identification field), prepared by a
second architect (A2 in the Author field), containing floor plans (FP in the Type-of-work field), at level 31 (31 in
the View Plane field) of zone B2 (B2 in the Zone field), and is the third version of the file (C-in the Version
field).
Example 2: EW01_C-RDXX12B
A file of the East Wood project in the year 2001 (EW01 in the Project Identification field), prepared by a civil
engineer (C-in the Author field), containing road works (RD in the Type-of-work field) of section "XX" (XX in
the View Plane field) in zone 12 (12 in the Zone field), and is the second version of the file (B in the Version
field).
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1. ISO 13567: 1998 Technical product documentation - Organization and naming of layers for CAD,
Part 1: Overview and principles
2. ISO 13567: 1998 Technical product documentation - Organization and naming of layers for CAD,
Part 2: Concepts, format and codes used in construction documentation
Acknowledgement is made for the use of the information from the above references.
This guideline covers the organization and allocation of layers that are used in CAD files for construction
projects and is intended to be used for communication and management purposes. A list of standard CAD
layer element names is provided in this code.
The following concepts are used in the layer name. An independent classification can be applied to each
concept.
• Originator - The originator refers to the individual/company/organization responsible for preparation
and creation of information on the CAD layer.
• Element - An element is a classified construction work or system. It consists of two levels of
classifications, namely, main element and sub-element.
• Main element - Main element is the first level of element classification. It represents the different
types of main construction works or systems.
• Sub-element - Sub-element is the second level of element classification. It represents the various
sub-systems within the main element.
• Presentation - Presentation is the format or type of information presented in CAD drawings. It is
related primarily to the graphic appearance on screen and paper, as against element information,
which is related to construction work or system.
• Status - Status defines whether the element in addition-and-alteration works is new, for retention or
demolition etc.
• User-defined - User-defined is an additional information field, which the user may wish to use for
further subdivision of layers or provide a description not covered under this Singapore Standard.
All characters used in the layer names shall be both human-and machine-readable wherever possible. A layer
format with fixed number of characters is used to allow selection of layers by the use of wildcard. Where
reserved codes are given, they shall be used only for the purpose specified. Other project-specific codes may
also be used.
Layer names are divided into fields. Each field holds one concept. Fields are either mandatory or optional.
Mandatory fields shall always be included in the layer names. Optional fields can be used as required in each
project. The order of fields in a layer name and the number of characters for each field shall be maintained as
defined in this guide unless an alternative is specifically agreed by the project partners. However, the
alternative adopted shall be documented in a way that future retrieval of the layer-structured information can
be ensured.
To ease of application in Qatar, the Element sub-classification is to be replaced by the Feature Codes
(GFCODE) of 8 characters (see Appendix I for Q-Tel GFCODEs), defined in the GIS Data Dictionaries, which
covers the following geometric representation:
• Point Primitive Features
• Line Primitive Features
• Node Primitive Features
• Area Primitive Features
• Route Systems
o Point Events
o Linear Events
o Continuous Linear Events
• Regions
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• Complex Features (not yet available, pending a later version of the GIS software platform)
For CAD drawings which are not used to update the GIS database, the stipulated naming of the Element sub-
classification is applicable.
If topographic or as-built surveys meant for updating the CGIS database, then the CGIS layers are to be used
and not this proposed one. Please refer to Appendix F for the CGIS layers and Appendix G for the PWA
Topographic Feature Library.
ASHGALS produced an AutoCAD Layering Standard document, dated 5 March 2007, to provide guidelines
and procedures for adopting AutoCAD layering standards in preparing design and As-built drawings, where
these drawings will be automated to GIS. These standards address layer assignments, standard symbology,
layers, layer names, attributes to each feature, templates, color usage associated with line widths for all
mechanical, electrical, structural, architectural drawings associated with buildings, roads, drainage and city
beautification drawings.
Department designator is the primary field which identifies the department. The status or section field
differentiates proposed or existing stage of the project. The Feature designator signifies the features name.
For Example:
Line
Layer Name ACAD Color Usage
Type Weight
D_Ex_SEW_ABD A 0 0.18 30 Abandon Sewer Line
Where,
D = Department
Ex_SEW = Section/status
ABD = Feature
A layer name consists of the following five fields as shown in Table 3.7.
Number of
Name of field Description of field
characters
Individual/company/organization responsible for
Originator 2
preparation and creation of information
Main Main element classification 4
Element 1
Sub Sub-element classification 4
1 Forms of information presented, e.g. element,
Presentation 2
dimension, or text
1 Status of the construction work, e.g. alterations, to be
Status 1
removed, or existing installations (optional)
1
User-defined User-defined code for in-house applications (optional) -
1
Optional firld
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The above five fields of a CAD layer name are to be arranged in the format as shown in Figure 3.5.
Element
1 User-
Originator Presentation Status 1
1 defined
Main Sub
─ ─ ─ ─
Originator field
This first character indicates the discipline of the originator of the layer. It is a single alphabet in capital letter
as shown in Table 3.3.
The second character provides further definition of the originator whenever necessary. Example: AL to denote
Landscape Architect. If the first character is sufficient to define the originator of the layer, a hyphen "-" shall be
used as the second character of this field. Example: A- for architect and S- for structural engineer.
This second alphanumeric character can also be used to denote different originators from the same discipline
involved in the same project. Example: A1 and A2 represent two different architects working on the same
project.
Element field
This field indicates the type of construction work or system of the element in the layer. Classification for the
construction elements or systems is in the form of eight (8) letters of the alphabet. This element field has two
levels of classification, namely, the main and sub-elements.
The main element consists of four (4) letters of the alphabet and is mandatory. It identifies the main
construction work or system of the element.
The sub-element consists of four (4) letters of the alphabet and is only used for further classification of the
main element. For elements where classification using the main element is sufficient, the sub-element may be
coded with four (4) hyphen characters "----".
Name of element
Description of elements
Main Sub
1
Optional field
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Standard main element names defined based on this classification are provided in the appendices of this
code. Element names are arranged in alphabetical order in Appendix 3D. To achieve consistency in the
construction industry, users shall make use of the main element names provided in the appendices wherever
applicable.
Recommended sub-element names are provided in Appendix 3E. They are grouped under their respective
main element. To achieve consistency in the construction industry, users should make • use of the sub-
element names provided in Appendix 3E wherever applicable.
Users may generate element names that are not in the list of standard elements provided in the appendices of
this code for their internal use. However, these user-defined layers shall be properly documented and
communicated among the parties involved in the project. While there is no fixed rule in arriving at the 4-
character abbreviation for the main and sub-elements, the general rule is to truncate the vowels and try to
maintain the first and last characters.
Presentation Field
The Presentation field represents the format or type of information presented and is denoted by one (1) or two
(2) alphanumeric characters.
First character
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Second character
For element graphics, the second character represents the projection/view of the element shown in the layer.
The respective views are denoted by one (1) corresponding character as shown in Table 3.10.
- All views
1 Elevations
2 Sections
3 3D views
4 Plans
0 Details
Status
The Status field is optional and it represents the status of entities used in addition and alteration (A & A)
works. It is denoted by one (1) character code as shown in Table 3.11.
Code Content
N New work
E Existing to remain
R Existing to be removed
0 Existing to be moved -Original position
F Existing to be moved -Final position
T Temporary work
User-Defined Field
Users may use the user-defined field for additional information or for further subdivision of layers. However,
information of these user-defined fields must be properly documented and communicated among the various
parties involved.
Example 1: A-_WALL----_E-
A layer prepared by an architect (A- in the Originator field) containing element graphics (E- in the Presentation
field) of walls (WALL as main element and ----as the sub-element in the Element field).
Example 2: A2_AREACALC_I-
A layer prepared by a second architect (A2 in the Originator field) containing tabulated information (l- in the
Presentation field) of area calculation (AREA as main element and CALC as the sub-element in the Element
field).
Example 3: C-_ANOT----_D-
A layer prepared by a civil engineer (C- in the Originator field) containing dimensions (D- in the Presentation
field) for the whole CAD file (ANOT as main element and ---- as the sub-element in the Element field).
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Example 4: C-_SDRNPIPE_ED
A layer prepared by a civil engineer (C- in the Originator field) containing element graphic details (ED in the
Presentation field), for a surface water drainage pipe installation (SDRN as main element and PIPE as the
sub-element in the Element field).
Example 5: S-_SLAB----_M-
A layer prepared by a structural engineer (S- in the Originator field) containing only markings (M- in the
Presentation field) of slab (SLAB as main element and ---- as the sub-element in the Element field).
Example 6: M-_ACONRETN_E-
A layer prepared by a mechanical engineer (M- in the Originator field) containing the element graphics (E- in
the Presentation field) of air-conditioning return air system (ACON as main element and RETN as the sub-
element in the Element field).
Example 7: A-DOORFIRE_S-
A layer prepared by an architect (A- in the Originator field) containing schedule (S- in the Presentation field) of
fire-rated doors (DOOR as main element and fire as the sub-element in the Element field) for a building.
Example 8: M-SANIPIPE_E3_N
A layer prepared by a mechanical engineer (M- in the Originator field) containing isometric element graphics
(E3 in the Presentation field) of sanitary piping (SANI as main element and PIPE as the sub-element in the
Element field) for new works (N in the Status field).
Example 9: C-SEWRMINR_E-_R
A layer prepared by a civil engineer (C- in the Originator field) containing element graphics (E- in the
Presentation field) showing the existing minor sewers (SEWR as main element and MINR as the sub-element
in the Element field) to be removed (R in the status field).
A layer prepared by an electrical engineer (E- in the Originator field) containing electrical wiring (ELEC as
main element and CABL as the sub-element in the Element field) single line diagrams (R in the Presentation
field) for temporary work (T in the Status field).
CAD drawings meant for updating CGIS database should not include any “block” as symbol.
A “block” in AutoCAD is groups of graphical elements that can be manipulated as a single entity. Examples of
typical blocks are windows, doors, graphic scale keys, furniture, etc. The use of such symbology enhances
CAD productivity and provides an excellent opportunity for CAD standardization.
As part of the A/E/C CAD Standard, the CAD/GIS Technology Center (CGTC) for Facilities, Infrastructure, and
Environment published under “Appendix D: A/E/C CAD Standard Symbology” of the “A/E/C CADD Standard
Release 3.0”, the standard symbology as AutoCAD blocks - each in an individual drawing (.dwg) file, patterns
in a pattern library file (.pat), multilines in a multiline library file (.mln), and custom line styles in a line type
library file (.lin).
Graphical presentations of the entire symbology library are shown in Appendix D, “A/E/C Standard
Symbology.” The symbology library contains four types of elements: Lines, Patterns, Symbols, and Objects.
Lines are defined as a graphical representation of linear drawing features (e.g., utility lines, fence lines,
contours). Patterns are defined as repeated drawing elements (e.g., lines, dots, circles) within a defined area.
Symbols are defined as AutoCAD blocks that are representative of objects (e.g., electrical outlets, smoke
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detectors). Objects are defined as AutoCAD blocks that retain their actual size no matter the scale of the
drawing.
Topographic surveys are the basis for the engineering, planning, and development plans. It is critical that the
information shown on the plans be correct and complete. It is also very important to understand the intended
use or accuracy requirements needed by the user of the plan along with the size of the project. This
information can be useful to determine whether the project should be collected by aerial mapping or ground
run surveys. If the plan is to be used for engineering design then the field survey will likely include pavement
sections and utility locations.
(d) Roads
• Locate and measure all curb and gutter features: Back of curb, flow line, and edge of gutter pan.
• Note size and type of curb and gutter.
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(e) Railroads
1
• Provide location of tracks with elevations at specified intervals--typically 20 m in a curve.
• Obtain location of all switches.
• Obtain location of all mileposts. Note: Most crossing signals provide distances to closest milepost.
If a railroad milepost cannot be located, the closest railroad spur must be located and tied.
• Obtain location of all signal equipment.
• Obtain location of all Right-of-way monuments.
• Obtain location, size, and type of culverts under the railroad.
• Secure a copy of the railroad right-of-way map.
(f) Fences
• Provide location, type, and height of fence.
• Common types of fences are split rail, wood privacy, chain link, woven wire, barbed wire, etc.
(g) Cemeteries
• Location of cemetery boundary must be shown.
• Locate graves coincident with the Right-of-way and survey centerline.
• Provide an approximate count of the number of graves.
(h) Signs
• Locate and describe all overhead truss signs.
• Locate and describe all overhead cantilever signs.
• Locate and describe all breakaway I-beam traffic signs.
• Locate and describe all traffic signals.
• Locate and describe all historical markers – recording identity numbers.
• Locate, measure, and describe in detail all advertising signs or commercial billboards. It is
imperative to note the owner and the license number.
1
Some special circumstances may also include location and elevations for the ballast rock and railroad bed.
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• Communication or telephone manholes, pedestals, hand holes, and witness posts – recording
number and owner.
• Traffic control signals, manholes, cabinets, junction boxes, and hand holes.
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The following information shall be included in the preparation of the various survey plans:
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(vii) Any other salient features exposed at site and falling within the survey corridor;
(viii) Grid lines;
(ix) Title boxes.
(x) Legend
(xi) Location plan
A standardized report format should be used for all major survey projects--especially those for planned design
and construction. A project report submitted in a consistent format provides essential background information
to the design engineer. The following outline may be used for guidance in preparing a survey report on a
topographic survey.
Section 2: Background
Reason for project (more detailed description) and more specific location description including a map.
Accuracy and deliverables should be discussed in this section. Attach or include a copy of the original Scope
of Work prepared by the originator. Add funding information if applicable.
Subsection 5-1: Total station Traversing--adjustment software, results, closures, final adjustment results and
coordinate listings.
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Subsection 5.2: GNSS Control Surveys & Baseline Processing--Software used; baseline processing results
(summary); reprocessed baselines and reason for; parameters for baseline processing (elevation mask, type
of ephemeris used); summary results or loop closures (if applicable).
Subsection 5.3: Combined GNSS, Total Station, Differential Leveling Network Adjustments---Software used;
results of unconstrained adjustment, minimal constrained adjustment, and fully constrained adjustment;
summary of weights used, general statistics.
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References
A/E/C CADD Standard Release 3 published by The CADD/GIS Technology Center (CGTC) for facilities,
infrastructure, and environment
Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards: Part 4, Standard for A/E/C and Facility Management published by
U.S. Federal Geographic Data Committee,
ISO 13567: 1998 Technical product documentation - Organization and naming of layers for CAD, Part 1:
Overview and principles
ISO 13567: 1998 Technical product documentation - Organization and naming of layers for CAD, Part 2:
Concepts, format and codes used in construction documentation
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Appendix 3A – Template Specification for Collection of Point Cloud Data Using Terrestrial Laser
Scanner
3A.1.0 Introduction
The specification described here defines the standard which point clouds must meet if they are to be accepted
by Client. It does not define the standard to which products derived from point clouds must attain.
Prior to survey a method statement is required. In the case of terrestrial laser scanning the method statement
will also include:
Exact requirements for certification or tests should be discussed with Client and described in the method
statement before work begins.
The accuracy and point density required will be stated in the project brief. This will either be defined based on
a scale of survey or based a minimum feature size defined in the project brief. For example:
The minimum size of feature required to be discernable in the point cloud is 10 mm in depth and 10 mm in
”
width and height.
EFFECTIVE
PRECISION OF 1
SCALE POINT TYPICAL USE
MEASUREMENT
DENSITY
Small details/objects
1:10 2.0 mm +/- 2.0 mm
(up to 5 m x 5 m)
Larger details/objects
1:20 4.0 mm +/- 4.0 mm
(up to 10 m x 10 m)
Small structures
1:50 15.0 mm +/- 15.0 mm
(up to 20 m x 30 m)
Large structures
1:100 25.0 mm +/- 25.0 mm
(up to 40 m x 60 m)
1
Typical use is an indicator only – the project brief will specify the exact requirements for point density and precision of measurement
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The beam width of the measurement beam must not be greater than double the effective point density.
All reference to point density will be provided as the average 3-D distance between points at a defined range.
The number and location of overview and detail scans required will be specified in the project brief were
required.
Where it is acceptable to filter areas of overlapping scan data, to reduce the point density in the final
registered point cloud and hence reduce file sizes and improve software performance/data handling during
processing, this will be noted in the project brief.
The number of data voids must be minimized during the survey. The project brief will outline the requirements
for handling and acceptance of data voids in point cloud data.
Methods used to achieve high level coverage must be described in the method statement and outlined in the
final survey report.
The methods and networks used for providing survey control are required and details of the method and
equipment proposed must be included in the method statement.
1. The necessary information will be supplied in the project brief to allow the re-occupation of previously
installed points. This will include a full listing of 3-D coordinates and witness diagrams.
Individual survey control points are to be provided to a geometric precision/accuracy of twice the geometric
precision/accuracy required by individual measurements.
The residuals of the registration process must be shown to be equal to or better than the geometric precision
required by the end deliverable.
1. Each scan must contain a minimum of 4 appropriately distributed XYZ control points/targets.
2. The residuals of the registration process and the geometric precision of the estimated parameters should
be noted in the survey report.
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1. The data must include at least n + 3 appropriately distributed XYZ control points/targets, where n is the
number of scans made.
2. The residuals of the registration process and the precisions of the estimated parameters should be noted
in the survey report.
3. The geometric accuracy of the fit should be noted in the survey report.
1. The data must include at least 3 appropriately distributed XYZ control points.
2. The residuals of the registration process and the precisions of the estimated parameters should be noted
in the survey report.
Irregular features in the scan data caused by cracks or features on the subject that could be misinterpreted as
errors in the registration must be augmented with illustrative photography and noted in the final survey report.
Targets must not be positioned, or be so large, that they obscure important details of the subject. In addition
targets mounted on the surface of the subject must be fixed with an adhesive that will allow removal without
damage to the surface.
A description of the targets to be used must be given in the method statement and the location and naming of
targets is to be clearly given on the site sketches that accompany the survey report.
The use of natural detail points should be avoided, but where necessary the use of distinct features is
acceptable providing the point density of the scan is sufficient to maintain the registration requirements in
Section 2.9 of this document. The use of features at distinct corners or edges is not permitted. Where natural
detail points are to be used this must be noted in the method statement.
3A.2.11 Intensity/Color
Intensity/color information will be recorded on a per point basis at each scan position where the
instrumentation allows this and such information has been specified in the project brief.
Additional image data to show the location of the scanner and the subject being scanned is required for
narrative purposes. This imagery will be of a high resolution and clearly portray the subject in question.
The submission of deliverables must be in a format supporting the techniques of “Virtual Surveying” using
Leica Cyclone or equivalent software packages
Web-based point clouds with color-coded information must be supplied with free viewers. These viewers
should have collaborative functions to share markups such as measurements, textual information, basic
drawings or links to external documents, images, videos, etc.
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Certain standard deliverables are required for every survey performed. See Section 4.3 for a full description of
the appropriate media, formats and required metadata. The standard deliverables in digital form, unless stated
in the project brief, are:
Project metadata
• Raw scan data
• Scan metadata
• Control information
• Registration information for all raw scans to the site coordinate system
• Registered scan data
• Web-Base Point Cloud Data (TruView or equivalent)
1. Witness/illustrative diagrams outlining the position of scanning stations and control points.
2. Details of the traverse/control network used, a list of the three-dimensional positions of all control points
and residuals for the computed XYZ control.
3. The precision of any parameters derived in the registration process for each scan along with the residuals
of the registration.
4. A summary outlining the completeness of the point cloud and all known data voids.
5. All site sketches/additional field notes.
Two copies of all digital and hardcopy data/documentation are required on delivery.
Readers are referred to IEC 60825:1 (2001) for the full precautions on the user of lasers. However, explicitly:
1. Only an appropriately trained individual may operate a laser scanner on site. Signs warning visitors that
lasers are in use must also be displayed.
2. Systems that use Class 3B or Class 4 lasers are not acceptable for use on Client sites.
To assist in the future management of scan data all data is required to be delivered in a pre-specified format
with emphasis on the transferability of data between software systems. The proposed delivery format of the
point cloud should be discussed with Client before the survey and outlined in the method statement.
CHARACTERS CODE
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This is not required for the project metadata file or survey control information.
EXAMPLE DESCRIPTION
The raw (un-registered) scan data, where *** is the appropriate
NTU08L01.***
extension.
NTU08K01.*** Registered scan data, where *** is the appropriate extension
An image showing the scan data in the file NTU08L01.*** and/or
NTU08C01 .jpg
NTU08K01.***.
***
An ASCII text file providing the metadata for the file NTU08L01.
NTU08J01 .txt ***
and/or NTU08K01. outlined in Section 3A.4.3.
An ASCII text file providing the registration parameters required
to transform the data onto the defined system (normally the local
NTU08I01 .txt
site coordinate system) for the file NTU08L01.*** as outlined in
Section 3A.4.5.
An ASCII text file providing the project metadata outlined in
NTU08G.txt
Section 3A.4.4.
An ASCII text file providing the survey control information
NTU08H.txt
outlined in Section 3A.4.6.
Where more than 99 scans are made during a survey it is acceptable to omit the year of data capture.
“ ”
Filenames must be in the 8.3 format, e.g. abcdefgh.ijk .
Metadata (information relating to the captured information) is required with all raw scan data and scanning
projects. Metadata should be provided in both hardcopy and digital form.
It must include:
A single project metadata file is required with the project. This must include the following:
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1. Translations in the X, Y and Z axes necessary to transform the scan origin to the scan position.
2. Rotations around the X, Y and Z axes. This should be carried out in the order X, Y and Z.
Individual file sizes are to be limited to the capacity of a standard single CD-ROM. The compression of files is
acceptable using standard compression software such as Winzip. If capacity allows, multiple scans can be
placed on a single CD.
3A.4.8 Media
’
Unless otherwise stated, all data is to be provided on CD-ROM s. Any text referencing is to be provided on a
suitable label applied to the top surface of the CD-ROM. On no account must any text be written directly onto
the surface of the CD-ROM.
On request the Contractor shall make available to Client all materials used for the compilation of the required
survey. This information must be retained on file by the contractors for a minimum of six years.
This will include: field notes and/or diagrams generated whilst on site; the raw and processed data used for
the final computation of coordinate and level values; and a working digital copy of the Metric Survey data that
forms each survey (this is to include formatted 2-D and ‘raw’ 3-D data files). The precise digital format and file
type of this archive is that specified in the project brief. If during this period the contractor wishes to change
the format of this data archive, they are to seek Client’s permission.
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PARAMETER EXAMPLE
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1
Appendix 3B – List of Type-of-Work Codes by Discipline
Type-of-work codes in this list are classified according to the major construction disciplines.
Floor plan FP
Floor plan -Elevation view FE
Floor plan -Cross section view FX
Site plan SP
Site plan -Elevation view SE
Site plan -Cross section view SX
Architectural
Access details AD
Aluminum works AL
Amenities plan AP
Area calculation AR
Bin centers BC
Buildings BD
Cabinets/wardrobes CB
Curtain walls CU
Doors DR
External works EW
Gondolas GD
Ironmongery 1M
Kitchen cabinets KC
Lifts and escalators LE
Landscape LS
Miscellaneous -Architectural MA
Parking lots PK
Railings RL
Ramps RP
Reflective ceiling plan CP
Refuse chutes RE
Roofs RF
Signage SG
Staircases SC
Substations SN
Swimming pools SM
Toilets TL
Windows WD
1
In Appendices 3B and 3C, numeric variables are represented by "1".
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1
Appendix 3B – List of Type-of-Work Codes by Discipline (cont.)
Type-of-work codes in this list are classified according to the major construction disciplines.
Code
Drawing subject
Civil
Bore holes BH
Bridges BR
Bus shelters/bays BS
Drainage DN
Demolition DM
Earth works EA
Landscape LS
Miscellaneous -Civil MC
Parking lots PK
Piling layout PL
Road works RD
Reclamation RM
Signage SG
Survey plan SV
Sewers SW
Utilities plan UP
Water works WW
Structural
Beams BM
Beam details sheet no. Bl
Columns CL
Core walls CW
Footings FT
Loading plan LP
Miscellaneous -Structural MS
Pilecaps PC
Piling layout PL
Retaining walls RW
Roofs RF
Slabs SB
Slab details sheet no. Sl
Staircases SC
Steel works SL
Stumps SU
1
In Appendices 3B and 3C, numeric variables are represented by "1".
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1
Appendix 3B – List of Type-of-Work Codes by Discipline (cont.)
Type-of-work codes in this list are classified according to the major construction disciplines.
Mechanical
Electrical
1
In Appendices 3B and 3C, numeric variables are represented by "1".
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1
Appendix 3C – List of Type-of-Work Codes in Alphabetical Order
1
In Appendices 3B and 3C, numeric variables are represented by "1".
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1
Appendix 3C – List of Type-of-Work Codes in Alphabetical Order (cont.)
1
In Appendices 3B and 3C, numeric variables are represented by "1".
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1
Appendix 3C – List of Type-of-Work Codes in Alphabetical Order (Cont.)
SU Stumps structural
SV Survey plan civil
SW Sewers civil
SX Site plan -Cross section view common
TC Telecommunication electrical
TL Toilets architectural
UP Utilities plan civil
WD Windows architectural
WW Water works civil
1
In Appendices 3B and 3C, numeric variables are represented by "1".
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Main Description
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Main Description
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Main Description
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COLN Columns
LOAD Loading
STIF Stiffeners
STUM Stumps
COMA Compressed air systems
CONC Concrete structures
TEND Prestress tendon profiles
CPRK Car parking lots
LEVL Car parking lot spot levels
DCON Document conveyor systems
DETA Details -offsets, walls, concrete drains, slopes, roads, fences
DOOR Doors
FIRE Fire rated doors
DPOT Railways leading to depots
DWAT Domestic hot and cold water systems
COPI Domestic cold water pipes
EQPT Domestic hot and cold water equipment
FLPI Domestic flush water pipes
HOPI Domestic hot water pipes
ELEC Electrical power systems
BUSB Electrical power bus-bar trunkings
CABL Electrical cable trays
CIRC Electrical circuits
EMER Emergency power supplies
EQPT Electrical equipment
FANS Electrical fans
SWIT Electrical switchboards
TRKG Electrical trunkings
UNDR Electrical underground conduits
ENDO Plan endorsement by regulatory authorities
BLDP Building Plan
CIDS Civil Defense Shelter
NEAP Pollution Control
NPKS National parks
PGAS Power / Gas
PUBD PUB -Drainage
PUBR PUB -Water Reclamation
PUBS PUB -Sewerage
PUBW PUB -Water
ESCR Escalators / people movers
FEAT Features -road names, rivers, reservoirs, bridges
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SIGN Signage
SITE Site, external works
BASE Basement outlines
BLDG Building outlines
BNRY Site boundaries
Facilities, secondary important sub-elements put in the same
ELEM
layers
ISTM Instruments
KPLN Key plans
LINK Linkways, bollards
NRTH North point
PATH Footpaths
RAIL Guardrails I railings
Services manholes (TAS, SEW, WATER), electric boxes, fire
SCVS hydrants, electric poles, traffic lights, telephone booths and other
openings I manholes associated with utilities
STBK Building setbacks
WALL Boundary walls, site fences
SLAB Floor slabs
LOAD Loading
PLNH Concrete plinths for equipment
PLNK Precast planks
STEP Slab rises I drops
SOIL Soil tests -field I laboratory
BORE Bore hole logs
CLAY Clay
FILL Fills
ROCK Rocks
SAND Sand
TUNL Tunnels
SPAC Space usage
BLDG Building plot boundaries, building plot numbers
Plot boundaries and plot numbers for communal uses I open
COSS
spaces
FOOD Food outlets and food factories
MRKT Markets
SPAC POOL Layouts of swimming pools
STRA Strata unit boundaries on floor plans for strata subdivisions
TOIL Public toilets
SPRK Fire sprinkler systems
PICO Sprinkler range pipes concealed
PIEX Sprinkler range pipes exposed
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Appendix 3F: Topographic Survey Feature
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LAYER DESCRIPTION
Permanent building; residential/commercial structures; covered car parks; etc.
1 BLD_PRML
(LINES)
Permanent building; residential/commercial structures; covered car parks; etc.
2 BLD_PRMP
(POINTS)
Semi-permanent building: residential/commercial structures; e.g., portable cabins,
3 BLD_SEML
make-shift car parks; etc. (LINES)
Semi-permanent building: residential/commercial structures; e.g., portable cabins,
4 BLD_SEMP
make-shift car parks; etc. (POINTS)
5 BLD_STPL Building steps (LINES)
6 BLD_STPP Building steps (POINTS)
7 BLD_TEXT Building text/label
8 BRK_LNEL (Hidden) Breaklines for contouring (LINES)
9 BRK_LNEP (Hidden) Breaklines for contouring (POINTS)
10 CAD_PNTS Cadastral markers: Points (e.g., feno markers, etc.)
11 CAD_TEXT Cadastral markers: Annotation
12 CSB_SYMB Survey control point, line (Symbol)
13 CSB_TEXT Survey control point, line (Text)
14 CTR_MJOR Major contour line
15 CTR_MNOR Minor contour line
16 CTR_TEXT Contour height label
17 DWG_GRID Drawing information: Grid markings and coordinates
18 DWG_LWKS Drawing information: Limit of works
19 DWG_MTCH Drawing information: Adjoining sheet details
20 DWG_NRTH Drawing information: North arrow
21 FTM_SYML Man-made features not covered by specific layer (LINES)
22 FTM_SYMP Man-made features not covered by specific layer (POINTS)
23 FTM_TEXT Man-made features not covered by specific layer (Text)
24 FTN_SYML Naturally occurring features other than trees, shrubs (LINES)
25 FTN_SYMP Naturally occurring features other than trees, shrubs (POINTS)
26 FTN_TEXT Naturally occurring features other than trees, shrubs (Text)
27 GIS_CADS CGIS cadastral data
28 GIS_OTHR Other data imported from CGIS
29 GIS_SERV CGIS services data
30 GIS_TOPO CGIS topographical data
31 GTE_SYMB Gate symbol: Point or line feature
32 GTE_TEXT Gate: Height and descriptive text
33 LVB_SYMB Level/Spot Height: Bitmac (Symbol)
34 LVB_TEXT Level/Spot Height: Bitmac (Text)
35 LVF_SYMB Level/Spot Height: Flooring (Symbol)
36 LVF_TEXT Level/Spot Height: Flooring (Text)
37 LVG_SYMB Level/Spot Height: Ground (Symbol)
38 LVG_TEXT Level/Spot Height: Ground (Text)
39 LVO_SYMB Level/Spot Height: Other (Symbol)
40 LVO_TEXT Level/Spot Height: Other (Text)
41 LVP_SYMB Level/Spot Height: Paving other than bitmac (Symbol)
42 LVP_TEXT Level/Spot Height: Paving other than bitmac (Text)
43 MSC_LYRL Features not included in any other named layer (LINES)
44 MSC_LYRP Features not included in any other named layer (POINTS)
45 MSC_TEXT Other Annotation/Text not tied to specific feature
46 PIT_SYMB Test pits and bore holes, etc. (Symbol)
47 PIT_TEXT Test pits and bore holes, etc. (Text)
48 PLN_BRDR Plan Information: Map/Drawing main border lines
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The first step in establishing an effective CAD standard is the development of a uniform approach to
presentation graphics. Presentation graphics typically consist of drawing elements such as lines, arcs,
shapes, text, and their attributes (line color, line width, and line style). This chapter presents brief overviews of
the characteristics of presentation graphics and the philosophy used to standardize them.
Varied line widths substantially improve readability. Most commercial CAD systems provide an extensive
variety of line widths. However, for the majority of A/E/C drawings, the eight line widths defined in Table 3H.1
are considered sufficient and should not be expanded unless an appreciable improvement in drawing clarity or
contrast can be realized. Table 3H.1 shows information about the various allowed line widths.
• Fine (0.18 mm). Fine lines should be used sparingly, mostly for hatching/patterning (this line thickness
typically does not reproduce well in blue-line format and/or in photocopies).
• Thin (0.25 mm). Thin lines should be used for depicting dimension lines, dimension leader/witness
lines, note leader lines, line terminators (arrowheads, dots and slashes), phantom lines, hidden lines,
center lines, long break lines, schedule grid lines, and object lines seen at a distance.
• Medium (0.35 mm). Medium lines should be used for depicting most object lines, text (dimensions,
notes/callouts, and schedule), and schedule grid accent lines.
• Wide (0.50 mm). Wide lines should be used for major object lines, cut lines, section cutting plane
lines, and titles.
• Extra wide (0.70 mm). Extra-wide lines should be used for minor title underlining, schedule outlines,
large titles, and object lines requiring special emphasis. For very large scale details, the extra-wide
width should be used for the object lines. Extra-wide widths are also appropriate for use as an
elevation grade line, building footprint, or top of grade lines on section/foundation details.
• XX Wide (1.00 mm). This line weight should be used for major title underlining and separating
portions of drawings.
• XXX Wide (1.40 mm). This line weight should be used for border sheet outlines and cover sheet line
work.
• XXXX Wide (2.00 mm). This line weight should be used for border sheet outlines and cover sheet line
work.
Line
mm Typical Use
Thickness
Fine 0.18 Patterning
Dimension lines, dimension leader/witness lines, note leader lines, long
Thin 0.25
break lines, schedule grid lines, and objects seen at a distance
Medium 0.35 Minor object lines
Wide 0.50 Major object lines, cut lines, section cutting plane lines, and titles
Minor title underlining, match lines, schedule outlines, large titles, and
Extra Wide 0.70
object lines requiring special emphasis
XX Wide 1.00 Major title underlining and separating portions of drawings
XXX Wide 1.40 Border sheet outlines and cover sheet line work
XXXX Wide 2.00 Border sheet outlines and cover sheet line work
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The predominant line types/styles used in this manual are listed in Table 3H.2. The CGTC (CAD/GIS
Technology Center) has created line style files for MicroStation and AutoCAD (called tsaec.rsc and tsaec.lin,
respectively), which include the line styles in Table 3.8, as well as additional discipline custom line styles.
These files are available on the CGTC’s Internet site at https://tsc.wes.army.mil.
AutoCAD
ID Description Example
Designator
0 Continuous Continuous
1 Dotted Dot
2 Dashed Hidden
3 Dashed spaced Dashed
4 Dashed dotted Dashdot
Dashed double-
6 Divide2
dotted
7 Chain Center
1
(c) Line Color
The primary reason to use color in CAD drawings is to improve the clarity of the drawing on a computer
monitor. The variety of colors available in a CAD application depends on the capabilities of the computer
monitor and its video card. Today, most systems are capable of displaying up to 16.8 million colors. For
consistency, this manual recommends that all A/E/C drawings be created using the basic colors presented in
Table 3H.3 whenever possible.
Since projects designed in CAD are planned for use many years into the future and files will be used by many
different individuals, use of any nonstandard font is not recommended. This includes fonts for symbology,
logos, business titles, etc.
If a project is to be exchanged between CAD platforms, a general guideline would be to use True Type fonts.
This would allow direct translations between the applications. If a project is to be designed in a single CAD
application and there is no likelihood that there will be a need to translate it to a different CAD platform, then
the native CAD application fonts could be used.
1
The recommended colours are best viewed on a monitor with a black background.
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Contrasting text styles (or fonts) are used within a drawing to delineate types of information. In most A/E/C
drawings, the fonts listed below should be sufficient:
• Monotext font. This font creates text characters that are evenly spaced. Monotext font should be used
where text fields need to be aligned such as in schedules or, in some cases, title blocks.
• Proportional font. This font creates text where the characters are proportionally spaced. It is
appropriate for general notes, labels, or title blocks.
• Slanted font. A slanted font is used where text needs to be easily distinguished from other text.
• Filled font. Filled fonts are used primarily for titles and on cover sheets.
• Outline font. When a pen plotter is used for final output, the outline font is used as a substitute for
filled fonts for major titles such as cover sheet information to save plotting time.
• Symbology font. This font should be used in cases where Greek symbols are representations for
technical information.
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Abbreviations
QC Quality Control
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4.1.0 Introduction
The survey manual for Hydrographic Survey is prepared based on adaptation for the local needs with
th
reference to IHO Standards for Hydrographic Surveys Special Publication (S44) 5 Edition February 2008 for
Hydrographic Surveys. The IHO Standards for Hydrographic Surveys – Special Publication S44 provide the
guidelines in which member states can produce their own National Standards for the acquisition of
hydrographic data for the production of International recognized navigational charts with consistent standards
and quality.
Three classes of hydrographic surveys are described to cover the various applications for the purpose of safe
navigation, coastal zone management, offshore oil and gas and offshore constructions. Each class stipulated
shall in general be equal to IHO Standards in its respective orders.
These are the minimum standards. More stringent standards may be defined and used in hydrographic
surveys for different applications.
Hydrographic Surveys for nautical charting shall be directly supervised by Hydrographic Surveyors who have
successfully completed FIG/IHO/ICA accredited Category A (Cat A) hydrographic surveying courses in any
institutions worldwide or hold a degree in Surveying, Geodesy or Geomatics. They should have a minimum of
five years experience in hydrographic surveying where a minimum level of competence and active
participation in precise positioning, tidal measurements, bathymetric and sonar measurements, land surveys
and data management.
Hydrographic Surveys for nautical charting shall be conducted by Hydrographic Surveyors who have
successfully completed Cat A or Cat B courses or hold a degree in Surveying, Geodesy or Geomatics.
Hydrographic Surveys other than for nautical charting shall be directly supervised by Hydrographic Surveyors
who have successfully completed Cat A or Cat B courses, or hold a degree in Surveying, Geodesy or
Geomatics, and have a minimum of two years experience in hydrographic surveying.
Hydrographic Surveys other than for nautical charting shall be conducted by Hydrographic Surveyors who
have successfully completed Cat A or Cat B courses, or hold a degree in Surveying, Geodesy or Geomatics.
These surveys may be also conducted by surveyors without formal qualifications, but should demonstrate
possession of the appropriate knowledge of hydrography and should have at least two years relevant
experience in hydrographic surveying.
The General Survey Department (GSD) will review and approve personnel, and issue accreditation before
they are permitted to conduct hydrographic surveys in the waters of Qatar. Hydrographic Surveyors intending
to practice shall submit their qualifications and experience to the Director of the GSD for accreditation.
The manual addresses the class of surveys and the minimum standards for the conduct of the hydrographic
surveys and the personnel’s competence to conduct the surveys. All acquired hydrographic data have some
degree of uncertainty which is related to numerous factors such as equipment accuracy and limitation,
environmental conditions and sea state at the time of survey, type of vessels as platforms for the survey,
weather conditions and the dynamic transient of the seabed. The standards shall ensure that the charted
depths are accurate for the safe navigation of vessels and for other applications. In Port areas and approach
channels minimum under-keel clearance are in force. Consequently in areas where siltation are expected to
occur, regular monitoring surveys shall be conducted to ascertain the declared depths are still valid and
remain safe for the maximum draft of vessels permitted.
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This is the most rigorous of the orders and its use is intended only for those areas where under-keel clearance
is critical. Because under-keel clearance is critical a full sea floor search is required and the size of the
features to be detected by this search is deliberately kept small. Since under-keel clearance is critical it is
considered unlikely that Special Order surveys will be conducted in waters deeper than 40 meters.
• To determine a proposed new channel, berth, turning basin and anchorage of a Port and its
Approaches.
• To declare a dredged channel and berth and the minimum depths.
• To determine the under-keel clearance and the maximum draft of vessel permitted to transit
the area.
• To investigate a grounding or shoaling reported
• To determine new recommended leading lines and navigational tracks.
• High precision engineering surveys.
This order is intended for those areas where the sea is sufficiently shallow to allow natural or man-made
features on the seabed to be a concern to the type of surface shipping expected to transit the area but where
the under-keel clearance is less critical than for Special Order above. Because man-made or natural features
may exist that are of concern to surface shipping, a full sea floor search is required, and however the size of
the feature to be detected is larger than for Special Order. Under-keel clearance becomes less critical as
depth increases so the size of the feature to be detected by the full sea floor search is increased in areas
where the water depth is greater than 40 meters.
• To survey general navigational areas where a full sea floor search is required.
• Periodic Monitoring Surveys of channels, berths, turning basins and anchorages.
• Initial checks of abnormal changes to seabed. To be followed by Special Order Surveys if
considered necessary.
This order is intended for areas where a general depiction of the seabed is considered adequate for the type
of surface shipping expected to transit the area. A full sea floor search is not required which means some
features may be missed although the maximum permissible line spacing will limit the size of the features that
are likely to remain undetected. This order of survey is only recommended where under-keel clearance is not
considered to be an issue.
• Surveys of general navigational transit areas where a full sea floor search is not required.
• To determine small craft harbors and channels where under-keel clearances are not
applicable.
• For managing Navigational Aids.
• To support various maritime works, sea floor exploration, construction, and others.
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Hydrographic Surveys for the purpose of safe navigation shall be conducted on WGS84 Datum Universal
Transverse Mercator Projection Zone 39 North. Hydrographic Surveys for purposes other than safe
navigation may be conducted on WGS84 or Qatar National Datum 95 (QND 95).
Zone : 39 North
Spheroid : WGS84
Semi-Major Axis (a) 6378137.0m
Semi-Minor Axis (b) 6356752.3142m
Compression (f) 1/298.257223563
The transformation from WGS84 co-ordinates to QND95 the 7 parameters are as follows:
Shift x : + 119.42480m
Shift y : + 303.65872m
Shift z : + 11.00061m
Rotation x : - 1.164298 arc seconds
Rotation y : - 0.174458 arc seconds
Rotation z : - 1.096259 arc seconds
Scaling : - 3.657065 ppm
The 7 parameters are exact values. For a QND95 to WGS84 transformation, the signs are reversed.
The signs of the Transformation Parameters are correct when using QTRANS software available at the
Centre for GIS of the Urban Planning. For other transformation software packages you may have to change
the signs. Changing signs is not an error but may be as a result of defining the coordinate systems as right
handed or left handed (QTRANS uses a left handed coordinate system) or defining which is the ‘from
coordinate’ and which is the ‘to coordinate’ in computing the transformation parameters.
If you use the 7 parameters and the results are correct that is fine. Otherwise it is best to use the 3-parameter
transformation to get the translations correct and then introduce the rotations and scale (parameters 4 to 7) to
refine the transformation. In either case, if the signs need to be changed then all the transformation
parameters should be changed or all the rotation parameters should be changed (that is, you cannot change
the sign of only 1 translation of rotation – they must all be changed as a group).
To obtain geodetically correct transformed coordinates the geoid model must be used.
If you have any problems, or require further information, please contact the Centre for GIS.
For Sample Transformation Calculation see Appendix 1A, Chapter 1 – Control Survey.
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The geodetic parameters of QNG on Qatar National Datum 1995 (QND95) are as follows:
QNG is defined in terms of the scale factor at the origin (Central Meridian) not the zone width.
4.5.0 Positioning
Horizontal control ashore shall be surveyed in accordance with Qatar Survey Manual, Chapter 1 – Control
Survey.
The DGPS reference beacon position shall be fixed by Land Survey method from Order 1 stations (see
Chapter 1). The accuracy shall be better than 1:100,000.
The coastlines are to be delineated by Land Survey Method or RTK GPS or DGPS Positioning. The accuracy
of the coastline delineated shall be in accordance with Classification Table. The coastline including the
islands adjacent to the hydrographic survey area shall be surveyed.
Details of all wharfs, jetties, ramps and breakwaters adjacent to the Hydrographic Survey Area are to be
surveyed by Land Survey Method or RTK GPS Survey. The accuracy of these features shall be in
accordance with Classification Table.
Conspicuous Objects from seawards useful for navigation should be surveyed by Land Survey Method or
RTK GPS Positioning. Navigational beacons shall also be surveyed by Land Survey Method or RTK GPS
Positioning. The accuracy shall be in accordance with Classification Table.
Trigonometrical height of conspicuous objects and beacons shall be surveyed by Land Survey Method. The
heights shall also be measured from Mean Higher High Water or Qatar National Vertical Datum to an
accuracy of 0.3m.
All rocks and obstructions below Mean Higher High Water and above Mean Lower Low Water shall be
surveyed by Land Survey Method or by sounding. The heights shall be measured from Chart Datum to an
accuracy of 0.3m.
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Navigational buoys and mooring buoys positions shall be fixed by DGPS at or near maximum ebb and at or
near maximum flood tide. The mean positions shall be recorded. The accuracy shall be in accordance with
the Classification Table.
All sources of horizontal errors shall be determined prior to the commencement of sounding. The total error
budget shall be assessed and confirmed that the horizontal error are within the class of surveys specified.
Evidence of the DGPS position accuracy shall be presented. Quality factors such as DOP values, satellite
configuration, RMS values, etc shall be independently monitored.
The position accuracy for single beam echo sounder shall be the position of the echo sounder transducer.
For Multibeam echo sounder and Bathymetric LIDAR the position accuracy shall be the position of the
sounding on the seabed.
The sounding position uncertainty shall be at 95 percent confidence level and shall be recorded with the
survey data.
The source of differential corrections to the GPS shall be proven by placing the receiver at a known mark with
higher accuracy than DGPS. It should be configured to output with quality tags in WGS84 on Zone 39
Universal Transverse Mercator Projection during comparison. Regular monitoring of position quality during
sounding on the number of track satellites, PDOP and/or real time comparison with a second positioning
system is recommended.
For GPS quality control the following minimum criteria shall be maintained.
• The semi major axis of the positional error ellipse shall not exceed 3.5m at 95% confidence level.
• The differential correction age is not to exceed 5 seconds.
• PDOP is not to exceed 6 for sounding to continue.
• The minimum number of satellites to be tracked shall be 4.
• The minimum elevation of the satellites shall not be less than 15°.
The depth accuracy is the accuracy of the reduced depths at Chart Datum. All sources of individual
uncertainty need to be quantified. A statistical model for Total Propagated Uncertainty shall be derived.
Sources of uncertainties to be considered are as follows:
Uncertainties associated with the development of the position of an individual beam must include the
following:
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The echo sounder shall be calibrated by bar check for sounding in depths of 25m or less. For sounding up to
40m a Sound Velocity Profiler shall also be used.
The draft of the transducer shall be calibrated with a shallow bar or plate suspended approximately at 1.0m to
2.0m below the transducer. The velocity of sound shall be determined by a bar or plate suspended to the
maximum depth expected in the area or between 20m to 25m. After setting the sound velocity the bar or plate
shall be raised at intervals of 2.0m until 2.0m below the transducer. Both the digital readings and the
analogue readings of the bar or plate shall be within 0.05m of the bar wire suspended vertically below the
surface of the water. The calibration shall be repeated if the accuracy is not met.
Each frequency shall be calibrated separately. On the echo trace the low frequency draft shall be adjusted to
1.0m below the high frequency such that the trace shows the separation of 1.0m between the two seabed
profiles.
A heave compensator shall be installed next to the transducer and interfaced to the echo sounder. The
effects of heave on the echo sounder shall be removed during sounding. It is important that after a major
course alteration of the survey vessel, the heave compensator must be permitted to settle before
recommencing sounding.
Tide Readings for the reduction of soundings to Chart Datum shall be obtained from the nearest tide gauge.
Accuracy of tide gauge shall be better than 0.03m.
Co-tidal correction shall be applied when survey area is sufficiently far from the tide gauge station which has a
tidal range and time differences from those at the survey area. Co-tidal charts shall be constructed to
determine the correction to be applied. Accuracy of the co-tidal correction shall be better than 0.1m.
The seabed depths to be charted shall be the sounding acquired by the high frequency (200 kHz) of the Echo
Sounder. The low frequency (20kHz to 35kHz) of the echo sounder shall be used to check for false echo
caused by suspended sediment and for checking of bed rocks / and or rock outcrops.
Survey lines shall be spaced at interval in accordance with Classification Table running approximately
perpendicular to the seabed contours. Cross lines normal to the run lines shall be spaced at 10-15 times of
main sounding lines to check the seabed depths obtained.
The ping rate of echo sounder should be set between 10Hz to 20Hz depending on the speed of the survey
vessel. The ping rate should be such that 0.5m of the seabed along the profile line should be ensonified. The
extra depths logged can be filtered out by the software during post processing.
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The software used should be capable of logging all the return pings set; time and co-ordinates both derived
from DGPS and dead reckoning between DGPS measurements. The latency of the DGPS and the echo ping
shall be set and applied by the software in real time.
During the survey detail examination shall be conducted on shoal soundings or hazards found or previously
charted to determined for least depths. Inter lines at half the line interval shall be run in two perpendicular
directions covering a distance of 100m surrounding the shoal sounding patch or hazards.
As an alternative the examinations may be conducted by Side Scan Sonar Sweep or Multibeam Echo
Sounding or wire drag sweep.
Where shoal depths are reported by other agencies or authorities and if no systematic survey is planned in
the area the reported position shall be searched by Side Scan Sonar Sweep or Multibeam Echo Sounding or
wire drag sweep covering an area of 1 kilometer square centering on the reported position. In the case of
Side Scan Sonar Sweep or wire drag sweep close sounding (at the line interval shown in Classification Table
of Order 1b) or by drift sweep over the high spot found shall be conducted to determine the least depth.
The track plots shall be prepared and edited for spurious positions. The digital depths shall be compared with
the analogue echo trace and spurious depths removed before the digital depths are imported for tidal
reductions to Chart Datum.
The digital depths at Chart Datum shall be selected with shoal bias at interval of 3m with x-y co-ordinates and
depths. Depths shall be round up to the decimeter. For plotting to the scale of the drawing further selection
and thinning of the soundings to avoid over plotting based on shoal bias shall be conducted. The principle to
be strictly adhered to is that depths are never to be shown greater than they actually are relative to Chart
Datum.
4.6.2.1 Calibration
The relative positions and heights of the Multibeam Sonar Transducer, Gyro Compass, Heave, Roll & Pitch
Sensors and GPS Antenna are to be measured and the offsets from the survey vessel’s axes are to be
integrated in the software. In addition the draft of the vessel fore and aft shall be measured for vessel with
LOA 100m or larger. The vessel’s squat and settlement at different survey speed shall be determined.
Field calibration shall be based on the principle of repeatability in that the seafloor or objects ensonified shall
appear the same in whatever the azimuth, at whatever the speed and whatever the motion history of the
survey vessel. These field calibrations known as the patch tests shall be conducted prior to the
commencement of the survey and at any significant component changed and at weekly interval.
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When all calibrations are done the various offsets can be calculated. There is a need for accurate alignment
of the sensors offset results and a number of iterations have to be conducted to cancel out the influences of
the different parameters.
For Special Order Survey the swath to swath overlap shall be 200%. See figure 4.1. For Order 1a Surveys
the swath to swath overlap shall be such that 100% coverage is attained. See figure 4.2. The full swath shall
be logged. However, only the section of the swath that complied with the depth accuracy of the respective
orders shall be utilized. The sounding track lines are to be run parallel and preferably parallel to the
bathymetric contours. Cross lines at approximate 90° from the main lines shall be run at 10cm apart on the
scale of the charts to be prepared. The cross lines shall be used to assess the quality of the bathymetric data
acquired.
The ping rate shall be set such that on the survey speed of vessel at least the seabed is ensonified at every
0.5m interval.
The multibeam back scatter parameters shall be logged in the course of a Multibeam Echo Sounding Survey.
See seabed classification survey using Multibeam Echo Sounding.
All depths acquired shall be reduced to Chart Datum from the nearest tide gauge station. If the area to be
surveyed is at a distance such that the tidal characteristics differ from the tide gauge by 0.1m tidal height (due
to range and time difference) co-tidal chart shall be prepared and co-tidal corrections to be applied.
Figure 4.1
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Figure 4.2
The number of spikes shall be minimized in the Multibeam Echo Sounder data acquisition by setting
parameters affecting power, gain and filter of the received data. Generally the following parameters need to
be set:
• Power Level
• Transmit Pulse
• Fixed Gain and Time Varied Gain
• Speed of Sound
• Range
• Ping Rate
• Depth Filter
• Range Filter
During the turning of the vessel the data acquired is to be logged but shall not be incorporated in the final
processed data. The outer beams of the MBES which are not within the accuracy standard shall only be used
for reconnaissance and shall be logged but not incorporated in the final processed data.
During processing all parameters shall be viewed and validated by removal of spurious raw data and the
integration of position and depth. The position track shall be checked before editing/filtering the depth
measurements.
Using the processed data a sun illuminated images with suitable vertical exaggeration and depth coded for
color shall be rendered as TIFF files. Gridded depth image shall be a mean surface selection rather than
shoal biased selection at grid spacing of 1m or 2m respectively for Special Order Survey or 1a Survey
standard.
For Bathymetric LIDAR survey it is compulsory that an IHO/FIG Category ‘A’ qualified Hydrographic Surveyor
with a minimum of 5 years offshore experience including surveying for nautical charting be at site and in
attendance at the data processing location at all times during survey operations. The qualified Hydrographic
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Surveyor shall have the authority and experience to make and implement operational decisions and modify
the survey plan if necessary.
Bathymetric LIDAR survey shall comply with Order 1a & Order 1b.
4.6.3.1 Calibration
A primary positioning system shall be a Wide Area Differential GPS or RTK GPS and a secondary positioning
system shall be an entirely independent WAD GPS or RTK GPS. A static positioning check of both the
primary and secondary positioning systems shall be carried out on a known trigonometrical station prior to the
start of the survey and on each occasion when a component of the positioning system is repaired or replaced
and at regular intervals throughout the survey to provide statistical analysis.
A dynamic navigational calibration shall be performed on each survey flight against fixed aids to navigation or
known coordinated features as a gross error check.
The primary and secondary positioning systems shall be compared and the differences shown during survey.
Calibration of Bathymetric LIDAR depths corrected for tide against a strip of known Bathymetric depths
obtained by Multibeam Echo Sounding corrected for tide before the start of the survey and on completion of
the survey shall be carried out. The depth differences shall be compared and rendered. It would be
advantages to have the known bathymetric strip to include underwater obstructions with least depths
accurately charted.
A fully developed Total Propagated Uncertainty (TPU) showing compliance to Order 1a or 1b shall be
presented with the report of survey.
Maximum line spacing shall ensure contiguous swath coverage with laser spot density of not more than 5m
grid interval shown on Classification Table. All survey areas shall be flown at 200% coverage (i.e. 100%
overlap). See figure 4.3. Overlapping swaths shall be flown at significant differences in tide. Depths shall be
recorded to two decimal places of a meter. Cross lines shall be flown at right angles to the main line at
5000m intervals to check the depths obtained.
For surveys other than for nautical charting, the 200% coverage may be reduced to 100% coverage.
Depths shall be corrected for tide from co-tidal data with continuous recordings from at least two tide gauges.
Navigational hazards detected by Bathymetric LIDAR shall be examined by other sea floor search methods
and bathymetric systems to determine for least depths.
During a hydrographic survey it is necessary that the area surveyed shall have the nature of the seabed
classified for manmade debris, bedrock, gravel, sand, silty sand and clay using Multibeam Echo Sounder,
Side Scan Sonar, Divers, Remote Operate Vehicle, Grab Sampler and Gravity Corer.
The requirement for sea floor classification arose from the needs of vessel:
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Figure 4.3
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Based on Side Scan Sonar mosaics rectified true to scale the following seabed features are to be identified:
(a) Area of sand waves where the sand wave heights and the wave length can be determined
(b) Rock outcrops and rocky seabed
(c) Clayey seabed material
(d) Manmade objects and debris such as wrecks, submarine pipelines, submarine cables and other
debris.
The back scattering data of the Side Scan Sonar, bathymetric LIDAR and Multibeam Echo Sounders can be
recorded to provide for automatic classification of the seabed using suitable commercial Seabed Classification
software. The first seabed echo return provides a measure of the acoustic roughness and the second seabed
echo return, a measure of the acoustic hardness. A library of seabed material from the acoustic back scatter
intensity can be developed by grab sampling of the seabed and samples tested in a laboratory for grain size
distribution. The ground truth obtained by grab samples shall be correlated to the back scatter intensity for
automatic sea floor classification. It must be noted that each instrument with different frequency will have
different acoustic impedance characteristics. Consequently, the library developed for each instrument from
the ‘ground truth’ shall be confined only to that instrument and shall not be used for other instrument.
Seabed samples can be obtained by grab sampler, gravity corer or divers. In the course of the hydrographic
survey seabed samples shall be collected in a systematic pattern throughout the whole survey area.
In addition the nature of the seabed of all banks, shoals and seamounts shall be classified, particularly where
these features a likely to be unstable.
Tidal observations are part of the process for hydrographic surveys for the reduction of soundings to Chart
Datum and for harmonic analysis and the prediction of tide. Automatic tide gauges using the principle of
acoustic pulses pinging from a fixed height to the water surface within a tide well are preferred. These tide
gauges are extremely accurate and can obtain the average of a number of readings before being logged
against the mean time. These tide gauges have no moving parts and at each single measurement calibration
of the velocity sound against a fixed distance reflector from the transducer is also made. Minimum
maintenance is needed with long term reliability.
A calibration certificate is usually issued by the manufacturer stating the reference to the zero of the
tide gauge. Notwithstanding the calibration certificate issued, it shall be calibrated by placing the
acoustic transducer against a measuring tape and reference to the zero of the gauge to ping against a
vertical solid structure at various distances through the full range of the tide expected in the survey
area with the transducer placed horizontally. The gauge shall be set to ping at 1 Hz for a period of 30
seconds and the mean values output in tidal height and time into a data logger. All acoustic tide
gauges have a fixed distance reflector to calibrate the velocity of sound in air during each
measurement.
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Pressure tide gauges use the hydrostatic pressure for the measurement of tide. The hydrostatic
pressure exerted by seawater is dependent on the density of seawater, temperature and the
atmospheric pressure. The pressure tide gauge would have been calibrated in the country of
manufacture. The density of seawater, temperature and atmospheric pressure may differ from where
the gauge is being installed.
Prior to setting up the pressure tide gauge, the instrument shall be calibrated by securing the pressure
sensor to a weight on a marked steel wire rope. The instrument shall be set to measure 30 readings
at 1 Hz. The readings are averaged and displayed as the sensor is lowered at just before entering
the water and at 0.5m interval below the surface level and the averaged readings noted. The sensor
shall be lowered to a depth exceeding the tidal height to be measured. The sensor shall then be
raised at 0.5m interval until it is out of the water. The two sets of readings at each depth shall be
averaged and compared against the sensor depth measured by the marked wire. This calibration
shall be conducted in sheltered waters where the water level is fairly smooth. Corrections or
adjustment shall be applied to the readings as appropriate. Generally most pressure tide gauges are
temperature compensated. It is recommended that this calibration be conducted at least twice per
year i.e. once in summer and once in winter as the atmospheric pressure varies up to 20 mbs at
Qatar between January and July.
The zero of the tide gauge shall be referenced to 2 known benchmarks and set to Chart Datum by leveling.
A tide board with graduation shall be erected in sheltered water and the zero of the tide board leveled to the
two known benchmarks. The Chart Datum of the tide board shall then be established. Visual readings at 5
minute interval shall be taken over a 25 hour period for comparison against the tide gauge reading during the
initial period.
Thereafter a single tidal height and time shall be observed at the tide board on a daily basis throughout the full
duration of the survey to check against the tide gauge recordings.
The zero of the tide gauge shall be leveled to one of the benchmarks at weekly interval to check for vertical
displacement.
Tide recordings shall at 5 minute interval with an average of 30 readings as a minimum over a 30 second
period. The time for the averaged tidal height shall be logged at the middle of the measuring period.
For long term tide gauge recordings comparison of visual tidal heights and time against the tide gauge shall
be conducted regularly not exceeding one per week.
Tide shall be recorded to two decimal of a meter with date and time to the nearest second. Tidal height shall
be accurate to 1cm. The time check shall be accurate to 5 seconds against BBC six pips time check
transmitted at hourly interval.
Chart Datum at various ports has been established after the Qatar Tidal Study in 1977. The Chart Datum at
each Port is related to Qatar National Vertical Datum which is Mean Sea Level at Doha. Chart Datum at
various Ports is close to Lowest Astronomical Tide and the values below Qatar National Vertical Datum are as
follows:
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From long term tide recording with a minimum of one year preferably five years data shall be analyzed
harmonically and the harmonic constants derived for tidal predictions. Tidal Predictions shall be compared
against actual recordings to check for accuracy of the predictions.
From the harmonic constants derived at each tidal station the following relative tidal levels shall be computed:
Time - ± 5 second
Tidal Height - ± 0.01m
Tidal Prediction - ± 0.10m
Current are significant components to the safety of navigation. These need to be observed at entrance to
harbors, channels, navigable straits, anchorages and in the vicinity of wharfs.
Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCP) shall be the standard instrument for the recording of current
direction and speed against time and depth. Current shall be recorded at 10 minute interval over a 32 days
period. A 2 to 3 meter bins throughout the vertical depth profile shall be recorded. The recorded current shall
be vector averaged at 10 minute interval and at each bin. The recording period shall be at least a full lunar
cycle to permit harmonic analysis.
It will be necessary that the ADCP be mounted on the seabed pointing vertically upwards preferably fitted on a
gimbal and on a non magnetic structure. The ADCP can generally apply a correction for non verticality for up
to 20° from the vertical. The instrument fitted on a gimbal will reduce the necessary correction to a minimum.
Corrections for non verticality shall not exceed 15°.
Within the Persian Gulf off Qatar the water movement is due mainly to tidal streams. In this region the North
West winds predominate, although 50 percent of the time the winds are less than 10 knots. During the
stronger North Westerly a South East going current is induced.
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Current shall be recorded for a minimum period of 32 days during the Winter Period when the North Westerly
is stronger and for another minimum period of 32 days during the summer period when the North Westerly are
weaker.
Recordings should be increased to three months during each period in critical locations.
The current recorded shall be analyzed harmonically for the predictions of Tidal Streams.
ADCP are manufactured with 3 or 4 transducers. Instrument with 3 transducers can measure the current
direction, speed and vertical profile bins. However, instrument with 4 transducers with one redundant
th
transducer are preferred as the 4 transducer provide a measure of the accuracy of the measurement.
Direction : ± 2°
Speed : ± 0.5cm/s
Depth Cell Size : minimum 1m
Ping Rate : 2 Hz
Maximum Tilt Corrections : ± 15°
For Special Order and Order 1a surveys a full sea floor search are compulsory. The detection of cubic
features for Special Order is 1m and for Order 1a is 2m. Instrument or technique used shall need to comply
with the detection capability stated.
To achieve the Order specified for sea floor target detection, the centre to centre distance of each ping should
be no more than half the required target dimension apart.
A minimum of 3 pings on both along the track and across the track shall strike the target size features
specified in order to ensure sufficient ensonification.
A Sun illuminated 3D images of the seabed with suitable vertical exaggeration shall be prepared to assist in
the interpretation of shoal seabed features.
Sea floor search for contacts 1m cube or 2m cube using side scan sonar dual channel shall have a frequency
of 300kHz or higher. The search shall be planned such that the specific target size can be detected. The
limiting case requires that the contacts near the tow fish shall receive 5 sonar pulses. Outside this near field
the sonar beam expansion ensures that the target will receive at least 5 pulses. Near field is taken as 25m
from the tow fish. The range scale shall be set at 100m and not exceeding 150m to ensure that the specific
targets can be detected. The line spacing must not be more than 125m.
a. Survey Coverage
The survey lines shall be run such that ensonification of the seabed shall be 200% coverage (i.e. 100%
overlap). See figure 4.4.
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The speed of the vessel shall be maintained at 6 knots or less during side scanning operation.
To minimize the uncertainty of the position of the side scan tow fish astern of the vessel due to cable length
paid out, depth of tow fish and vertical catenary of the cable (the last two vary with vessel speed) and cross
current, a transponder shall be fitted at a short stay (about 1 – 2m) behind or ahead of the tow fish. The
transponder shall be fixed by an Ultra Short Base Line interfaced to the DGPS via the navigation software.
When a tow sensor is streamed astern of the survey vessel caution must be exercised when a major course
alteration is made. The length of the tow shall be shortened to ensure that the tow fish will not strike the
seabed.
d. Confidence Check
The sonar confidence check is an important feature of the operations. Confidence check must be carried out:
Confidence check shall be carried out using a known seabed feature such as structure, buoy, wreck or natural
rock outcrop or sand waves near the survey area. The position of the known seabed feature shall be detected
on the near field e.g. within 25m or the outer limits of the range scale i.e. 90m.
The optimum height of the tow fish shall be 10% above the seabed of the range scale set i.e. 12.5m above the
seabed for 125m range scale.
In shallow water it may not be possible to fly the tow fish as high off the seabed as desirable. Under this
condition the range scale and the survey line spacing shall be reduced.
The horizontal accuracy of the seabed features hazardous to navigation detected shall be:
The least depth of the seabed feature shall be determined by close soundings in the case of single beam
echo sounding. The depth accuracy is as per the Order of Survey specified (see Classification Table).
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Mechanical sweeps have been in existence for many decades. These clearance sweeps have been adapted
from sweeping of the channel for the clearance of mines such as the Oropesa Sweep. To operate such
sweep the survey vessel has to be purposely designed to handle the Oropesa Sweep. For survey
requirement only the drift sweep and the Drag Sweep will be specified as modem Survey Vessels are not
outfitted to handle these sweeps. The mechanical sweep shall be deployed to clear the area surveyed by
Single Beam Echo Sounder or Bathymetric LIDAR. This method may be used as an alternative to Side Scan
Sonar Survey or Multibeam Echo Sounder bottom search.
a. Drift Sweep
Drift Sweep is deployed to check the least depth over pinnacle rocks, wrecks, shoal of small extent and man-
made obstructions on the seabed. The sweep wire suspended by weights supported by marked wire ropes at
both ends of the vessel and at regular intervals is allowed to drift with the current or wind over the known
obstruction. See Figure 4.5. At each support the marked wire rope is weighted with hand lead. As the sweep
wire clears the obstruction, it is lowered until it fouls the obstruction. The vessel’s position shall be fixed by
DGPS and the longitudinal axis of the vessel noted from the vessel’s gyro compass. The time of each fix shall
be logged for extracting the tide from a tide gauge to reduce the sweep wire depth to Chart Datum. The
sweep wire depth shall be adjusted for vertical movement caused by tide during sweeping using predicted
tide. Visual watch shall be kept to see which section of the wire foul the obstructions.
Wire Drag Sweep is used extensively in the past to clear a channel to certain depth. This method is still
useful to clear a large navigational channel. The wire sweep with a spread of 350m to 400m shall be towed at
a speed of about 1.5 knots by two vessels. The sweep wire shall be supported by weights at both ends and
with the intermediate weights at about 50m intervals. The weights are secured to adjusted marked depth
wires supported by inflatable floats. (See Figure 4.6 for Sweep Layout) An additional launch shall be used to
calibrate the depth of the sweep wire at each section of the sweep wire spread using a drag tester (see Figure
4.7). The drag tester is lowered ahead by a launch for the section of the sweep wire to be calibrated and
allowed the sweep wire to strike the drag tester. The crew manning the launch will record and call by walkie
talkie to inform the Surveyor in charge the depth of the sweep wire calibrated. The crew in the launch shall
also adjust the depth wires caused by tide on instructions from the Surveyor in charge. Dynamometers
measuring the tension of the towed wires will indicate if the sweep wire fouls an obstruction combining with
visual look out to watch for the particular float submerging. Positioning of parent vessel and consort vessel
shall be fixed regularly by DGPS and time logged. The floats shall be fixed by the vessel’s radar. A radar
reflector shall be secured to the top of each float. Light weight dielectric lens radar reflectors with a radar
cross section 2m² are readily available for these purposes.
During the sweeping operation predicted tide is used to control the depth of the sweep. Upon completion the
area swept to clear to certain depth below Chart Datum shall use recorded tide for reduction during post
processing.
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Figure 4.5
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Figure 4.6
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Figure 4.7
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Ferromagnetic debris, wrecks and obstructions, submarine cables and submarine pipelines lying on the
seabed or buried can be detected by magnetometer survey. Ferromagnetic objects are permanent or induced
dipole or a combination of both. The magnetic anomalies can be detected by an Overhauser Magnetometer
or a Proton Magnetometer. The magnetic anomaly of a ferromagnetic object would vary inversely as the cube
of the distance between the magnetometer sensor and the object and directly with the weight of the
ferromagnetic object. Distance of the sensor and the ferromagnetic object is a major component to be
considered when planning a search.
To detect small ferromagnetic objects the line spacing are in general spaced at 10m apart running
systematically over the area to be searched. The magnetometer sensor shall be towed at 5m above the
seabed. This shall ensure that the magnetic anomalies can be detected above the earth’s magnetic intensity
for small objects. The magnetometer shall be towed sufficiently astern of the vessel to reduce the effect of the
magnetic influence created by the survey vessel.
The instrument shall be sensitive 0.2nT with sampling rate of 4Hz with an absolute accuracy of 0.5nT.
The tow sensor shall be fitted with a transponder and fixed by an Ultra Short Base Line interfaced to the
navigation software. The magnetic intensity shall also be logged digitally concurrently with the DGPS x-y co-
ordinates. A magnetic intensity contour map together with the individual anomalies shall be plotted for ease of
detection of the ferromagnetic objects. Horizontal position accuracy shall be ±5m.
The detection of man-made debris and obstructions hazardous to navigation shall be conducted using Side
Scan Sonar technique and magnetometers. Side Scan Sonar technique may be replaced by Multibeam Echo
Sounding.
Upon detection of this debris in critical areas they should be examined by divers or Remote Operated
Vehicles to identify the debris or obstructions.
These features if lying on the seabed are to be detected by Side Scan Sonar and or Multibeam Echo
Sounding.
If the submarine cables or pipelines are buried, these shall be supplemented by survey with magnetometers.
The principle in compiling records of a survey is that they must be entirely intelligible to an Accredited
Hydrographic Surveyor who may be required to check and reprocess the original field data if necessary. The
record shall be prepared neatly, concisely and accurately. The Hydrographic Surveyor in charge shall be
responsible that the records prepared by his assistants shall be in accordance with the standards specified.
He will ensure that the records are independently checked and endorsed by him.
All records and data shall be prepared and thoroughly documented and QC.
The following survey data must be rendered upon completion of the survey:
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The report of survey shall comply but not limited with the following guidelines:
a. Introduction
• State the start and finish dates of the survey.
• List of survey personnel.
• State the Scope of Survey and Order of Survey required.
• Events of difficulty encountered that affect the progress of the survey.
• State the weather condition that affects the accuracy of the minimum depths found.
• State the accuracy of reduced depths required and achieved.
• Give an overall opinion and completeness of the survey.
b. Geodetic Parameters
• State the horizontal datum, spheroid, projection and scale used.
• State the horizontal control used for the survey, the establishment of the shore GPS reference
beacon or for Wide Area Differential Corrections, the stations used for calibrations of the
DGPS receiver.
• Full description of geodetic observations by GPS shall be included in the submission.
e. Bathymetry
For Multibeam Echo Sounding state and prepare a sketch showing the relative positions of both
horizontal & vertical for the transducer, DGPS Position, Motion Sensors and survey gyro compass
along vessel’s longitudinal and lateral axes.
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Yaw
• State the sound velocity profile found.
• State the setting applied for MBES as follows:
Power Level
Width of Transmitted Pulse
Gain Type (fixed gain, time varied gain)
Speed of Sound
Range
Update Rate
Depth Filter
Range Filter
• State swath overlaps and state areas where beam shading occurs.
• State swath angle set for acquisition and swath angle used during post processing.
• Give a statement of the accuracy standard maintained and achieved.
g. Seabed Sampling
• Describe the equipment used for sampling, sampling interval and any laboratory tests of the
sample.
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• All raw digital recordings shall be submitted. Digital records after applying all corrections in
ASCII format and AutoCAD drawings of surveys shall be submitted.
• All original analogue traces such as echo traces and side scan sonar traces shall be annotated
st
with Date, Area of Survey, Survey Vessel’s name, Surveyor’s Name, Roll No. and the 1 fix No.
& last fix No. of the roll shall be submitted.
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Glossary
This glossary is relevant to Chapter 4 Hydrographic Survey of the Qatar Survey Manual. A substantial part of
th
the glossary is extracted from IHO Standards for Hydrographic Surveys S44 5 Edition February 2008. The
terms defined provide enhancement to the clarity of terms used in the manual.
Accuracy: The extent to which a measured or enumerated value agrees with the assumed or accepted value
(see: uncertainty, error).
ADCP: An Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler is a current meter on the seabed with four transducers pinging
vertically up the water column to measure the current vectors at preset depth intervals (or cell depth) using the
Doppler shift measurement from the reflected frequency of the sound.
Bathymetric LIDAR: The acronym LIDAR stands for Light Detection And Ranging. Bathymetric LIDAR is an
airborne Laser bathymetric system for surveying shallow water and coastal regions. The system relies on the
differential timing of laser pulses reflected from the water surface and the underwater feature to determine the
water depth at the point where the laser pulses strike the water surface.
Bathymetric Model: A digital representation of the topography (bathymetry) of the sea floor by coordinates
and depths.
Confidence Level: The probability that the true value of a measurement will lie within the specified
uncertainty from the measured value. It must be noted that confidence levels (e.g. 95%) depend on the
assumed statistical distribution of the data and are calculated differently for 1 Dimensional (ID) and 2
Dimensional (2D) quantities. In the context of this standard, which assumes Normal distribution of error, the
95% confidence level for 1D quantities (e.g. depth) is defined as 1.96 x standard deviation and the 95%
confidence level for 2D quantities (e.g. position) is defined as 2.45 x standard deviation.
Correction: A quantity which is applied to an observation or function thereof, to diminish or minimize the
effects of errors and obtain an improved value of the observation or function. It is also applied to reduce an
observation to some arbitrary standard. The correction corresponding to a given computed error is of the
same magnitude but of opposite sign.
Drift Sweep: This sweep is used to ascertain the least depth over pinnacle rocks, wrecks, obstructions and
shoal patches, etc. The drift sweeping is conducted by allowing a vessel carrying a sweep at a set depth
below the water surface to drift with the current or wind over the targeted position.
Drag Sweep: This sweep is used to locate wrecks, obstructions, rocks, etc in a survey channel. The sweep
wire is towed by two vessels at a set depth. The sweep wire is weighted down and supported by floats at pre-
determined interval. The two vessels maintain a fixed distance apart during the tow. The corridor swept is the
distance between the extremities of the sweep wire. Each swept corridor is generally aligned to the channel
to be swept with sufficient overlap.
Error: The difference between an observed or computed value of a quantity and the true value of that
quantity. (NB the true value can never be known, therefore the true error can never be known. It is legitimate
to talk about error sources, but the values obtained from what has become known as an error budget, and
from an analysis of residuals, are uncertainty estimates, not errors. See uncertainty)
Feature: In the context of this standard, any object, whether manmade or not, projecting above the sea floor,
which may be a danger for surface navigation.
Feature Detection: The ability of a system to detect features of a defined size. These Standards specify the
size of features which, for safety of navigation, should be detected during the survey.
Full Sea Floor Search: A systematic method of exploring the sea floor undertaken to detect most of the
features specified in Classification Table; utilizing adequate detection systems, procedures and trained
personnel. In practice, it is impossible to achieve 100% ensonification / 100% bathymetric coverage (the use
of such terms should be discouraged).
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Integrity Monitor: Equipment consisting of a GNSS receiver and radio transmitter set up over a known
survey point that is used to monitor the quality of a Differential GNSS (DGNSS) signal. Positional
discrepancies are continuously monitored and timely warnings are transmitted to users indicating when the
system should not be used
Integrity Monitoring: This is the ability of a system to provide timely warnings to users when the system
should not be used.
Metadata: Information describing characteristics of data, e.g. the uncertainty of survey data. ISO definition:
Data (describing) about the data set and usage aspect of it. Metadata is data implicitly attached to a
collection of data. Examples of metadata include overall quality, data set title, source, positional uncertainty
and copyright.
Oropesa Sweep: This sweep was originally designed for clearing of moored mines and has been adapted for
locating wrecks and shoal patches. The sweep consists of three Kite Otter Multiplanes; two to pull the sweep
wires to the port and starboard quarter of the vessel and the third to deep the two wires down at the stern of
the vessel. The two Kite Otter Multiplanes are connected to two floats by float wires to maintain the sweep
wire at pre-determined depths. The Oropesa sweep is managed by a single vessel with speed of up to 12
knots.
Overhauser Magnetometer: This magnetometer makes use of the overhauser effect which has a free radical
added to the proton rich liquid. This free radical ensures the presence of free, unbound electrons that couple
with protons producing a two spin system. The overhauser effect produces a powerful method of proton
polarization. The overhauser sensor measures the magnetic flux density.
Proton Magnetometer: This magnetometer used proton precession frequency to measure the intensity of the
earth’s magnetic field.
Quality Assurance: All those planned and systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that
a product or a service will satisfy given requirements for quality.
Quality Control: All procedures which ensure that the product meets certain standards and specifications.
Reduced Depths: Observed depths including all corrections related to the survey and post processing and
reduction to the used vertical datum.
Sea Floor Search: A systematic method of exploring the sea floor in order to detect features such as wrecks,
rocks and other obstructions on the sea floor.
Sounding Datum: The vertical datum to which the soundings on a hydrographic survey are reduced. It is also
called ‘datum’ for sounding reduction.
Total Horizontal Uncertainty (THU): The component of total propagated uncertainty (TPU) calculated in the
horizontal plane. Although THU is quoted as a single figure, THU is a 2 Dimensional quantity. The
assumption has been made that the uncertainty is isotropic (i.e. there is negligible correlation between errors
in latitude and longitude). This makes a Normal distribution circularly symmetric allowing a single number to
describe the radial distribution of errors about the true value.
Total Propagated Uncertainty (TPU): the result of uncertainty propagation, when all contributing
measurement uncertainties, both random and systematic, have been included in the propagation. Uncertainty
propagation combines the effects of measurement uncertainties from several sources upon the uncertainties
of derived or calculated parameters.
Total Vertical Uncertainty (TVU): The component of total propagated uncertainty (TPU) calculated in the
vertical dimension. TVU is a 1 Dimensional quantity.
Uncertainty: The interval (about a given value) that will contain the true value of the measurement at a
specific confidence level. The confidence level of the interval and the assumed statistical distribution of errors
must also be quoted. In the context of this standard the terms uncertainty and confidence interval are
equivalent.
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Uncertainty Surface: A model, typically grid based, which describes the depth uncertainty of the product of a
survey over a contiguous area of the skin of the earth. The uncertainty surface should retain sufficient
metadata to describe unambiguously the nature of the uncertainty being described.
Under-Keel Clearance: The minimum clearance available between the lowest point of a vessel’s keel and the
seabed in which it is safe for a vessel to navigate without the risk of grounding.
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Abbreviations
BC Beginning of Curve
BS British Standard
EC End of Curve
IP Intersection of tangent
PD Permitted Deviation
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5.1.0 Introduction
No attempt is made in this guideline to detail how construction surveys should be carried out. It covers the
standard and essential specifications of survey practices demanded of a Registered Surveyor. Registered
Surveyors have to determine the appropriate equipment and methodology to satisfy their client’s
specifications.
It is also not intended to substitute technical specifications stipulated by the clients of Registered Surveyors.
Contractual agreements and specifications entered into between the Registered Surveyor and his client shall
take precedence over this guideline in the event of disputes. Such contractual agreements shall also preside
where the directives do not cover the types of survey being undertaken.
The guideline is also by no means exhaustive. As new technologies and methods evolve, the directives will be
adapted to embrace and to leverage on these developments as well as to respond to changing business
needs.
Coordinated control points are established at the early stages of a construction project in the preparation of
topographic and engineering survey. These control points should be established at an order of accuracy
adequate for setting out. They should be observed and adjusted to the required accuracy. The observation
scheme should form a self-checking network which can be linked to the national grid without the national grid
control points introducing errors. Generally, it is recognized that the low-order control points of national
mapping agencies do not have the internal relative accuracy required for construction works.
Height control is extremely important in any construction project and the most accurate results are still only
attainable with traditional leveling techniques, using either digital or optical level. The control should form a
self-checking network, which is linked to the precise national leveling datum.
The accuracy attainable is a function of the instrument, including the accessories, used and its operator. The
overall performance relies heavily on the capabilities of both components.
The DIN (Deutsches Institut für Normung) 18723, a German industry accuracy standard for theodolites has
been widely adopted worldwide by surveying instrument manufacturers. The standard deviations for angles
measured in the tests are often quoted in the instrument brochures without stating the confidence level, i.e.
whether it is at 68%, 95% or 99%. Users should consult the manufacturers to ascertain exactly what is
quoted. The procedures stipulated in DIN 18723 are similar to those recommended in BS 7334 1990.
It is particularly important that Land Surveyors involved in setting out have an understanding of instrumental
accuracies and the theory of errors. Appendix 5A provides a guideline on accuracy of survey instrument.
The following calibration procedures are the minimum requirements before executing a surveying task:-
(a) Electronic Distance Meter or Electronic Total Station used in the survey shall be properly calibrated at
the EDM Calibration;
(b) Leveling instrument shall be calibrated by 2-peg method before they are used each day and after
service. The Registered Surveyor shall maintain the calibration records.
(c) The accuracy of the survey equipment used must be compatible with the stipulated accuracy of the
survey.
Clients have the prerogative to stipulate specifications other than those specified in this manual. In these
circumstances, the contract specifications shall prevail over the specifications stipulated in these directives.
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Where no survey specifications are stipulated by a client, the Accredited Surveyor shall adopt or derive a
method of survey that produces results complying with the required accuracy as stipulated in this manual.
(a) Registered surveyor shall maintain proper field records for inspection whenever required;
(b) All entries in survey record are to be made in ink. Inking over entries and transcribing from other
records are expressly forbidden;
(c) Every incorrect entry shall be cancelled by one horizontal stroke through all figures which shall remain
legible after the cancellation;
(d) The corrected entry shall be written in full above the cancelled entry; no figure shall be altered, erased
or obliterated;
(e) Electronic data logger may be used in the survey. Registered Surveyor shall ensure that all electronic
data are properly documented and archived.
(a) Areas of lots and plots shall be computed using any method to the nearest tenth of a square meter (0.1
sq.m.);
(b) Scaled areas shall be entered to the nearest square meter and distinguished by the abbreviation “Sc.”
after the areas.
(c) For provisional areas and boundaries, a note “Areas, boundaries and dimensions shown hereon are
provisional and subject to alteration on final survey.” shall be entered on all the survey plans, sketches
and computation sheets;
(d) Pre-computation for setting-out purpose shall follow the design layout plans or other approved
drawings;
(e) Salient locations shall be coordinated and pre-computed dimensions of clearance shall be reflected on
pre-computation plans.
The following information shall be included in the preparation of setting out plans:
(i) Boundary stones, nails, spikes, cut-marks, etc., which demarcates the property boundaries and
their reference number.
(ii) Lot boundary and lot numbers.
(iii) Field traverse and control stations with coordinates shall be indicated.
(iv) Bench marks and their reduced levels.
(v) Pegs or reference points established on site.
(vi) Grid lines.
(i) Field traverse and control stations with coordinates shall be indicated.
(ii) Bench marks and their reduced levels.
(iii) IP (Intersection of tangent), BC (Beginning of Curve) and EC (End of Curve) with horizontal
curve properties and coordinates shall be indicated.
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(iv) Vertical lay-out plan indicating Station distances, elevations and vertical curve properties.
All plans, field records, reports, data sheet, equipment calibration records, etc., shall be certified by the
Accredited Surveyor/Surveying Company.
(a) Angle and bearing measurements shall be observed, checked and recorded to the specified accuracy
of the instrument.
(b) An independent observation from another station shall be included for checks on accuracy.
(c) Always practice check horizontal angle at IPs or geodetic control stations whose distance should not
be more than the distance by substance from the back sight station.
(e) Digital levels should be configured so as to allow repeat observations, with the standard deviation
after five observations to be maintained at 0.001m or less.
(f) For GNSS setting out, a repeat observation at the set-out point is to be taken later after a minimum of
30 minutes and/or counter check distance measurements among each points.
(g) For setting of curves, the crown distance – the maximum separation between an arc and the
corresponding chord – should be not more than 0.2 m (see Figure 5.1)
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Crown Distance
δ = R(1-cos δ)
A R
δ
R
The principle of accuracy acceptance criteria for control points and setting out points has been established in
BS 5964 “Building setting out and measurement” which is accepted internationally. The criteria specified are
in terms of relative rather than absolute accuracies and are given as Permitted Deviation (PD) for distances,
bearings, angles and levels, as shown in Tables 5.1 & 5.2
There are many setting out tasks in construction activities and it is not possible to classify them all. Broadly,
setting out surveys are classified into four categories:-
(i) Category 1 – structure
(ii) Category 2 – roadworks
(iii) Category 3 – sub-structure works
(iv) Category 4 – earthworks
The acceptance criteria quoted relate to distances, angles and levels and apply whether they are measured
from a higher-order point or between two points in the same category. The differences between the calculated
and observed distances, angles and levels should not exceed the following PDs:
Table 5.1: Permitted Deviations for Horizontal and Vertical Setting Out Survey
Distance (mm) ± ( 1.5 √L1) ± ( 5.0 √L1) ± ( 7.5 √L1) ± ( 10.0 √L1)
Angle (degree) ± (0.09 ÷ √L2) ± (0.15 ÷ √L2) ± (0.20 ÷ √L2) ± (0.30 ÷ √L2)
Height Difference (mm) ±3 ±5 ± 20 ± 30
where L1 is the distance, in meters, between the points concerned and L2 is the shorter of the two distances
defining the angle.
(b) Verticality
(i) The accuracy criteria here relate to all plumbing operation whether column and shutter
alignment or the vertical transfer of second-stage setting out between floors of high-rise
building;
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(ii) When comparing measured plumb points with the true plumb the differences shall not exceed
the following PDs:
PD (mm)
Heights up to 4m ±3
where H is the vertical distance in meters from the bottom reference point to the upper reference point.
Survey equipment used and control points established for construction survey must conform to the criteria of
the relevant survey control specification as stipulated in Chapter 1 on Control Survey.
Level grids are normally observed at between 20 m and 50 m intervals, and levels observed to the nearest
centimeter. Each one hundred meter point to be set out by measurement, but intermediate points can be
paced as long as the terrain is flat. Schemes are normally plotted at a scale ranging from 1:200 to 1:1000.
R.O.W. centerline levels are to be observed to the nearest centimeter and normally taken at an interval of 20
m plus any abrupt changes of slope. If IP coordinates are available the IP's are to be set out by bearing and
distance.
Cross sections are normally observed at between 20 m and 50 m intervals whilst levels are to be observed to
the nearest centimeter. The points that require leveling will be stipulated with each job.
Profiles will normally be spaced at between 20 m and 50 m intervals, and for roads will be placed on the edge
of the R.O.W. Normally profile crosspieces will be set at 1 m above the level of the proposed earthworks. On
occasions this dimension will be reduced to allow for thickness of the road wearing course.
Engineering Information System Section, PWA has two main areas of responsibility which are enumerated
below.
The primary responsibility of this section is to execute requests for survey work emanating from the various
departments in the Ministry of Public Works, and any other Government departments. The majority of the
work originates from PWA (Ashghal). Jobs are varied and range from site surveys to profiling for earthworks
These are presented to the section to assess if any survey control will be affected by proposed road schemes.
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All contractors must consult the Public Works Authority, or similar authority, prior to any construction works to
determine if the work is likely to disturb Geodetic Control Survey Monuments. If CGIS require a Geodetic
Control Survey Monument (GCSM) to be moved the Contractor will be responsible for recreating the survey
mark to an approved design and specification as stated in Volume 1 on Control survey.
The Contractor shall be responsible for the protection of the GCSM, within the boundaries of the site, for the
duration of the contract period, and shall be liable for all costs of any remedial work required by the CGIS.
On the practical completion of works the CGIS will issue a certificate stating that all GCSM, whether disturbed
or otherwise, by the contractor have been reinstated or protected to the satisfaction of the CGIS.
In the event of failure to comply with the requirements of this Clause, the Government, without prejudice to
any other method of recovery, may deduct the costs of any remedial work after the practical completion date,
carried out by CGIS from any monies in its hands due or which may become due to the Contractor.
(a) Geodetic Control Survey Monuments (GCSM) of durable quality is depicted in Chapter 1 of the Survey
Manual on Control Survey;
(b) Wooden pegs of suitable length and cross-section shall be used to mark setting out points;
(c) Reference pegs shall be established for the baseline and all intersection points;
(d) Survey stakes, batter boards and other devices shall be of such configuration and dimensions as to
completely fulfill their function with respect to precision requirements and period of use
Before any form of construction can begin, a preliminary survey is required and a contoured plan of the area
at a suitable scale (usually 1:500 or larger) showing all the existing detail is produced. This plan is known as
site plan.
The engineer takes this site plan and uses it for design of the project. The proposed scheme is drawn on the
site plan and this becomes the layout or working drawings. All relevant dimensions are shown on these and a
set of documents giving technical details about the project is included. These form part of the scheme when it
is put out to tender. The contractor who is awarded the project will be given these drawings.
The contractor uses these layout drawings to decide on the location of the horizontal and vertical control
points in the area from which the project is to be set out. A setting out plan will be computed and drafted to
facilitate the subsequent setting out work.
As work proceeds, it may be necessary to make amendments to the original design to overcome unforeseen
site problems. Any such alterations are recorded on a copy of the working drawings. This copy becomes the
latest amended drawing and should be carefully filed for easy access. It is essential that the latest version of
any drawing is always used, particularly if setting out operations are undertaken. It is also important to keep
the drawings which show the earlier amendments; they may be needed to resolve a dispute or for costing
purpose.
Upon the completion of the project, a detail survey is carried out to document the built structure to produce the
as-built drawing.
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References
2. BS 5964: Part 1 (ISO 4463-1), Building setting out and measurement, British Standard Institution, London.
3. BS 5964: Part 2 (ISO 4463-2), Building setting out and measurement, British Standard Institution, London.
4. BS 7334-1 (ISO 8322-1), Measuring instruments for building construction – Methods for determining
accuracy in use: theory, British Standard Institution, London.
5. BS 7334-2 (ISO 8322-2), Measuring instruments for building construction – Methods for determining
accuracy in use: measuring tapes, British Standard Institution, London.
6. BS 7334-3 (ISO 8322-3), Measuring instruments for building construction – Methods for determining
accuracy in use: optical leveling instruments, British Standard Institution, London.
7. BS 7334-4 (ISO 8322-4), Measuring instruments for building construction – Methods for determining
accuracy in use of theodolites, British Standard Institution, London.
8. BS 7334-5 (ISO 8322-5), Measuring instruments for building construction – Methods for determining
accuracy in use of optical plumbing instruments, British Standard Institution, London.
9. BS 7334-6 (ISO 8322-6), Measuring instruments for building construction – Methods for determining
accuracy in use of laser instruments, British Standard Institution, London.
10. BS 7334-7 (ISO 8322-7), Measuring instruments for building construction – Methods for determining
accuracy in use of instruments when used for setting out, British Standard Institution, London.
11. BS 7334-8 (ISO 8322-8), Measuring instruments for building construction - Methods for determining
accuracy in use of electronic distance-measuring instruments up to 150 m, British Standard Institution,
London.
12. ICE design and practice guides – The management of setting out in construction, Institution of Civil
Engineers and Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors, London.
13. U.S. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards: Part 4, Standard
for A/E/C and Facility Management (Public Review Draft).
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Appendix 5A
The range of instrumentation available to the surveyor today is far greater than it used to be. Choosing the
right survey equipment and knowing their accuracy is often not an easy task if the job is to be done at the
most economical cost and to satisfy specification. Electronic total station, level (optical or digital) will always
be used in setting out. But laser and GPS now give a new dimension in approaching non-cadastral task. BS
7334, 1992 Part 1 to 8 provide test procedures in determining and assessing the accuracy in the use of
measuring instruments in building construction industry, viz. measuring tape, optical leveling instrument,
theodolite, optical plumbing instrument, laser instrument, instrument used for setting out and electronic
distance-measuring instrument. In almost all instrument brochures, a DIN (Deutsches Institut für Normung)
standard 18723 is used. DIN is equivalent to the British Standard Institution (BSI). Following DIN 18723, the
test procedures lead to standard deviations for the measurements of the instruments. These are then quoted
in the instrument brochure, but often without stating whether they are ±1, ±2, ±2.5 or ±3 standard deviations.
The procedure in DIN is similar to those recommended in BS 7334: 1990.
For GPS equipment, there is no standard for calibration. All GPS manufacturers use the Federal Geodetic
Control Sub-committee (FGCC) network in Washington, DC, USA. This is currently the only one of its type in
the world and the tests are fully supervised. Another common method of testing GPS is the zero baseline test
in which two receivers are connected to a single antenna using a splitter cable.
Users who have no experience of accuracy determination may have difficulty in appreciating exactly what
accuracy can be expected from various surveying instruments when used in different activities. BS 5606:
1990 provides suitable accuracy in use figures for a number of these (see Table 5A.1). The figures given are
unlikely to be exceeded assuming that good practice is followed. The “Range of deviation” is based on 2.5
standard deviation, equivalent to 98.75% probability. The comment column in Table 5A.1 gives guidance on
good practice.
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Linear
EDM for general use ± 10 mm for distances over 30 m Accuracies of EDM vary, depending on
and up to 50 m make of instruments
± (10 mm + 10 ppm) for distances
greater than 50 m
Distances measured by EDM should
EDM for precise work ± (5 mm + 5 ppm) normally be greater than 30 m and
measured from both ends
Angular
Opto-mechanical ± 20” (± 5 mm in 50 m) Scale two-face readings estimated to 5”.
reading directly to 20”
Level
Spirit level ± 5 mm in 5 m Instrument not less than 750 mm long
Optical level – ± 3 mm per single site of up to 60 m If staff reading of less than 1 mm is required,
‘engineer’ class / ± 10 mm per km the use of a precise level incorporating a
parallel plate micrometer is essential but the
Optical level – ± 2 mm per single site of up to 60 m range per sight preferably should be about
‘precise’ class 15 m and should be not more than 20 m
/ ± 8 mm per km
Verticality
Spirit level ± 10 mm in 3 m For an instrument not less than 750 mm long
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BS 5606: 1990 provides no accuracy figures for GPS system. Table 5A.2 defines precision currently ascribed
to various GPS techniques. It is based on ± 2 SD, which is equivalent to 95.45% probability (1 chance in 22).
Table 5A.2: Survey Precision for GPS Techniques (95% Probability Level)
Precision
Hundreds
Static L1/L2 > 45 minutes – 24 hr ±(0.5 cm + 1 ppm) ±(1 cm + 1 ppm)
of km
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Qatar Survey Manual – Chapter 6 – Gravimetric Survey
6.1.0 Introduction
The aim of the gravity survey of Qatar is (in the context of the specifications) to produce a geoid whose heights
will enable the transformation of GPS-derived geometric heights (h) into orthometric heights (H). These H are
then used for engineering and surveying design. It is thus NOT intended for these gravity data to be of such
high resolution and precision that they will be useful for geophysical prospecting, or whose interpretation would
enable the detection of small-scale sub-surface features. The gravity field resulting from these survey methods
will, nevertheless, provide information on the medium (about 5-10km) to long wavelength features of the gravity
field and the larger sub-surface structures which produced them, as well as a geoid model to the required
precision.
a) Qatar95 Geoid Model. The model OSU91a (Rapp, 1991) was fitted to geometrically determined geoid-
ellipsoid separations N where N = hGPS - Hlevel. These separations were computed at 72 network
stations (7 stations were eliminated from the computations due to poor or unavailable spirit leveled
heights) and introduced as constraints into the final computation of the Qatar95 geoid model.
Subsequent analysis showed that the absolute accuracy of the geoid model is about 7 cm (95%
confidence level) and the relative accuracy of the geoid is about 2 ppm (see Chamberlain, 1995).
b) Bahrain-Qatar Causeway Project. In 2002 Forsberg and Schmidt (2002) performed a geoid analysis for
the Bahrain-Qatar Causeway project. In this study they identified the benign nature of the gravity field,
and hence the geoid, in the subject region. To quote from their report;
“Gravity values were tied to NIMA (DoD) reference gravity points in Bahrain, with reference gravity values given
in IGSN71. Raw gravity readings were processed and tares isolated using the KMS adjustment programme
-5
GRADJ, giving a set of absolute gravity values with an estimated accuracy of ±0.13 mGal (where 1 mGal = 10
2
m/s is the conventional unit for gravity).
Gravity measurements were done using KMS LaCoste and Romberg gravimeter G-867. The survey covered
Bahrain and north-western Qatar at a relatively modest spacing. The survey took place November 13-20, 2001,
with a total of 75 observations in 58 stations. Heights and positions of all points were determined by static GPS
(Forsberg and Schmidt, 2002, p.3).”
Further, their analysis revealed the nature of the geoid in the northern region of Qatar.
“The gravimetric geoid model was computed by spherical FFT and EGM96 in the region 24.5-27 N, 50-52.5 E.
The gravity field in the region was found to be extraordinarily smooth: for the 870 gravity points available the
mean and standard deviation was –40.5 and 7.8 mGal, respectively, dropping to –0.8 and 6.0 mGal after
reduction for EGM96” (ibid, p. 7). They also estimate that their geoid evaluation fitted the available GPS-Leveling
control to the order of +/- 20 mm. “
It is useful to have this understanding of the area before embarking upon the work of the gravity survey, as
this will influence the approach taken in both the field work and the reductions and computations. Apart from
the gravity survey mentioned in 6.1.1 (b) above, there appears to be little gravity publicly acknowledged, let
alone available, in Qatar. It therefore appears that the gravity survey has to be done from scratch, although it
is important to access such gravity data as is available and incorporate this into the planning for any future
gravity coverage. However, given the benign nature of the gravity field and geoid, and the low relief of the
topography, the problems introduced by topographic effects are minimized, and the need for a high density of
gravity observations is reduced.
Because of the problems associated with lack of gravity both off-shore (but see Section 6.3) and in the
country of Kuwait, it will be important for the purposes of the geoid solution for Qatar, to establish geometric
control where possible, both around the coast and along the Kuwaiti border.
Mention should also be made of the new very high resolution global model of the Earth’s geoid and gravity
field, EGM08 (expected release date April-May 2008), superseding EGM96 (Lemoine et al, 1998). It has a
resolution of about 5 arc minutes or 9 km, and is based upon the most recent gravity satellite missions and
terrestrially observed gravity. Only tests in the region will prove how well it models the gravity field in the
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region of Qatar, but it certainly should prove to be very valuable as the basis for any geoid computations in
Qatar.
6.1.2 Requirements for a Gravity Field for a New Geoid Model for Qatar
Given the nature of the topography of Qatar, the resolution of observed gravity stations to determine the
gravity field can probably be reduced from (say) 5 - 10km to 10 - 15km. However, this is predicated upon the
need to
(i) Establish the field off-shore, most likely by airborne techniques (see Section 6.3), and
(ii) Provide geometric control at the limits of the country. This can be done by GPS heighting at leveled
Bench Marks both along the Qatar-Kuwait border, and along the coast line.
(Ideally the gravity field of the neighboring country of Kuwait should also be used in the gravimetric
geoid evaluation. However there may be some difficulty either obtaining these data from Kuwait (if it
exists), or obtaining permission to fly into this country to measure it by airborne techniques. Hence,
there is a need in (ii) above to provide geoid control along the common border).
Once the gravity field of Qatar has been defined to the required resolution and precision, the geoid can be
computed gravimetrically by Stokes or some other acceptable technique. It can then be “fitted” to the
geometric control from (ii) above, which will help control the bias and tilt of the Qatar gravimetric geoid which
will occur because of deficiencies in the gravity field beyond its borders.
In the sections below, the methods and specifications for establishing the gravity field over Qatar are
described. In Section 6.2 Terrestrial techniques are summarized, while Section 3 concentrates upon airborne
techniques.
6.2.1 Introduction to Gravity Networks (Torge, 1980, Sec. 6.3; 1989, Sec 9.1)
In an approach very familiar to surveyors, gravity is propagated across the globe and into the local regions
“from the whole to the part”. We can classify these levels of gravity surveys as follows.
In this fundamental world-wide network of stations, relative gravity (“g”) is measured by 'batteries' of
gravimeters along lines across the globe connecting national gravity base stations to 10 absolute stations
(see, e.g., Torge, 1989, Fig., 9.1, pp 315 ff). These base stations then form the basis for all other gravity
networks around the regions of the globe. They are usually measured to better than ±0.03 mGal or ±30
microGal or µGal. They are akin to the First-Order Geodetic Stations of classical geodesy.
g is propagated through the regional network by observing gravity with two or three meters (to provide
independence), and these values are tied onto the IGSN'71 above by occupying at least one of the IGSN71
stations. This survey is to provide more stations of sufficient precision in accessible areas (usually airports) to
provide a datum for local surveys. An example of this would be the ISOGAL network in Australia. There is
one station in Qatar (020201, DUKHAN, N25.°39000 W50.°1667, 0.00 m above sea level, 978938100
microgal, ± 400 microgal (0.4 mGal) which could act as the gravity datum for gravity surveys in that country.
Access to surrounding countries may also be required for gravimeter calibration purposes – at least until a
national network is established.
It is therefore recommended that, before any detailed survey is commenced, a national network be
established using a battery of two to three relative gravimeters read to the highest precision, The stations of
this network (and their associated eccentric stations for recovery purposes) should be established, most
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practically, at the major airports or other centers at a spacing which will allow easy access for the more
detailed surveys which follow.
The detailed, local gravity survey is based upon the regional stations in (6.2.1.2). Their specifications vary
depending upon the purpose of the survey. For detailed geophysical work, the precision may be very high
(0.05 mGal) and the spacing small (10-50m). However, as noted in Section 6.1.2 above, for the purposes of
the Qatar geoid these specifications can be relaxed. Formal analyses show that, if we wish to match the
precision of GPS heighting (and thus recover orthometric heights from GPS without significant loss of
precision), the gravity field used in the geoid computation should be represented by mean values of 10x10 km
blocks with random errors of less than ± 0.3 mGal (Kearsley, 1986). While this specification may seem rather
generous, it is difficult to achieve in mountainous areas; in the region of Qatar however, given the benign
nature of the topography, it should be quite easy to achieve given sufficient density of point observations. A
spacing of observed points of 10 to 15 km should be sufficient to achieve the desired precision. The meter
should be read to the least count of the dial or readout to allow highest precision, and heights of gravity
stations established to 0.2 m (≡ 0.06 mGal).
Taking as an example the Australian National Gravity Network (ANGN), the first generation network had an
average spacing of 1 point every 11 km; and point observations had σg = ±0.3 mGal; σH = ±4-6 m
(Barometric) σΦ,λ = ±200 m. This network was observed well before the advent of GPS.
By using kinematic/rapid-static GPS to locate the gravity station in three dimensions, σH, σΦ and σλ are
easily recoverable to ±0.2 m, σH providing the geoid-ellipsoid separation N is known to that precision or
better. (A first approximation of N is needed to transform the h from GPS to the H at the observation point, to
enable the reduction of the observed gravity to a common equipotential reference surface).
The gravity survey performed in support of the Bahrain-Qatar Causeway project (Forsberg and Schmidt,
2002) used this approach, and the results are available in that publication. Currently this appears to be the
main source of gravity data on public record.
Note that the International Gravity Bureau (IGB), which operates under the auspices of the International
Association of Geodesy, acts as a repository for gravity data from many different sources for the whole world.
It collects data from (for example) national geodetic and geophysical authorities, validates this data (see
Section 6.2.4.3), and then distributes this data to authorized users. However there is very little data for Qatar
held by this bureau in their data base, so clearly the field has to be established from scratch (see Figure 6.1).
Another major and valuable source of data worth investigating is the US National Geospatial Intelligence
Agency or NGA (formerly National Imagery and Mapping Agency - NIMA) http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/ or
http://164.214.2.59/GandG/.
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6.2.2 Instrumentation
The instruments to measure absolute values of gravity are rather bulky and very sensitive. Their operation is
usually restricted to stable environments, such as laboratories, and as such is generally unsuitable for field
observations. Even so, some models have become smaller over the last decade or so, making them more
portable (see for example, the LaCoste Microgal-G A10 meter). Absolute gravimeters are critically important
in setting up the global network however, and in many other geophysical and global geodetic studies
requiring the highest accuracy. They provide scale for the network, as the calibration of the relative
gravimeters depends upon the values of changes in g between stations for calibration.
Historically, different models have used springs, pendulums and falling bodies (the most common used
technique currently); a precision of o{10-9} of "g" or 1 microGal is attainable with the latter.
As for any field equipment, we want the gravimeter to be sensitive, rugged, reliable and, for the
gravimeter, precise to better than 0.05 mGal or 50 microGal, day after day. The measurement technique is
obviously instrument dependent, and the manuals supplied with the instruments comprehensively describe
their use. For web sites detailing the observing techniques see also
http://cires.colorado.edu/people/sheehan.anne/gravhowto.html.
For elements of the Lacoste & Romberg, Scintrex and the older Worden gravimeters, see Nettleton (1976, p.
37), Dobrin, (1960, pp. 214-215), and Torge (1989, pp. 232-234; 237-241), as well as the relevant web sites,
e.g., for LaCoste & Romberg (http://www.microglacoste.com/relativemeters.htm), and for the Scintrex
(http://www.scintrexltd.com/gravity.html).
Some general comments relating to field procedures follow.
We need to compensate for changes during measurement in ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure and
the magnetic field to ensure that any variations we measure are solely as a result of changes in the
gravitational attraction, and not these other possible sources which may influence the reading of the meter.
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* Ambient temperature: This can be minimized, if not eliminated, by enclosing the element in small
temperature-controlled oven; by designing temperature compensation into the element; and by placing
the element in a vacuum-sealed chamber.
* Air or atmospheric pressure: Again variations in pressure are controlled by enclosing the element in
sealed chamber or cell; and by varying the buoyancy of cell as the air density varies.
* Magnetic field: Variations in the magnetic field are minimized by using non-magnetic alloys or materials
for the springs used in the element.
Calibration Procedures
The (relative) gravimeter senses the changes in gravity between successive points, and registers these
changes with dial readings. The dial units then have to be calibrated so that they can be converted into units
of gravity, usually expressed in Gravimetric Geodesy as milliGal (mGal, where 1 mGal = 10-5 ms-2).
The gravimeter is usually supplied with a calibration factor quoted by the manufacturer, but it is always good
practice to check (and to keep checking) this factor. To calibrate the gravimeter, dial readings are taken
between (at least) two known and well established gravity stations (e.g. in the National or Regional network,
see 2.1.2 above). Knowing the difference in gravity between these points, and the difference in dial readings,
it is possible to compute the relationship between the two by simple division. Typically, the calibration of the
meter is about 0.1 mGal per dial division.
In Qatar there will be some difficulty finding two well established gravity stations of sufficient precision, and
these will have to be established before proceeding with the man survey.
See also http://www.gravitymeter-repair.com/images/gdmanual.pdf
Before commencing the field operation, the meter must be carefully checked, as specified by the Manual
specific to the instrument. The general description of the approach to the field survey follows, and is based
upon Dobrin (1960, pp. 218-227); Torge (1989, Sec. 9.2).
The gravity survey requires the care and precision which comes from long experience and in the first instance
should only be entrusted to a party with a proven track record. They can then train technicians in the field
techniques required, and achieve the transfer of technology by this mentoring process.
Planning: An important consideration is the location and spacing of stations alluded to above (Section
6.2.1.3). For example, the reconnaissance surveys for oil-bearing structures with station spacing of about 10
km (e.g. the ANGN) have been invaluable in providing data for gravimetric geoid computations.
If possible, all GPS and Leveled bench marks in the control survey of Qatar are included in the gravity survey,
some, where possible, as the base or pivotal stations for the gravity survey. Presumably these stations are
well and permanently marked and are easily accessible, and they will be used as geometric control for the
gravimetric geoid which will result from the gravity survey.
Positioning is a major item in the budget of most gravity parties. A precision of at least 0.3 m (equivalent to
0.1 mGal in the reduced gravity) is wanted in final station elevation. Rapid-static GPS, spirit leveling, or an
EDM leveling traverse (if distances are short) are options. Barometric leveling is not likely to produce the
desired precision. Absolute location only needed to nearest 30 m (≡ 0.03 mGal) for the computation of normal
gravity to the required precision.)
If conventional survey techniques are adopted for the position fixing, the field survey party operates about 2-3
days ahead of gravity party, but in a GPS/GNSS environment, it is possible (and usual) for geopositioning and
gravimetry to proceed simultaneously.
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The gravimeter is transported by helicopter, vehicle or even by back-pack. For the calibration of the meter
and to control its drift it is important to start and finish a gravity traverse on stations of known gravity (cf.
Section 6.2.1.2).
To control the drift of the element of the gravimeter, it is common to revisit stations, i.e. to take repeat
readings at different times, to track the behaviour of the meter’s element with time.
A number of different patterns can be used to carry out the repeat readings.
a) The Grid pattern. For the grid below the measurement routine may be to measure in turn the stations
∆1, a1; ∆1, a1, a2; a1, a2, a3; a2, a3, a4; a3, a4, a5, a4, a5, b5; b5, b4, b3; ...
... d2, d3, d4; d4, d5, ∆2; d5, ∆2.
1 2 3 4 5
a + + + + +
b + + + + + ∆2
∆1 c + + + + +
d + + + + +
b) The Star pattern. In this approach four stations are located roughly on the corners of a square, about 15
km by 15 km. A station approximately central to this square is defined, and it becomes the pivotal point for
the survey. Taking the above grid as the example, the point b2 is first observed, then, in turn, a1, b2, c3, b2,
a3, b2, c1, b2, In this routine we have constant check upon the drift of the meter (and the tidal signal) at the
repeat observations at b2. We then move onto the next block of points, and observe (e.g.) b4, a3, b4, c3, b4,
a5, b4, c5. Again, b4 is the pivot, and enables drift to be controlled, while points a3 and c3 are now re-
observed to provide a check against error.
The region is covered by this pattern and the whole set adjusted by least squares analysis to obtain the
optimum values for all observations.
c) For many geodetic and geoid purposes it will not be necessary to achieve such a high level of
redundancy. Check stations may only be needed every third or fourth station, providing a significant saving to
the field costs. Clearly the gravity survey for the Bahrain Qatar Causeway project was performed along these
lines, as 58 stations were established from 75 observations. It is very important to start and finish the survey
on established gravity stations.
GRAVITY and TIME - for the gravity component of the survey, and POSITION and HEIGHT - for the
positional component of the survey. The field note recording (whether manual or digital) must be
constructed to reflect these requirements – to the specifications mentioned above.
Before detailing the reduction procedure, it is necessary to appreciate the phenomena which will influence our
gravity readings.
’g’ is modeled by normal or model gravity ‘γ' using an ellipsoid of given mass - M, semi-major axis - a,
flattening - f, and rotational velocity - ω to produce 'normal' gravity γ (Torge, 1980, pp. 60-62).
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where γ is in mGal
(a) Tidal effect: This is well modeled by conventional Earth Tide Models, and the effect is removed from the
observed value
(b) Gravimeter element ‘drift’: We adopt an observational procedure to determine drift so that this can also be
removed (see Section 6.2.3).
The tidal effect also registered in our measurements, and can be modeled out of the observations, so drift is
only established once the tidal effect is removed
Gravity decreases with increase in height. We aim to compare g at a common elevation (say, at mean sea
level. For this we need the "free air gradient" of g, to get the free air correction - cFA
... (2)
The "gravity anomaly" used in Physical Geodesy is the difference between the gravity on the geoid (g0) and
the normal gravity (γγ) at the equivalent point on the ellipsoidal model. Obviously gravity is not measured on
the geoid but at ground level, so g0 is approximated by finding the amount by which the gravity signal on the
geoid has been weakened by moving the distance "H" above to geoid to the ground surface. The gravity on
the geoid (g0) is approximated by
where g is the observed gravity, dg/dH the gradient of the gravity, and H the height above the geoid.
Thus, the “gravity anomaly” we are trying to establish is approximated by the free air anomaly
... (3)
where, to the first order (and, given the elevation limits in Qatar, this is sufficient
… (4)
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This correction attempts to eliminate the attraction of matter between the observed point and the reference
elevation (which is usually mean sea level, approximating the geoid). Assuming a thickness (height) 'H' and
density ρ the effect for an infinite slab of matter above the geoid is
... (5)
for H in m, ρ = 2.67 gm/cm3
CFA and CB can be combined to give a combined correction to account for both the height of the
observed point above the reference surface, and the attraction of matter between this reference surface and
the observation point.
… (6)
This applies a correction for departures of the terrain from the parallel-sided, infinite slab assumed in (iv).
However, because of the very benign nature of the topography in Qatar, this correction is not relevant.
As mentioned above, the free-air anomaly is most important and useful to the geodesist as it better
approximates the gravity signal at the geoid after the normal gravity has been removed, but assumes that
matter is still present between the geoid and the surface (Torge, 1980, pp. 161-2).
The Bouguer anomaly (simple or complete) can be useful in the interpolation of the gravity signal from
discrete, sparsely observed points to furnish a more continuous field, as it is (at least theoretically) less
dependent upon changes in topography than is the free air anomaly.
g is computed from the gravimeter display or dial readings and stored, with its position, height and other
relevant data, in computer-readable form. This information will now be used to produce gravity maps. The
geodesist will derive free air anomalies for geoid evaluations, and the geophysicist will compute Bouguer
anomalies to 'interpret' the field and thus see if there are any geological features worthy of further
investigation.
There are a number of possible sources of error in the free air anomaly - as one would expect from the
measurement and reduction process.
These include errors in: reading the gravimeter's dial (if not automatically recorded),
establishing the height of the gravimeter,
establishing the location of the gravimeter,
and, of course, simple blunders in the observations or data processing.
Error in Height
With GPS, it should be possible to establish an orthometric height to better than ± 1m, with the main
component of error coming from the geoid height (assuming the N is computed from the global geopotential
model). This 1 m error introduces an error of about ± 0.3 mGal into ∆gFA. Pre-GPS the fastest way to
measure a point height value was barometrically; this may have had a precision of only ± 5 m. Such an error
would introduce an error of about ± 1.5 mGal into the point value of ∆gFA.
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Error in Position
An error in the latitude (φ) of 3" (≅100m) at a gravity station produces an error of 0.1 mGal in the normal
gravity γ. Obviously, the error in position is not critical, and φ can be established to sufficient precision by
scaling from a medium scale map. If GPS is used, care must be taken to ensure that the positions derived
are transformed into the geodetic datum used for the gravity data base. However, it is now common practice
to transform all data bases into the geocentric WGS'84 datum, so that all data resides on a common global
geodetic datum. This precision of the latitude from GPS eliminates any error.
The calibration constant of a (Worden-type) gravimeter is typically 0.1 mGal per dial unit. An error of 1 dial
unit will therefore produce an error of 0.1 mGal, which is small, compared with the error coming from the
height. With the advent of automatic reading and recording of gravimeters, errors in reading the dial have
been eliminated.
Blunders
By far the biggest problem with the data is a blunder, and it is sometimes the hardest to detect. The three
sources of error listed above, if small and random, will not adversely affect the general representation of the
gravity field, or map as significant errors into the resulting geoid height. However, blunders can introduce
large errors into the geoid evaluation.
The types of errors which can be classified as blunders include
gross errors in booking a measurement;
quoting the height in the wrong units
gross errors in location (φ, λ or H).
To detect blunders before they are accepted into the data base and used in the computation of the geoid, the
data must be validated. The main purpose of data validation is to produce a "clean" data base - that is one
free from any gross errors or blunders.
The most effective way to check for gross errors in the gravity data base is to map (contour) the gravity field.
In theory the smoothest field is produced by the Bouguer anomaly (Section 6.2.4.1, Eq. 6). If the Bouguer
anomaly field displays any unexpected features, such as spikes or sinks of data, the point(s) producing this
feature must be identified, checked and, if necessary, deleted from the data base. The edited file is now
replotted, and the new contour map again analyzed for departures from the expected smooth field. The
process continues until you are satisfied that no gross errors remain in the data set.
There are a few software packages that are capable of contouring from random data. Experience shows that
SURFER, Vs. 4, is useful in the editing process (Pearse, 1995). The Bureau Gravimetrique Internationale
(Toulouse) has a very powerful package that allows interactive editing, but requires much more computer
power that does SURFER.
(iii) Identify 'unusual' features in (ii), e. g. abrupt changes in slope -> spikes & sinks
(iv) 'Zoom in' on the area of this feature. This may require windowing the original data
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(v) Identify data producing the feature(s) and check observed gravity and height against (a) adjacent data
(for gravity); (b) map (for height)
(vii) Repeat steps (i) to (vi) until all suspect points are eliminated.
The object of the gravity survey is to establish the gravity field in order to compute a gravimetric geoid for
Qatar. There are various geoid computation packages available for this purpose, and they are based either
upon a deterministic solution via Stokes’ integral using fast Fourier transforms or Ring Integration (Higgins et
al., 1998), or a stochastic approach using least squares collocation. In either case the fundamental data
required will be:
ID number,
latitude, longitude, (usually in decimal degrees)
gravity (in mGal) and
height (m).
The format of each record is software dependent, and some approaches may also allow extra information
(such as the precision of the gravity and height values).
Airborne gravimetry, that is measuring the Earth’s gravity field by placing a gravimeter on a moving platform at
altitude, is a fast and efficient way to survey certain areas. This is especially so for areas with difficult access
due to rugged terrain or lack of roads, or off-shore coastal zones where it is neither possible nor feasible to
measure by terrestrial or marine methods. A specially modified gravimeter is placed on board an aircraft and
the total gravitational accelerations are sensed by this meter. By tracking the motion of the aircraft with
precise navigation the non-gravitational forces are modeled out of this signal, and the gravity recovered – to
the order of ±1 to 3 mGal at a resolution of 6 to 8 km. (±1 to 2 mGal should be easily achieved in an area with
benign terrain or in the offshore coastal zone, assuming the flights take place under good weather conditions.
±2 to 3 mGal would apply in mountainous areas and or if flying under non-optimal weather conditions).
In the country of Qatar, Airborne Gravimetry has great potential for determining the gravity field both
(ii) in the off-shore coastal fringe where marine and satellite techniques are not feasible. As a first
approximation this coverage may extend to 50 km off-shore.
The optimum approach will be to combine the on- and off-shore airborne campaigns into a single data set,
and decrease the density of the terrestrial observations specified in Section 6.2.1.3, and use the terrestrial
data to provide ground truth control for the on-shore airborne data.
Aircraft: The aircraft is typically a single or twin engine craft with a cabin profile suited to geophysical
surveys, i.e. one which enables the mounting of the equipment and has the capacity to supply the power to
operate all the necessary instruments without interfering with the aircraft’s flight systems. It should also be
equipped with an Autopilot and an altimeter.
Single engine craft like Cessna Grand Caravan are widely used with good results for airborne gravimetry. It
operates at a lower cost than twin engine aircraft. However, twin engine planes provide better safety, which
could be crucial for flying over cold oceans, but this will not be a factor over the region of Qatar.
Gravimeter: Typically the gravimeter is a marine gravimeter LaCoste & Romberg air/sea gravimeter; see
http://www.scintrexltd.com/gravity.html, modified for airborne use (Forsberg (1999). The meter sensors are
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mounted on pressurized vibration dampers and placed inside a floor-mounted aluminium box near the center
of gravity of the aircraft. Today the Russian GT1-A gravimeter is also widely used; it has a 3-axis Schuler
tuned platform and logs data at 18 Hz, (see http://www.canadianmicrogravity.com/).
Inertial Navigation System: Roll, pitch and heading can be determined by a strap down inertial sensor
unit (INS), and the data digitized internally at up to 256 Hz, with records averaged measurements at 18 Hz.
(NB. INS is not strictly needed in smaller aircraft where the horizontal offset between GPS antenna and
gravimeter is modest). This time-tagged data is then logged.
GPS: The GPS antenna for determining the aircraft and gravimeter’s position and velocity is located on top
of fuselage, preferable close to the gravimeter.
The all-important Data Logger is normally a reliable laptop with large capacity, suitably connected to the
various sensors. The GPS and INS signals are recorded at a similar frequency, with all signals synchronized
by GPS time.
Ground Support GPS Base Stations: There should be at least one GPS reference receiver operating at or
near the airport. Redundancy is recommended; for example, for baselines longer than a few hundred
kilometers it is advisable to operate additional base stations in or near the survey area.
Airfield: A gravity base station is established at the airfield, on the tarmac directly below the gravimeter’s
position in the aircraft where the aircraft is normally parked. Gravity at the airborne sensor is then established
by upward continuation from the base station, so the height difference between the base station and the
airborne sensor must be determined; a precision of about 0.3 m (0.1 mGal) is sufficient. Airborne gravity
observations are based upon the ground gravity by measuring the “airborne” meter while the aircraft is parked
near the base station. Importantly, this is done both before and after the flight.
Aircraft: The plane is flown at either a constant flying height of about 1000 feet or more above ground at a
speed of around 120 to 130 knots, or as a very gentle draped flight (depending upon the ground topography)
in order to minimize motion induced accelerations. In deciding the optimal altitude it is important to realize
that the gravity variations, as mapped by airborne gravity, changes very little with altitude due to the heavy
low-pass filtering applied to the final data. It is therefore often preferable to choose an altitude higher than
1000 ft in order to avoid turbulence. By this means the gravimeter senses basically the same signal but less
noise. The gravimeter meter is recorded on the data logger at 1 Hz.
The GPS data is processed via the proprietary software relevant to the receivers and the GPS techniques
used. The data are validated using a few objective criteria, for example:
2) The PDOP or Percent Dilution of Position – a measure of the geometrical strength of the GPS satellite
configuration should be below 4, while 4 to 8 should give acceptable accuracy. A PDOP greater than 8
gives poor accuracy, and this data output should be used with caution.
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Filtering: A standard filter is applied to the raw data. One such filter comprises a six-fold cascaded second
order Butterworth filter implemented sequential in the time domain, and is applied both forward and backward
to avoid phase lag. The half-transmission point is 0.005 Hz which corresponds to a spatial resolution of
around 6 km, for a ground speed of 120 knots or 60 m/s for the aircraft. For greater speeds and altitudes the
resolution is adjusted as required.
Validation: As for the terrestrial gravity, the quickest means of validation is to draw up a contour plot of the
free air anomalies derived from the airborne solution, and this is inspected for unusual features. The values at
the cross over points enable at least two independent checks of gravity at these locations. Where marine or
terrestrial gravity exists it is possible to compare this data, upward continued, with the airborne values at the
same locations, although this often shows up problems with the so-called “control” data than gives any real
indication of errors in the airborne solution.
When validated the flight level gravity is downward continued to the geoid, and merged with the terrestrially
observed data to form the full gravity data set for the region. This is now ready for processing through geoid
computation software.
Airborne gravimetry is a highly technical and sophisticated technique, and it strongly advised for this survey to
engage the services of an operator experienced in this field, preferably one which has also had experience in
geoid evaluation, and thus has a good appreciation of its unique requirements.
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References
Dobrin, Milton B., 1976, Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting, (2nd Ed.), Mc-Graw-Hill, New York
Forsberg, René and Schmidt, K., 2002, Geoid and Height Datum for the Qatar-Bahrain Causeway Project,
nd
Report prepared for COWI, 2 revision.
Forsberg, René, Olesen, A. and Keller, K., 1999, Airborne Gravity Survey of the North Greenland Shelf 1998,
Technical Report # 10, Kort and Matrikelstyrelesen, Copenhagen.
Heiskanen, W. and Moritz, H., (1967) Physical Geodesy, W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco.
Higgins, M. B., Forsberg, R., and Kearsley, A. H. W., (1998), The effect of varying cap sizes on geoid
computations - experiences with FFT’s and ring integration, in “Geodesy on the move”, (IAG Symposia, Vol.
119), ed Forsberg, R., Feissel, M, and Dietrich, R., Springer, Hannover
Kearsley, A.H.W., (1986) Data requirements for determining precise relative geoid heights from gravimetry,
Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 91, No. B9, pp 9193-9201.
Kearsley, A.H.W., (1988b) Tests on the recovery of precise geoid height differences from gravimetry, Journal
of Geophysical Research, Vol. 93, No. B6, June 10, pp 6559-6570.
,
Kearsley A. H. W., Forsberg, Rene, Olesen, Arne, Bastos, L., Hehl, K., Meyer, U., Gidskehaug, A., 1998,
Airborne gravimetry used in precise geoid computations by ring integration, j Geod., Vol. 72, No. 10, Oct.,
1998, pp. 600 – 605.
LaCoste and Romberg land gravimeter (http://www.microglacoste.com/relativemeters.htm)
Morelli, C., Gantar, C., Honkaslo, T., McConnel, R.K., Tanner, T.G., Szabo B., Uotila, U., and Whalen, C.T.
(1971) The International Gravity Standardisation Network (IGSN71), International Association of Geodesy,
publication speciale no.4 du Bulletin Geodesique.
Nettleton, L. L., 1940, Geophysical Prospecting for Oil”, 1940, McGraw Hill, New York
Nettleton, L. L., 1976, Gravity and Magnetics in Oil Prospecting”, 1976, McGraw Hill, New York
Rapp, R.H., Wang, Y.M. and Pavlis, N.K. (1991) The Ohio State 1991 geopotential and sea surface
topography harmonic coefficient models, Report No. 410, Department of Geodetic Science and Surveying,
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
Scintrex (http://www.scintrexltd.com/gravity.html)
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Vanicek, P. and Krakiwsky, E., (1986) Geodesy, The Concepts. 2nd ed., Elsevier Science Publishers.
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Abbreviations
3D 3 Dimension
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7.1.1 General
These specifications supersede all previous documentation pertaining to Aerial Photography, Aerial
Triangulation, Digital Image Mapping, Satellite Image Mapping, Digital Vector Mapping, Digital Elevation
Model & 3D Model, to be used in support of the production of Digital Orthoimagery, Vector, DEM, 3D City
Model or Photogrammetrically compiled products of National Mapping Project for the CGIS.
The CGIS shall be the final authority on the acceptance or rejection of photographic imagery acquired under
these specifications.
The Mapping Accuracy Standards adopted is based on the ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale
Maps. Table 7.1 below shows some typical reference scale and its related accuracy and resolution:
Table 7.1
The positional accuracy is based on ASPRS Accuracy Standard for Large Scale Mapping. The contour
interval is based on normal values widely adopted. RMS elevation is 1/3 contour interval as defined in
ASPRS accuracy standard. Pixel size is computed based on 100 dots/cm (254 dots/in) to 50 dots/cm (127
dots/in).
In the above Table 7.1, one may find a discrepancy in that elevation accuracy is less than positional accuracy.
This is due to the normal choice of the contour in the industry. CGIS may elect to lower the elevation
accuracy to match the positional accuracy, in which case, the contour interval should also be relaxed; e.g.
0.75m for 1:1000 mapping.
The best available specifications should be followed at the time of execution and production of any scale of
aerial photography and mapping; unless and otherwise discussed and approved by the CGIS, if needed.
Compilation will be specified under one of the following classifications. Unless otherwise specified, the
nominal photo GSD will be employed.
Table 7.2
Nominal Photo
Project Ground Estimated Digital Map Reference Map
Classification Sampling Dist Flying Height GSD Scale
(GSD)
Whole Country
50 cm or smaller 5,000m 0.5m 1:10,000
Mapping
The CGIS may elect to modify these specifications to suit circumstances specific to individual projects.
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The mapping shall be cast on the Qatar National Grid (QNG), which is a Transverse Mercator Projection with
the following parameters:
Table 7.3
The vertical datum is the Qatar National Datum (QND) which is defined by mean sea level at Doha as
measured during the period 1970-1972. This datum is referenced to two fundamental benchmarks at Doha
Port and at Doha International Airport.
For vector mapping, the whole county or city shall be managed as one seamless continuous map.
For raster mapping (e.g. orthophotomap), the project area will be defined by tiles, also referred to as map
“sheets”. Tiles are rectangular, with dimensions identified by the following Table 7.4:
Table 7.4
North - South
Project Classification East – West Dimension
Dimension
Large Scale 1,000m 500m
Small Scale 10,000m 5,000m
A specific tile is uniquely identifiable by using the east-west dimension of the tile, in combination with the tile’s
south west corner QNG coordinate. For large scale mapping, the east-west dimension (in meters) is divided
by 1,000 and is expressed as 3 digit character string (padded by zeros on the left). The easting and northing
of the south west corner are both expressed in hundreds of meters (i.e. the first 4 digits of the easting,
followed by the first 4 digits of the northing).
Tile Nomenclature
00122503985 500m
SW Tile Corner
Coordinates
225000mE 1000m
398500mN
Figure 7.1
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Tile Nomenclature
01023003800 5000m
01023003900
SW Tile Corner
Coordinates
230000mE 10000m
390000mN
Figure 7.2
If file size is too large for the file format or disk, the image data for the tile may be sub-divided into eight as
shown below:
N1 N2 N3 N4
S1 S2 S3 S4
Figure 7.3
Each of the sub-tiles carries the tile name plus the additional sub-tile designation as shown in the diagram –
N1, N2, S1, S2, etc. For the image data delivery, the tile name forms a directory, and the sub-tile designation
forms the filename. E.g. For bottom first 250m by 250m subtitle, the identifier shall be 01023003900S1.
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7.2.0 Manual and Specifications for Aerial Photography with Large Format Digital Camera
7.2.1 Background
In recent years, there have been major changes to mapping technologies. Softcopy digital photogrammetric
workstation (DPW) has totally replaced analog and analytical photogrammetric stereoplotters. In the data
acquisition front end, digital cameras are fast emerging to replace analog film cameras. In this document, the
emphasis will be on digital aerial photography.
The first consideration when planning for aerial photography is the final map reference scale. Although in
digital mapping, the data can be displayed at varying scales, one should still use a reference scale determines
the accuracy and resolution of the data. Refer to Section 7.1.2.
There flying height typically depends on two considerations. One is the contour interval which depends on
reference scale, and the other is accuracy of aerial triangulation control required.
The capability of stereo measurement limits the flying height through a widely acceptable value called the C-
factor
For softcopy photogrammetric workstation with wide angle camera, C-factor is about 2000. Thus for 1:1000
reference scale (where contour interval is 0.5m), the flying height from C-factor consideration is 1,000m.
The accuracy of aerotriangulation controls achievable is widely estimated from the following:
Thus if rmse accuracy required is 15cm, the flying height from aerotriangulation requirement is 1,500m.
The choice of flying height is the lower of the two considerations. In the above example, it will be 1,000m.
The photograph scale at 1,000m flying height is about 1:6,500. Lower flying height and larger photograph
scale can be used.
Digital aerial camera is slowly replacing traditional analog film based camera. Table 7.5 shows the three most
popular digital aerial cameras:
Table 7.5
Acquisition
Camera Pixels Pixel size Focal Length
Technique
Push Broom line
Leica ADS40 12,000 (line) 6.5µm 62mm
scanner
Z/I DMC 2D Frame 8,000 x 14,000 12µm 120mm
Vexcel Ultracam 2D Frame 7,500 x 11,500 9µm 100mm
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Because of the small size of sensor, the concept of photograph (or sensor) scale is rather confusing. A new
concept of GSD (ground sampling distance) has been proposed.
For example, in conventional wide angle photography, using the same example figures as above (i.e. flying
height = 1000m),
Thus
If the photo is scanned with pixel size of 15 µm, the GSD of the scanned photograph is
For digital camera, the GSD for flying height of 1000m is:
It can be seen from above example, the GSD for digital camera has been designed to be almost equivalent to
aerial photography scanned at 15 µm.
Research has also shown that digital camera (because it reduces errors from analog to digital conversion) is
about 1.5 to 2x as accurate in x-y accuracy compared to analog photography. However, as it b/h ratio is
normally lower, its height accuracy is about the same as that for analog photography, for the same flying
height.
Thus, for planning purposes, the same C-factor (2000) and aerial triangulation factor (10,000) as that for
analog camera, may be used.
7.2.2 Specifications
With the above theoretical background, the following specifications were developed.
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7.2.2.1 General
These specifications supersede all previous documentation pertaining to aerial photography to be used in
support of the production of digital orthoimagery, or photogrammetrically compiled products for the Centre for
GIS, State of Qatar.
The Centre for GIS, State of Qatar (CGIS) shall be the final authority on the acceptance or rejection of
photographic imagery acquired under these specifications.
These specifications detail the production of any scale of aerial photography. Compilation will be specified as
being under one of the following classifications. Refer to Table 7.2.
7.2.2.2.1 General
Aircraft used in the acquisition of aerial photography shall be maintained and operated in accordance with all
regulations and instructions issued by the Department of Civil Aviation, State of Qatar.
The air-crew shall have current licenses and medical certificates as required by their country of origin, to
operate an aircraft engaged in aerial survey operations. These licenses and certificates shall be subject to the
approval of the Department of Civil Aviation, State of Qatar.
The aircraft and crew shall carry all applicable permits to perform aerial surveys in the State of Qatar.
Appropriate clearances for each aerial photography mission must also be obtained in writing.
The aircraft shall carry a current Certificate of Airworthiness issued by the relevant authority in the country of
registration. The Certificate of Airworthiness shall include modifications made to the aircraft to accommodate
the aerial camera and related ancillary systems.
The aircraft shall be specifically modified and equipped to perform aerial photography. The camera lens
system shall not be in the path of any exhaust gases or effluents from the engines. No glass camera port shall
be interposed between the camera lens system and the terrain unless it is properly designed and calibrated
as set out herein.
The flight crew and camera operator shall have a minimum of 500 hours experience in the performance of
precise aerial photography missions.
For each flight the air-crew shall prepare a flight log documenting all aspects of the flight germane to the aerial
photography. The flight log shall contain the date, project name, the aircraft registration and air-crew names.
For each flight line the following information shall be recorded: camera, magazine and lens serial numbers,
altitude, nominal scale, aperture setting, shutter speed, compass heading, beginning and ending exposure
numbers and times. Comments relative to weather conditions, equipment performance, unusual events etc.
shall likewise be recorded.
7.2.2.2.3 Weather
Aerial photography shall be exposed only under clear weather conditions that allow the acquisition of well-
defined images. Photography shall be free of the effects of haze, smoke, dust and blowing sand. Cloud or
cloud shadow shall not exceed 5 per-cent of the area of any one photograph without the written consent of the
CGIS.
Photography shall be exposed during times when the sun angle above the horizon is 30 degrees or greater.
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Photographic operations shall be limited to the period of time set out in the contract unless otherwise
authorized by the CGIS and all other authorities governing the operation of the aircraft.
7.2.2.2.4 Coverage
The CGIS shall provide the aerial photography consultant with maps delineating the minimum areas to be
photographed, as well as any existing data pertaining to relief within this area (such as a Digital Elevation
Model). The consultant shall design the flight lines to obtain the designated sidelap and to assure full
stereoscopic coverage. Each flight line shall begin and end outside the minimum area to be photographed
such that a minimum of two principal points fall outside the area. The consultant shall submit a flight line plan,
covering the entire area to be photographed and drawn to scale, for approval by the CGIS. No photography
shall be flown in advance of the approval of the flight line plan.
The flight line plan shall be drawn to scale, shall include major topographic and planimetric features in the
area, and shall be referenced to the Qatar National Grid. The plan shall be at a scale such that the flight lines
are depicted a minimum of 2 cm apart.
Flight lines running parallel to the shoreline may be repositioned to increase the pro-portion of land in each
frame.
Flight lines running parallel to the mapping area boundary shall extend over the boundary by a minimum of 15
percent of the strip width.
Where a flight line joins the end of another line there shall be an overlap of three principal points of acceptable
photography on each of the two strips.
Appropriate number, minimum 2 (two), of cross flights shall be introduced to provide additional strength and
accuracy to the block.
Figure 7.4
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A photographic mission may be comprised of any number of flying heights above datum, depending on the
degree of relief, and permitted tolerance to scale variation of any terrain point throughout an individual
exposure. Any terrain point within an individual exposure must be within 10 percent of the nominal ground
sampling distance (GSD). For example, in a large-scale project the default nominal photo GSD is 10cm. The
scale of any terrain point within any exposure must be at an actual scale ranging from 9 cm to 11 cm.
Once a flying height above datum is selected, that height shall be maintained to within 10%.
The following table identifies the Default Flying Height Above Terrain Median, and the Maximum Allowable
Terrain Deviation for each of the project classifications. Refer to Table 7.2.
The flying height is to be established above a median elevation. This median elevation is half way between
the highest and lowest point for any contiguous region within the project area where the photography will be
flown at the same altitude (flying height above datum). If the terrain deviation exceeds the allowable terrain
deviation, then the project would have to be flown using two altitudes.
In order to optimize cost, the total number of flight lines should be minimized. This is normally achieved by
orientating the flight lines parallel to the larger dimension of the mapping area.
7.2.2.2.4.3 Overlap
Unless otherwise specified, the forward overlap shall be 60 percent ±2 percent (i.e. 58 to 62 percent overlap).
This requirement is not applicable to ADS 40 type camera which utilizes line scanning ‘push broom’ imaging
technique.
Unless otherwise specified, the side overlap (or sidelap) shall be 30 percent ±3 percent (i.e. 27 to 33 percent
side overlap).
The CGIS may elect to modify the photo configuration to suit specific circumstances. In urban areas for
example, the CGIS may specify that flight lines coincide with specific features (e.g. street canyons). Similarly,
different line spacing and side lap may be specified in some circumstances.
Where a flight line crosses a shoreline, the forward overlap shall be increased to a nominal 90 percent,
subject to the constraints imposed by the camera cycle time. The increase in overlap shall extend at least
three principal points inland.
7.2.2.3 Camera
The photography shall be exposed using a fully calibrated large format precision digital camera with high-
resolution, low-distortion lens. The number of pixels across the flight direction should be at least 11,500. The
number of pixels along the flight direction (not application to Push Broom imaging system) should be at least
7,500.
The camera must carry a certificate detailing calibration by an approved agency that has been carried out
within three years of the date of photography. The camera together with relevant pre-processing software,
shall be capable of producing the digital photography with distortion of less than 1 pixel.
The camera system should incorporate Airborne GPS (ABGPS) and Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)
technology which will significantly reduces the ground control points required for aerotriangulation. ABGPS
work with one or more ground reference GPS base station, to provide precise location of the photo centre
locations (X, Y and Z). The aircraft/camera should typically be within 30km of the ground GPS base station.
The IMU utilize inertial technology to provide the roll, pitch and yaw (ω, φ and κ) of the camera system.
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Figure 7.5
The camera should provide 4 bands multispectral images in the spectral bands of blue (about 450nm), green
(about 550nm), red (about 750nm) and near infrared (about 850nm)
Each pixel should provide at least 12 bits radiometric resolution (4096 grey levels) for all bands.
The band to band registration shall be within 1/4 pixel.
The camera may use its proprietary or any image file format to store the image data during acquisition and
pre-processing. However, software tools must be provided to convert the image file to 16 bit TIFF (Tagged
Imaged File Format) files together with relevant image support information that provides the following
information:
- location and orientation of the camera centre,
- the date and time of exposure of the photograph.
- Focal length, aperture, shutter speed and (optional) equivalent ISO
Suitable naming convention should be proposed for identification of the photograph and image support
information.
The photograph (data) shall be delivered in removable harddisks which is accessible by Microsoft Windows
operating system. Two sets of data shall be delivered.
7.2.2.6 Documentation
Variations to the documentations and reports are subjected to the approval of CGIS.
b) Flight Logs
c) Data Report
• A report shall be included with set of data
• Project designation
• Camera type and serial number, lens type and serial number, calibrated focal length
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An index shall be prepared which depicts all of the flight lines. The photo index shall be drawn to scale and
® ®
provided in softcopy. The file shall be formatted for use within either an AutoCAD or ARCGIS/ARCSDE
environment. A hardcopy index map (if requested) shall be printed at a scale such that the flight lines are
depicted a minimum of 2 cms apart. The flight line maps shall show every photo centre. Each flight line and
photo centre shall be labeled accordingly.
Other information to be shown on the index shall include: title block, north arrow, scale bar and sheet index.
The Title block shall contain the project designation, sub area (if applicable), consultant’s designation, date of
photography, scale, and the calibrated focal length.
A digital file of the flight index shall also be supplied. The file shall be formatted for use within either an
® ®
AutoCAD or ARCGIS/ARCSDE environment.
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7.2.2.7. Deliverables
Table 7.6
The CGIS may elect to order additional sets of data in harddisk or hardcopy prints from the aerial photography
consultant.
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7.3.1 General
This document covers ground control requirements for photogrammetric mapping projects. The fundamental
requirements for control network configuration, point location, and characteristics are discussed in this
document. However, the overview presented is not intended to be used for field survey design. The
photogrammetric engineer should refer to appropriate survey standards and specifications for guidance in
designing the project control surveys. Current standards should be employed and outdated standards and
practices should be revised from time to time.
Field surveying for photogrammetric control is generally a two-step process. The first step consists of
establishing a network of basic control in the project area. This basic control consists of horizontal control
monuments and benchmarks of vertical control that will serve as a reference framework for subsequent
surveys. The second step involves establishing photo control by means of surveys originating from the basic
control network. Photo control points are the actual points appearing in the photos (photo identifiable points
that are used to control photogrammetric operations. The accuracy of basic control surveys is generally of
higher order than subsequent photo control surveys.
GPS technology is now an integral part of almost any field survey project. It is also the most cost effective
method for photogrammetric control surveys.
A basic control survey provides a fundamental framework of control for all project-related surveys, such as
property surveys, photo control surveys, location and design surveys, and construction layout. The accuracy,
location, and density of the basic control must be designed to satisfy all the project tasks that will be
referenced to the control. GPS technology appears to provide reference points with more consistent and more
accurate locations than those established by more conventional methods. GPS survey should be tied to the
Qatar National Datum.
Horizontal basic control points should be angle points in traverses or vertices of network triangles. Vertical
basic control points should be turning points in level routes. Vertical control obtained by GPS should be
checked by conventional level loops for selected points to check accuracy of the geoid model in the project
area. Conventional survey side shots or open traverses should not be used to locate basic control. Second or
Third-Order plane surveys will generally be of sufficient accuracy to establish basic control for most
photogrammetric mapping projects.
In planning the basic control survey, maximum advantage should be taken of existing control established in
the area by the CGIS. Care should be exercised before using any existing control points to verify that they are
adequately interconnected or are adequately connected to the national Geodetic network in Qatar National
Datum
Photo control points are photo identifiable or panel points that can be measured on the photograph and
stereomodel. Photo control points are connected to the basic control framework by short spur traverses,
intersections, and short level loops. Lengthy side shots and open traverses should be avoided.
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Photo control surveys are local surveys of limited extent. Photo control points are surveyed to the accuracy
required to control the photogrammetric solution. The accuracy requirement for photo control points should
generally be an order better (at least 5 times) than the accuracies of the control points computed by aerial
triangulation.
7.3.2.2.1 Characteristics.
Photo control points should be designed by considering the following characteristics: location of the control
point on the photograph; positive identification of the image point; and measurement characteristics of the
image point. GPS derived photo control points require special consideration. The locations of GPS points
must be in a location that will allow for the required GPS horizon parameters to be met.
(a) Location. Of the characteristics listed above, location is always the overriding factor. Photo control points
must be in the proper geometric location to accurately reference the photogrammetric solution to the ground
coordinate system. Horizontal photo control points should define a long line across the photographic
coverage. The horizontal control accurately fixes the scale and azimuth of the solution. Vertical photo control
should define a geometrically strong horizontal triangle spanning the photographic coverage. The vertical
control accurately fixes the elevation datum of the solution. The location should be established in accordance
with current photogrammetric practice considering the project area and the map accuracy requirements.
(b) Identification. The identification of the photo control points on the aerial photographs is critical. Extreme
care should be exercised to make this identification accurate. The surveyor should examine the photo control
point in the field with the aerial photographs. Once a photo control point is identified, its position on the
photograph should be recorded and a brief description and sketch and/or cutout of aerial photo, of each point
should be made. Each photo control point should be given a unique name or number.
(c) Measurement. Subject to the constraints imposed by location considerations, photo control points should
be designed to provide accurate pointing characteristics during photogrammetric measurements.
Furthermore, control points should not be located at the edge of the image format. Photo control points falling
in the outside 10 to 15 percent of the image format should be rejected.
Images for horizontal control have slightly different requirements from images for vertical control. Because
their horizontal positions on the photographs must be precisely measured, images of horizontal control points
must be very sharp and well-defined horizontally.
Images for vertical control need not be so sharp and well-defined horizontally. Points selected should,
however, be well-defined vertically. Good vertical control points should have characteristics that make it easy
for the operator to accurately put the floating mark at the correct elevation. Vertical control points are best
located in small, flat, or slightly crowned areas with some natural features nearby that assist with stereoscopic
depth perception.
GPS survey is now popular method for surveying both horizontal and vertical control since it provides precise
spatial (X, Y and Z) coordinates.
If the project is small, requiring just a few models, the control can be established on the ground by
conventional field or GPS surveys. The absolute geometric minimum amount of photo control needed in each
stereomodel is four points.
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For larger projects requiring aerial triangulation, the distribution of ground control is discussed in the document
for Aerial Triangulation.
If airborne GPS procedures are integrated into the photographic flight the amount of primary ground control
points required may be further reduced. Its distribution is also discussed in the document for Aerial
Triangulation.
Photo identifiable control points can be established by marking points with targets before the flight or by
selecting identifiable image points after the flight.
7.3.3.1 Premarking
Premarking photo control points is recommended. Marking control points with targets before the flight is the
most reliable and accurate way to establish photo control points. Survey points in the basic control network
can also be targeted to make them photo identifiable. When the terrain is relatively featureless, targeting will
always produce a well-defined image in the proper location. However, premarking is also a significant
expense in the project because target materials must be purchased, and targets must be placed in the field
and maintained until flying is completed. The target itself should be designed to produce the best possible
photo control image point. The main elements in target design are good color contrast, a symmetrical target
that can be centered over the control point, and a target size that yields a satisfactory image on the resulting
photographs.
(a) Location. Target location should be designed according to the ground control distribution for aerial
triangulation. However it is difficult to ensure that the target will fall in the planned location in the photograph
when the photography is flown. Care should be taken that targets are not located too near the edge of the
strip coverage so that the target does not fall outside of the model.
(b) Shape. Targets should be symmetrical in design to aid the operator in pointing on the control point. Typical
shapes that may be used are “+”, “T” or “Y” shape.
(c) Size. Target sizes should be designed on the basis of intended photo scale so that the target images are
the optimum size for pointing on the photos. Target size is related to the size of the measuring mark in the
stereoplotter instruments used. An image size of about 0.050 mm square (or 2 pixels) for the central panel is a
typical design value. Each leg can have width same as the central panel, i.e. 0.050 mm or 2 pixels, and length
5 times the width.
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5T
5T 5T
T T
5T
“+” configuration
“T” configuration
“Y” configuration
Figure 7.6
7.3.3.2 Postmarking
The postmarking method consists of examining the photography after it is flown and choosing natural image
features that most closely meet the characteristics for horizontal or vertical photo control points. The selected
features are then located in the field and surveyed from the basic control monuments. One advantage of
postmarking photo control points is that the control point can be chosen in the optimum location (the corners
of neat models and in the triple overlap area). The principal disadvantage of postmarking is that the natural
feature is not as well defined as a targeted survey monument either in the field or on the image.
Typical feature that may be used for postmarking photo control points include:
i. Traffic lines
ii. Sidewalk intersection (must be perpendicular)
iii. Tennis Court, Basketball Court, Football field lines intersection
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Figure 7.7
Figure 7.8
Traffic Lines
Figure 7.8
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7.3.3.3 Airborne Global Positioning System (ABGPS) and Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)
Control.
ABGPS and IMU technologies are now recommended for photo control. This procedure involves establishing
the horizontal and vertical location, and attitude of the principal point of every photo at the instant of exposure.
If all conditions are ideal for ABGPS and IMU (i.e., satellite configuration and signal, geoid model
consistency), then no additional ground control would be required. In practice, this is not an acceptable risk
considering the cost of deploying equipment and personnel to revisit the project site if problems surface after
the flight. Therefore, minimal ground control should be planned. Flights plan may also incorporate a few cross
flights to increase strength and accuracy to the block.
7.3.4 Deliverables
Unless otherwise modified by the contract specifications, the following materials will be delivered to the CGIS
upon completion of the control surveys:
a. General report describing the project and survey procedures used including description of the project
area, location, and existing control found; description of the basic and photo control survey network
geometry; description of the survey instruments and field methods used; description of the survey
adjustment method and results such as closures and precision of adjusted positions; justification for
any survey points omitted from the final adjusted network and any problems incurred and how they
were resolved.
b. Details of each control points, showing X, Y and Z coordinates and sketch or cutout photograph with
control point clearly marked. Date and time, surveyor name, organization, as well as comments if any.
c. A list of the adjusted coordinates of all horizontal and vertical basic and photo control points.
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Annex 7A
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7.4.1 General
These specifications supersede all previous documentation pertaining to the application of aerial triangulation
to aerial photography for the Centre for GIS, State of Qatar.
The Centre for GIS, State of Qatar (CGIS) shall be the final authority on the acceptance or rejection of aerial
triangulation products, produced under these specifications.
These specifications pertain to the aerial triangulation of standard, wide-angle aerial digital or analog
photography exposed with average of 60 percent forward overlap and 30 percent side overlap. The
specifications apply to both strips and blocks of photography. The specifications apply to fully analytical
methods based on softcopy digital photogrammetric workstation (DPW).
Airborne GPS control (AGPS) and inertial measuring unit (IMU) are relatively new technologies though are
now operationally available. These specifications will cover both aerial triangulation with and without ABGPS
and IMU.
7.4.2.1 Definition
Aerial triangulation is the process of densifying and extending ground control through computational means.
The process “bridges” or carries ground control to contiguous stereo models, which falls between models,
which contain ground control.
Aerial triangulation is the simultaneous space resection and space intersection of image rays recorded by an
aerial mapping camera. Conjugate image rays projected from two or more overlapping photographs intersect
at common points on the ground to define the three dimensional coordinates of each point. The entire
assemblage of image rays is fit to known ground control points in a least-squares adjustment process. When
complete, ground coordinates of previously unknown points are determined by the intersection of adjusted
rays. Besides the ground coordinates, the location of the camera centre (principal centre) as well as the
orientation of the camera will also be determined.
The ground coordinates of fixed photogrammetric points on each stereo model are utilized to scale and level
the model during the process of absolute orientation. In DPW, the computed camera location and orientation
can also be utilized in absolute orientation.
Aerial triangulation is essentially an interpolation tool, capable of extending control points to areas between
ground survey control points using several contiguous uncontrolled stereomodels. An aerial triangulation
solution should never be extended or cantilevered beyond the ground control. Ground control should be
located at the ends of single strips and along the perimeter of block configurations. Within a strip or block,
ground control is added at intervals of several stereomodels to limit error propagation in the adjusted pass
point coordinates.
7.4.2.2 Quality
Each of the above inputs will have a profound effect on the quality of the aerial triangulation adjustment. For
example, the accuracy (for a given photo scale) is influenced by the following factors:
• Quality of the original photograph/image (exposure, aircraft movement, image blur, handling)
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The CGIS philosophy is based upon achieving excellent quality and consistency in all products. Accordingly,
the aerial triangulation shall be produced in strict accordance with these specifications. Where the product or
associated process is not fully defined by these specifications, internationally accepted professional practice
shall govern.
7.4.3 Specifications
With present technology, analog and analytical stereoplotters are already obsolete. Softcopy digital
photogrammetric workstation (DPW) methods should be employed.
Aerial triangulation with DPW is also much easier and more accurate than earlier analog and analytical
methods. There is no longer any need to ‘drill’ points for measuration. If aerial photograph is not digitally
acquired, the negative or diapositive should be scanned with appropriate quality scanner with typical
resolution of 15~25 µm (typically 20 µm).
The scanning should cover the whole image and should include the 8 fiducial marks. The affine fitting of the
scanned image with camera frame templates will correct for scanner scaling error. The rms residuals after
affine transformation should be less than 1 pixel.
Control point configuration, monumentation, targeting and measurement are all prescribed in Specifications
for Ground Control Surveys. The salient points describing configuration are summarized hereunder.
The ground cover in Qatar is such that horizontal control points should be targeted. Target configurations
should be a “+”, “T” or “Y”. The minimum target sizes should be such that its resultant image on the
photograph is no smaller than 15 pixel (or 15 x GSD in meters on ground). This results in the following based
on the default photo scales for each of the project classifications:
Table 7.7
Ground control points (GCPs) can either be horizontal control points (HCP) which carry measured X and Y
values, vertical control points (VCP) which carry measured Z values only and full ground controls points
(GCP) carry measured X, Y and Z values.
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With the popularity of GPS surveying for ground control point acquisition, there is virtually no cost difference in
measuring full GCPs with X, Y and Z values against HCP or VCP. It is actually better to use full GCP in place
of HCP or VCP for aerial triangulation.
For aerial photography acquired without ABGPS and IMU, the control point requirements are as follows:
For single strip of photography horizontal control points (HCP) should be placed in pairs (opposite each other
on either side of the flight line) within the first and last models in the strip and at intervals of not more than four
model base lengths along the strip. Vertical control points (VCP) shall also be placed in pairs (opposite each
other on either side of the flight line) within the first and last models in the strip and at intervals of not more
than two model base lengths along the strip.
For blocks of photography, horizontal and vertical control (full GCP) should be relatively evenly spaced and
located around the periphery of the block. The spacing of horizontal control points (HCP) around the periphery
should be 3 to 5 model base lengths along lines and every second line across lines. Vertical control points
(VCP) should be placed at intervals of 3 to 5 models along lines and on every line. The vertical control points
(VCPs) should be established in the sidelap portions of the photographs. The vertical control points (VCPs)
should also be placed on every line around the perimeter of the block.
Photographic blocks should be designed so as to minimize irregularities: holes, projecting lines, indentations
etc. Where these irregularities are unavoidable,
Horizontal control points (HCP) must be placed at all extremities and most inflection points in the block.
Additional horizontal control points (HCP) and vertical control points (VCP) should be located at the centre of
the block, and in the case of large blocks, relatively evenly distributed throughout the block on a grid of
approximately eight to ten base lengths.
Figure 7.10
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Advancement in ABGPS and IMU technology incorporated in aerial camera system has allowed the camera
coordinates and orientation during exposure to be precisely measured. With a base station within 30km,
accuracy of 3 to 10 cms is possible. With GPS and IMU, it becomes possible to aerial triangulate the whole
block without horizontal and vertical control points to acceptable accuracy.
Additional cross flights can be introduced to provide additional strength and accuracy to the block.
It is still advisable to provide some horizontal and vertical at the corners and the centre of the block to ensure
residual bias errors are eliminated and also provide quality checks on the aerial triangulated results.
Figure 7.11
The CGIS may elect to establish checkpoints within the aerial triangulation scheme. In such case the CGIS
will establish the points on the ground. The consultant shall provide adjusted coordinates for these points for
approval prior to finalizing the block adjustment.
7.4.3.4 Preparation
Forward pass points are artificially marked points used to locate the same point in successive models along
the flight line.
A minimum of five (5) pass points will be located in the overlap between adjacent stereo models on the same
flight line. One pass point will lie near the principal point, the other pass points will be evenly distributed in the
direction perpendicular to the flight line. The outer two pass points will be in the area of sidelap between flight
lines. Where possible the outer points will also serve as tie points.
Pass point locations will be selected by examining the photographic prints in stereo. Pass points must be
located in areas of good stereo fusion of the image and on unobscured, level ground.
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Tie points are artificially marked points used to locate the same point in adjacent models within different flight
lines.
A minimum of two tie points will be located in the sidelap area on each edge of each stereo model. Tie points
should as far as possible be used as forward pass points. No tie or pass points shall fall within 5% of the edge
of the photograph. Tie points should be staggered to the extent possible to minimize “hinge” effects during
adjustment.
Aerial triangulation with softcopy simplifies the procedure of pass points processing. The process involved
displaying two successive photo images on the monitor screen. The operator then selects arbitrary pass
points in the images/photos, and the workstation will automatically assign appropriate image/photo
coordinates of that point on each photo/image. If image matching option is enabled, the operator need only
select the pass point in one photo and the computer will automatically select the matching point in the other
image.
Images of adjacent flight line photos can also be displayed for simultaneous tie point marking.
The image/photo coordinates of these pass/tie points in the overlap/sidelap area are stored in the computer's
database. The marking is only a graphic overlay and does not disturb the original image/photo pixels. This
operation thus eliminates the necessity of manual pugging, plate reading, and transferring required with
analog and analytical plotters.
7.4.3.4.4 Coding
A systematic coding scheme shall be employed which facilitates the identification of points according to:
1. Location in the Model
2. Flight Line
3. Exposure
4. Point Type
7.4.3.5 Mensuration
Mensuration may be carried out with softcopy digital photogrammetric workstation (DPW). The workstation
must be capable of measuring down to 0.01 pixels.
The workstation shall support the following corrections (not required for digital camera):
i. Affine transformation inner orientation with fiducial marks coordinates
ii. Lens distortion
iii. Earth curvature
iv. Atmospheric refraction
If measurements are made in stereo, residual Y-parallaxes during model formation shall not exceed 3 pixels
and the RMSE for the model shall not exceed 1 pixel.
7.4.3.6 Adjustment
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Prior to adjustment, inner orientation of the photographs is performed to provide each photograph with
photograph coordinates that match the geometry of the image focal plane and perspective centre. Affine
transformation that matches the fiducial marks with camera focal plane template should be applied to remove
scanner errors and lens distortion errors should also be corrected (from camera calibration information).
Photographs acquired by digital camera are already inner oriented and will not need this step.
This step refers to the sequential assembly of independent stereomodels to form a strip unit. The sequential
strip formation is a preliminary adjustment that develops initial approximations for the final simultaneous
bundle adjustment. The strip formation also serves as a quality control check of the photo and in some cases
also ground coordinate data.
(1) Relative orientation of each stereo pair is performed by a least squares adjustment using the collinearity
equations and template matching at the selection part of the stereomodel. DPW usually can do this relative
orientation step fairly automatically. The stereomodel is created in an arbitrary coordinate system. The photo
coordinate residuals should be representative of the point transfer and measuring precision. The photo
coordinate residuals should be examined to detect misidentified or poorly measured points.
(2) When stereomodels are joined to form a strip, the pass points shared between models will have two
coordinate values, one value in the strip coordinate system and one value in the transformed model
coordinate system which is close to the ground coordinates. The coordinate differences or discrepancies
between the two values can be examined to evaluate how well the models fit to one another. Outliers can be
detected at this stage and corrected.
(1) The strips are then joined (in virtual sense) into a block and simultaneous block bundle aerial triangulation
must be adjusted by a weighted least squares adjustment method. Adjustment software will form the
collinearity condition equations for all the photo coordinate observations in the block and solve for all photo
orientation and ground point coordinates in each iteration until the solution converges. The adjustment shall
also compensate for earth curvature and atmospheric refraction effects.
(2) Least squares adjustment results should be examined to check the consistency of the photo coordinate
measurements and the ground control fit. Residuals on the photo coordinates should be examined to see that
they are representative of the random error expected from the instrument used to measure them. Residuals
should be randomly plus or minus and have a uniform magnitude. Residuals should be checked carefully for
outliers and systematic trends. Standard deviation of unit weight computed from the weighted adjusted
residuals should be between 0.5 to 2 times the reference standard deviation used to compute the weights for
the adjustment (0.5<σ0 < 2).
(3) Accuracy of aerial analytical triangulation should be measured by the RMSE of the error in each
coordinate (X, Y, and Z) direction for the checkpoints if available. The RMSE should be less than
flying_height/10,000. The maximum residuals of photo coordinates and ground coordinates shall be less than
3 times the respective RMSEs.
Table 7.8
The evaluation of the aerial triangulation and adjustment results will not be based solely on the statistical
results of the adjustment. The following elements must also be evident in the adjustment:
a) Proper aerial triangulation technique with respect to control point location and tie point location.
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b) There must be no evidence of a systematic nature to the residuals on either control points or
photogrammetric points.
c) The block must remain structurally sound while meeting a one percent rejection criterion.
7.4.4 Deliverables
Table 7.9
A final, reproducible computer generated index map in DXF format will be prepared which identifies all points
included in the aerial triangulation and the limits of the photos. The index will also show line and photo
numbers. A listing of all adjusted coordinates for all ground control, pass points and tie points.
A listing of differences at ground scale between surveyed and adjusted coordinate values for all control points.
A listing of differences at ground scale between measured and adjusted tie photogrammetric points.
All deliverables shall be submitted in digital form and hard copy equivalent, in appropriate media and agreed
format to CGIS.
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7.5.1 Background
7.5.1.1 General
In recent years, satellite imagery with GSD (ground sampling distance) of a few meters (SPOT 5, 2.5m) to
less than 1m (IKONOS at 0.82m QuickBird at 0.61m and Worldview 1 at 0.50m) are commercially available.
It becomes possible to use satellite imagery instead of aerial photography for certain mapping projects.
Whereas airborne mission planning is done largely on a project specific basis, with parameters such as scale,
attitude, light path etc., chosen to meet the needs of the project, satellite mission parameters, are fixed for the
life of the mission.
Some of the very high resolution satellites are shown in Table 7.10 below:
Table 7.10
Many authors have demonstrated that less 0.5 pixel accuracy is possible for IKONOS, QuickBird and SPOT 5
imagery with a number of ground control points.
However from a practical point of view, where one uses a little as one control point per image strip and using
block bundle triangulation of satellite imagery, the practical RMSE accuracy is about 2 pixels, or 2m in the
case of IKONOS or QuickBird.
With 2m X-Y RMSE and 1m GSD, this make IKONOS and QuickBird imagery directly suitable for 1:5000
scale (or smaller) mapping.
IKONOS and QuickBird data are capable of DTM or Z measurement. With a few GCP to remove residual
height bias, it is possible to achieve LE90 accuracy of 3m in Z. This made them suitable for 1:1000 or smaller
scale mapping.
.
Before discussing triangulation of satellite image, it is important to have reasonable understanding of “camera
model”.
The “camera model” is the mathematic model that model the ray of light connecting the ground point object
coordinates (X,Y,Z) to the image plane image coordinates (x, y), factoring in the translation, orientation and
perturbation of the imaging system. For standard frame aerial photography, the standard camera model is the
collinearity equations:
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Where m11, m21, …, m32, m33 are the elements of the rotation matrix for the camera which is
functions of (ω,φ,κ) rotational angles
f is the effective focal length.
X, Y, Z is the terrestrial Cartesian coordinates
Xs, Ys, Zs is the coordinates of the camera perspective centre
The collinearity equations would probably be valid if one take the standard frame camera and image the earth
from a satellite. However, this is not the case. Satellite imagery (including SPOT, IKONOS and QuickBird)
camera typically takes only one image line at any instant. The image is formed by the forward motion of the
satellite, and each line is sampled at a split second in time from the previous. This way of imaging is usually
referred to as line scanning “push broom” imaging.
Research into satellite mode of this type is still progressing. Typically there are two major categories:
In physical camera model, the absolute orientation (translation and rotation) and altitude of the camera is
rigorously modeled. The satellite is already designed to provide numerous a-priori measured parameters and
with them, one can compute the coordinate of any pixel within certain specified accuracy (e.g. 50m for SPOT
5 and 15m for IKONOS and QuickBird).
For the direct camera model, one starts from the image pixel and traces the light through the imaging system
and orientation and altitude of the camera. The model ray of light is then made to intersect the earth ellipsoid,
with or without DEM.
The reverse camera model is similar to the collinearity equations. Except that since one line is image at a
t
time, the y (or x depending on convention) image coordinate is zero. i.e. image coordinate is [x, 0] . To
provide the two dimension image, the y is derived from the orbit model, as a function of time.
Since IKONOS, the replacement camera model, more specifically the cubic Rational Polynomial Coefficient
(RPC) model, is now becoming a popular satellite camera model. The format of RPC camera model is as
follows:
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And (φ, λ, h) is normalized coordinate of latitude, longitude and height in ground space (range from –1 to +1),
(x, y) is normalized sample and line coordinate in image space
The replacement camera model has two main advantages. Firstly is that it allows satellite operators to hide
propriety parameters from public. Secondly, since it is application to almost all satellite imagery, users of
imagery need not invest in specific satellite models.
In aerial triangulation, the local national grid coordinate system is usually used. However, for satellite
imagery, it is usual to triangulate in the WGS 84 geographical system with ellipsoid height (rather than MSL
height).
The a-priori measured physical parameters of the satellite images are already very accurate. For SPOT 5, the
accuracy is 50m. For IKONOS and QuickBird, the accuracy is about 15m. These accuracies can be improved
using GCP to refine the camera model.
For the physical model, the refinement of the camera model is achieved by introducing 3 translation (∆X, ∆Y,
∆Z) and 3 rotational (pitch, roll, yaw) bias terms. The initial value of which are zero. However, due to the
small field of view and high flying height, the ∆Y and pitch parameters are highly correlated. Similarly the ∆X
and roll parameters are also highly correlated. One is left with no more than 4 parameters to refine the
camera model.
With 4 control points per image, the accuracy of the measured coordinates can be reduced to less than 1
pixel.
For replacement camera model, it is not possible to introduce the six physical bias. However, researchers
have found two methods to refine the camera model:
Though not fully rigorous, sub pixel accuracy is also possible with 4 or 5 GCP used in the image.
Whether physical or replacement camera model, it is possible to tie many strip of imagery into a block similar
to aerial triangulation in aerial photography. With IKONOS imagery, research has shown that 2m RMSE (two
pixels) is possible with average of one GCP per image strip, distributed in similar manner as aerial
triangulation with Airborne GPS, i.e. at the corners and in the middle of the block.
In the event that mono images are triangulated, one will have to provide Z coordinates to the pass points.
These Z coordinates may be read off existing DTM database in CGIS.
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Mathematically, the possibility of multisensory triangulation is now a possibility. E.g. combining IKONOS
and/or SPOT 5 and/or aerial photograph in block adjustments. Several software have such capability.
However, due to the varying strength of the imaging geometry, one has really to be an expert to analyze the
results of the triangulation. Multisensor triangulation is thus not recommended for operational mapping.
7.5.2 Specifications
The following specifications are more relevant to IKONOS and QuickBird imagery. It is likely to be also
applicable to next generation GeoEye and Worldview imagery. CGIS requirement of 0.6m GSD for its
smallest scale rural mapping automatically ruled out SPOT 5 imagery.
i. Spatial resolution:
a. At nadir: <0.82m panchromatic, <3.2m multispectral
b. 26 degrees off nadir: <1m panchromatic, <4m multispectral
ii. Spectral bands:
a. 1 panchromatic band
b. 4 multispectral band – blue, green, red and near-infrared
iii. Image swath (scene width) > 11 km
iv. Dynamic range : >= 11 bits per pixel
Unless otherwise stated and if applicable, the satellite imagery shall be casted on the Qatar National Grid
(QNG). Refer to Table 7.3.
To suite CGIS requirements (based ASPRS standard for large scale mapping and US National Map standards
for small scale mapping):
Table 7.11
Image
Positional
Ground Control Ortho acquisition
Reference Scale Accuracy
Point Correction Elevation angle
Required
(degrees)
1:50,000 25m (CE90) No yes 60° to 90°
1:10,000 (whole
2.5m RMSE Yes yes 72° to 90°
country)
No (IKONOS &
QuickBird)
DTM (whole 1.7m Vert
Yes (GeoEye-1, -
country) RMSE
Worldview-1 &
Worldview 2)
Satellite image such as IKONOS, QuickBird, GeoEye-1 and Worldview-1 can acquire two images of the same
area with different elevation to form stereo image pair. The time interval between the two images is typically
less than one minute. To meet the 3m vertical rmse, the GSD must be about 0.5m (GeoEye-1 and
Worldview-1 only) and the stereo pair shall contain an image collected at low elevation angle (above 60°) and
the other at high elevation angle (above 72°) with 30° to 45° convergence. GCPs are also required to refine
the camera model (or RPCs).
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Image should cover the area defined by the user’s order polygon. An order polygon may be defined using one
of the following methods:
• Upper left and lower right corner coordinates if the area is rectangular.
• A center point and a height and width to define the area.
• Shapefile format – .shp, .shx, and .dbf files.
Order polygons that fit within a swath shall be collected as one image strip. If more than one image strip is
required to cover the order polygon, the overlaps between adjacent strips will be more than 1km.
The very high resolution satellite imagery delivered usually has cloud cover criteria at 20%. Due to nature of
weather in Qatar, it is recommended to reduce this cloud cover criteria to less than 5%.
The specified elevation angle of the sun is greater than 15 degrees. This is because the few satellites
providing such data are in a sun synchronous orbit, collecting image at approximately 10:30 am local solar
time.
If in future, imagery from certain non-sun synchronous orbit is ordered, then the sun elevation angle must be
specified.
All monoscopic imagery product shall be delivered in electronic format as a GeoTIFF file.
Stereo imagery should be provided in TIFF format for epi-polar projected imagery and GeoTIFF for map
oriented imagery.
The media for imagery products shall be DVD or other media as specified by CGIS.
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7.5.2.9 Bits/Pixel
To retain the full dynamic range of the imagery which was acquired with 11 bit or more radiometric resolution,
the delivered TIFF or GeoTIFF product shall be with 16 bits/pixel.
7.5.2.10 Resampling
Production of the image product shall use Cubic Convolution (or Bi-Cubic) method in resampling the imagery.
The GSD of the source data shall be within +/- 50% of the resample image pixel size.
All satellite imagery products must contain a metadata file. The metadata file shall contain, but not limited to,
the following information:
i. image acquisition data and time
ii. spectral bands
iii. coordinate systems
iv. sun angles
v. viewing geometry
vi. GSD and resolution
In addition, the imagery shall be accompanied by file(s) with information relating to the attitude, ephemeris,
and camera model, suitable for advanced photogrammetric processing (i.e., orthorectification). Alternatively,
equivalent information can be provided in the form of Rational Polynomial Coefficient (RPC).
7.5.2.12 Mosaic
In the event that image mosaic is ordered (applicable to ortho products only), the imageries shall be
radiometrically balanced against each other so as to provide a smooth and consistent look across the whole
mosaic. The minimum overlapping area shall be at least 500m wide. Sufficient blending shall be applied to
the seam line to ensure smooth transition from one strip to the adjacent.
The original image strips shall also be delivered on top of the mosaic.
In order for further block adjustment by CGIS or other authority, each image strips shall be accompanied by
file(s) with information relating to the attitude, ephemeris, and camera model, suitable for triangulation with
appropriate software. Alternatively, the equivalent information can be provided in the form of Rational
Polynomial Coefficient (RPC).
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7.5.3 Deliverables
Table 7.12
Imagery Digital Files on CD-ROM TIFF 6.0 .TIF and .TFW world files
Mosaic Seams - Digital Files
Quality Control Reports
• Production Flow Diagram
• Camera model / RPC adjustment - RMSE
• Rectification Quality - RMSE
• Image Histogram
All materials provided by the CGIS are to be returned at the conclusion of the project. All materials derived
from CGIS materials are likewise to be returned.
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7.6.1 General
These specifications supersede all previous documentation pertaining to the production of digital orthoimagery
from aerial photography or satellite image for the Centre for GIS, State of Qatar.
The Centre for GIS, State of Qatar (CGIS) shall be the final authority on the acceptance or rejection of digital
imagery and hard copy products derived there from, produced under these specifications.
These specifications detail digital orthoimagery produced from any scale of aerial photography or satellite
imagery. The principal parameters governing digital orthoimagery at a given scale are the resolution and
accuracy characteristics of the imagery.
7.6.1.1.1 Definition
A digital orthoimage is a raster image which has been derived from aerial photography of perspective
projection or high resolution satellite imagery. The perspective image has been transformed to acquire the
properties of an orthographic projection through the process of image resampling taking into account the relief
displacement effect. Image displacements caused by the attitude of the camera, camera distortion, and the
relief within the image have been removed. Therefore the rectified image has the geometric qualities of a
map.
7.6.1.1.2 Quality
Each of the above inputs will have a profound effect on the quality of the rectified imagery. For example, the
quality is influenced by the following factors:
• quality of the original digital aerial photography/image (exposure, aircraft movement, image blur,
developing, handling)
• scale of photography relative to the output products
• orientation of the photography relative to the "map" extent
• quality of diapositive production and handling
• type of scanner employed and the mounting of the diapositive in the scanner
• scanning resolution (if analog photograph)
• quality and density of ground control
• quality of the mensuration and adjustment
• accuracy, density and design of the DEM
• capture of breaklines within the DEM
• interpolation algorithms employed and the final density of the DEM gridded for the rectification
• care exercised in the space resection process
• judgment required in the mosaicing process
• rectification algorithms, resampling algorithms and the number of resampling steps to which the
imagery is subject
The CGIS philosophy is based upon achieving excellent quality and consistency in all products. Accordingly,
the digital orthoimagery shall be produced in strict accordance with these specifications. Where the product or
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associated process is not fully defined by these specifications, internationally accepted professional practice
shall govern.
7.6.2 Specifications
The horizontal ground sampling distance, GSD (the ground area represented by each pixel) in the delivered
product shall be as indicated in the following table for each of the project classifications.
Table 7.13
If analog aerial photography is the source, then scanning of diapositive or negatives shall be performed. The
scanning shall be accomplished utilizing a high accuracy, high precision micro-densitometer, providing a
relative accuracy of 12µm to 25µm. The diapositives shall be scanned at a resolution which provides pixels
representing ground dimensions less than or equal in size to those that will be delivered. The lowest possible
scanning resolutions for the project classifications using the example photo scales are as follows:
Table 7.14
The scanning shall be effected at a radiometric resolution of at least 8 bits (256 intensity values). The intensity
values shall be represented by integer values from 0 to 255 inclusive; zero representing the color black and
255 representing the color white with full color range in between.
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After scanning, the inner orientation of each photograph shall be performed, measuring at a minimum of 6
fiducial marks and fitting it to the known coordinates of the fiducial marks with affine transformation to an
accuracy of less than 1 pixel.
In the event that aerial photography is acquired with digital camera, the aerial photograph is already in digital
form. Scanning is not required for digital aerial photography. For digital camera, the photography will have to
be acquired with
GSD of less than 10cm for large scale urban mapping, and less than 100cm for country wide mapping.
Satellite imagery with sufficient resolution may be used. At the time of writing, the resolutions for satellite
imagery are:
From the above, satellite imagery at the moment can only support small scale countrywide mapping (GSD
required is 100cm).
7.6.2.5.1 Rectification
The rectification shall be performed on a pixel-by-pixel basis. The photogrammetric collinearity equations (for
aerial photography) or satellite camera model (for satellite imagery) shall be used in the solution for each
output pixel. Replacement camera model (e.g. rational polynomial coefficient, RPC, model) may be used
provided the replacement camera model is derived from the rigorous camera model or collinearity equations
and the replacement camera model must match the rigorous camera model to accuracy of less than 0.02 pixel
for the whole image.
Algorithms based on simple polynomial warping between rectified “posts” shall not be utilized for the
rectification.
7.6.2.5.2 Resampling
The number of times the imagery is subject to resampling shall be minimized. The resampling algorithms used
shall employ cubic convolution, bi-cubic or superior strategies for deriving the output pixel intensity value. The
output shall have a dynamic range similar to the input imagery.
7.6.2.6 Accuracy
Digital orthoimagery accuracy shall be judged on its ability to correctly portray the position of a well-defined
object. The following three factors are seen as most significant in determining accuracy:
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As indicated in earlier section, the scanner will position the imagery to within 1 pixel.
For satellite imagery (or digital aerial camera), care should be exercised in choosing the suitable satellite (or
camera) data. IKONOS and QuickBird are designed for metric mapping. For these two systems, the internal
relative accuracy is within 1 image pixel. For digital mapping camera, the internal relative accuracy is also
less than 1 image pixel (1 GSD).
The critical input for rectification is the DEM. The effect of the DEM on horizontal position will depend on the
off nadir angle α of the pixel in the image.
Figure 7.12
For off nadir angle α of 30º, the typical rectification errors due to DTM are:
Table 7.15
Rectification Rectification
1
DTM Accuracy errors due to DTM errors due to
(m) DTM (Pixel)
Urban 30 cm 0.17 1.7
Whole Country 3m 1.7 1.7
1
DTM accuracy at post is 20cm and 2m for urban and country mapping. A factor of 1.5 times was included to account for interpolation
to required height not at the DTM post.
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Of the 3 key factors to accuracy being identified in this specification, pixel size and selection is the one which
reflects a human beings ability to read what the image portrays. In the follow pair of diagrams, a well defined
object is shown along with how it appears as an orthoimage after zooming in to the point where individual
pixels can be recognized. The actual location of the line defining that object is overlaid on top of the pixels to
show how “fuzzy” the line becomes. The task of interpreting the correct position becomes a task of picking the
right pixel. Chances are very good that for a well-defined object such as this, the pixel you pick will either be
the right one, or next to the right one. If you always pick the middle of your selected pixel, then at worst you
would be off by the diagonal of 1½ pixels. This equates to 15cm for large scale urban mapping and 1.5m for
small scale country mapping.
Figure 7.13
The following Table 7.16 summarizes the contributing factors to orthoimagery accuracy. The last column is
simply the sum of the 3 columns preceding it, but is expressed as an accuracy (i.e. with “±”).
Table 7.16
This total error / ortho accuracy is consistent with the planimetric accuracy required for 1:1000 and 1:10,000
mapping.
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Under normal circumstances, in the case of stereo aerial photography, every second exposure shall be used
for rectification. The exception to this will be
• At the end of each flight line
• Where there is substantial detail potentially obscured by tall buildings
• Where there is substantial detail potentially obscured within narrow street canyons
• Where there is significant radiometric imbalances to be resolved
• Where there is a landmark of particular significance
In the case of monoscopic satellite imagery, all the images will be used for rectification.
At the edges of blocks of imagery the exposure centered on the last tile edge shall be rectified. This will
ensure that the image used to create the last map sheet of each row contains sufficient coverage beyond the
block boundary to facilitate mosaicing the image to an image from a new block of photography. This last
mosaic seam shall fall entirely outside the original project area.
Where there are significant concentrations of tall buildings or narrow street canyons, the choice of photos
shall be adjusted to utilize the exposure closest to the centre of the concentration of buildings or street
canyon. This may mean using every photo in certain areas rather than every other photo. Or choosing satellite
image with smaller off-nadir angle (e.g. 18º).
Where there are significant radiometric imbalances resulting from using every second photograph, additional
photographs will be used. This will be particularly necessary where the sun’s reflective glare repeats itself in
the same position on each photo (this is especially visible on water).
The CGIS may specify that images with the nadir point closest to specific landmarks be utilized in the mosaic.
Similarly, the CGIS may specify that special photography be flown oriented to cover specific areas. In such
case the special photography will be integrated into the mosaic from which the final sheets shall be cut.
In no case shall the mosaic seam line exceed a distance that will cause the off nadir angle to be greater 30º.
This is in order to limit the horizontal error associated with the DEM in the rectification process. It also limits
the apparent building “lean”.
The consultant shall deliver digital files containing all mosaic seam lines and/or lines defining edges of blend
regions. These files may be formatted as either ARCGIS personal GEO-Database or shape files.
For urban areas with high rise building, CGIS may wish to specify for “true orthoimage”. True ortho requires
all building features to be measured and aerial photography flown with 60% sidelap. The building features
dimension is required to correct for the “building lean”, while the 60% sidelap is required to provide
supplemental imagery to fill-in the area patch obscured in the first image.
CGIS may wish to additionally specify 85% overlap for the photography. This will allow us of only the near
vertical portion for production of “true orthoimage”.
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3. Providing building feature file will pull buildings 4. Supplemental imagery that covers the
upright. But ‘shadow’ will be left in the previously obscured area will fill-in the ‘shadow’ area with
obscured area valid imagery
Figure 7.14
7.6.2.9 Mosaicing
Each rectified image shall be mosaiced to the adjacent images in order to form complete sub-tiles as
described in earlier section. This mosaicing shall be performed using interactively defined, irregular seams.
The seams shall be designed to minimize the effects of the mosaicing and shall not cross vertical objects
above ground level except where absolutely unavoidable. The seams shall be designed to minimize the
effects of differing radiometric characteristics (reflectivity) between adjacent images. The seam line should not
be visible except in areas where it must cross an area of substantial change in feature reflectivity between
images. An example of such a case is the mosaicing of two images over water, one of which contains
specular reflection.
The seam line shall also be chosen so as to minimize any spatial discontinuities across the seam. Therefore,
the seam shall be placed on the imagery at ground level and located in areas where minor discontinuities of
features are masked.
Localized adjustment of the brightness and contrast of the images shall be performed so as to minimize tonal
variations across the seam lines.
Each aerial photography or satellite image shall be rigorously ortho-rectified using collinearity equation,
rigorous satellite camera model or replacement camera model (e.g. RPC) and generated DTM or existing
DTM. Ortho rectification should provide the highest radiometric and geometric quality assigning to each pixel
its exact geographical position. Mosaic should be done along flat features and should not be crossing any tall
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features like Building, Wall, Towers etc. Proper feature continuity and radiometric balance needs to be
maintained along the mosaic. Any visual defects to be taken care originating during the ortho-rectification
process.
The mosaicing shall be performed in such a way that the entire area appears continuous. The individual sub-
tiles shall be cut from mosaiced imagery. Therefore all photographic images to be used in the production of
the final image data sets must be mosaiced one-to-another. Rectified images shall not be “butt joined” except
where the above criteria describing spatial and radiometric matching can be met. The following diagram
shows several photographs and the resultant four tiles. Note that each of these images would also be
mosaiced to other adjacent images if the area were surrounded by a contiguous block of photography.
Figure 7.15
Figure 7.16
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7.6.2.10 Radiometry
The radiometric characteristics of the imagery shall be adjusted to provide uniform contrast and brightness.
This uniformity shall be evident within each rectified image, within each map sheet and across the entire area
for which imagery is being prepared.
The imagery shall be stretched to provide uniform contrast throughout the dynamic range. There should be
detail evident both in the shadows and in the bright white areas. The data may utilize the full dynamic range.
No specific “cut-off” values are prescribed owing to the inherent tonal variability within aerial photography. The
frequency distribution of intensity values shall be adjusted to ensure that the mean falls within the range of
100~130 for 8-bit imagery or 1600~2000 for 12-bit imagery. The frequency distribution should be a relatively
smooth curve with no evidence of radiometric anomalies or artifacts, which are attributable to the processing
methodologies.
The data shall be delivered in files comprised of individual sub-tiles in GeoTIFF (based on TIFF version 6.0,
Aldus Corporation) format. The tiling structure is described in earlier section. The data must be formatted such
that an integer number of image rows are contained in each strip. The strip boundaries must match row
boundaries. It should be noted that the data must be formatted such that all other GeoTIFF parameters are
®
set to conform to ARCGIS/ARCSDE requirements. Each GeoTIFF filename shall carry the extension “TIF”.
®
Each image file shall be accompanied by an ARCGIS/ARCSDE “world” file. This file shall embody the
®
georeferencing information necessary for ARCGIS/ARCSDE to display the image. The file shall contain the
six parameters, which define the affine transformation from image space to QNG coordinates.
The world file shall carry the same file name as the image with a “TFW” extension.
The image data GeoTIFF files shall not be compressed.
The consultant shall institute comprehensive quality control procedures to ensure that the products delivered
are in full compliance with these specifications. Each quality control process shall be documented in the form
of a report to be delivered to the CGIS with the corresponding data product.
7.6.2.12.1 Reports
The reports are to be delivered with the orthoimagery and are in addition to those specified for the
documentation of other input products (aerial photography, aerial triangulation, DEM compilation etc.).
The consultant shall deliver a production flow diagram and associated explanatory notes which describe each
stage in the production process, the systems and software applied, the quality control procedures and the
quality criteria.
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7.6.2.12.1.2 Fiducials
A calculation of the RMSE of the fiducial marks identified in the scanned image relative to the true positions as
described by the camera calibration report shall be made. The report shall show the deviations in both X and
Y for each point as well as the RMSE calculation. If photography is acquired from digital camera or satellite
imagery, this report will be omitted.
A calculation of the RMSE of the photogrammetric control points (chosen in the image to define the resection
in space) relative to the GCP coordinates shall be made. The report shall show the deviations in both X and Y
for each point as well as the RMSE calculation. Similar process shall be performed if satellite imagery is used
for rectification.
The consultant will carry out a quality assessment of the geometric quality of each rectified image. The results
of this assessment will be delivered to the CGIS. At least four GCP points will be withheld from the space
resection. The position of these points in the rectified image will be evaluated relative to positions computed
within the aerial triangulation process. A root mean square error will be computed for these points. The report
shall show the deviations in both X and Y for each point as well as the RMSE calculation.
7.6.3 Deliverables
Table 7.17
Imagery Digital Files on CD- GeoTIFF .TIF and .TFW world files
ROM
Mosaic Seams – Digital Files
Quality Control Reports
• Production Flow Diagram
• Fiducial Report – RMSE
• Space Resection – RMSE
• Rectification Quality – RMSE
All materials provided by the CGIS (aerial film, calibration reports, aerial triangulation data, indexes etc.) are to
be returned at the conclusion of the project.
All materials derived from CGIS materials (diapositives etc.) are likewise to be returned.
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7.7.1 General
These specifications supersede all previous documentation pertaining to the production of digital geospatial
data from aerial photography for the Centre for GIS, State of Qatar.
The Centre for GIS, State of Qatar (CGIS) shall be the final authority on the acceptance or rejection of
geospatial data, attribute information, and hard copy products derived therefrom, produced under these
specifications.
These specifications detail the production of digital geospatial data from any scale of aerial photography.
Compilation will be specified as being under one of the following classifications. Unless otherwise specified,
the default nominal photo scale (for analog camera) or GSD (for digital camera) will be employed.
Analog Camera
Table 7.18
Default
Project Nominal Photo Final Digital Reference Map
Nominal
Classification Scale Range Map GSD Scale
Photo Scale
Larger than
Urban Mapping 1:5,000 10 cm 1:1,000
1:20,000
Whole Country Smaller than
1:30,000 0.5 m 1:10,000
Mapping 1:20,000
Digital Camera
Table 7.19
Default
Project Nominal Photo Final Digital Reference Map
Nominal
Classification GSD Range Map GSD Scale
Photo GSD
Smaller than
Urban Mapping 10 cm 10 cm 1:1,000
30cm
Whole Country Larger than 30
0.5 m 0.5 m 1:10,000
Mapping cm
These specifications define the compilation of digital maps and associated data in accordance with the Qatar
National Geographic Information Systems Database Specifications and Data Dictionary.
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7.7.1.1.1 Definition
For the purposes of these specifications a digital geospatial data is a vector representation of a topographic
line map which has been derived from aerial photography or satellite imagery. The vector representation is
compiled photogrammetrically on stereoplotters and carries specified attribute information. The vector data is
represented in a structured format and in strict accordance with specified nomenclature.
7.7.1.1.2 Quality
Each of the above inputs will have a profound effect on the quality of the digital line maps. For example, the
quality is influenced by the following factors:
• quality of the original aerial photography or satellite image (exposure, aircraft movement, image blur,
developing, handling)
• scale of photography relative to the output products
• quality of scanning or digital aerial photography
• type of stereoplotter employed
• quality and density of ground control
• quality of the photogrammetric point selection, mensuration and adjustment
• skill of the photogrammetrist and the care exercised in the compilation process
• data processing techniques, the algorithms used in the topological structuring of the data, the
processing sequence, and the procedures employed in the production of the final files
• quality control procedures and the diligence of the editor
The CGIS philosophy is based upon achieving excellent quality and consistency in all products. Accordingly,
the digital line mapping shall be produced in strict accordance with these specifications. Where the product or
associated process is not fully defined by these specifications, internationally accepted professional practice
shall govern.
7.7.2 Specifications
For vector mapping, the whole country or city shall be managed as one seamless continuous map.
7.7.2.3 Accuracy
Horizontal positional and vertical height accuracy requirements are dependent on the reference scale of the
required map according to Table 7.20 below. This is based on ASPRS accuracy standard for large scale
mapping. The rms error (RMSE) is the cumulative result of all errors including those introduced by the
process of ground control survey, stereo plotting, map compilation and final extraction of ground dimensions
from the map.
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Table 7.20
The CGIS will verify the accuracy of each map sheet by field survey methods. Both GPS and conventional
survey techniques will be utilized in the validation process. A minimum of ten well-defined and well-distributed
horizontal and height checkpoints will be established. The points will be checked for absolute error, bias and
precision in both X, Y and Z coordinates.
All coordinates shall be full QNG values. Coordinates shall be represented to the nearest millimeter (meters,
with 3 decimals) and stored in ARCGIS/ARCSDE double precision format.
The geo-database model supports an object-oriented vector data model. In this model, entities are
represented as objects with properties, behavior, and relationships. The employed geo-database is used by
ArcGIS products®, a Geographic Information System software platform produced by Environmental Systems
Research Institute (ESRI).
For further reference and latest information on vector data model, refer to the supporting documentation from
ESRI on the ArcSDE® data model or visit www.esri.com.
For more details on needed features, feature classes, feature datasets, tables, etc; refer to the topographic
data dictionary.
Specific definitions and compilation rules are contained in the Qatar National Geographic Information Systems
Database Specifications and Data Dictionary. The data dictionary provides compilation examples and
explanatory text and diagrams for each and every feature.
The spatial data shall be cleaned and the topological relationships built. The individual data elements and
features shall join and intersect at exact coordinate values i.e. the end point of one feature “snapping” to
another feature shall have its end point coordinates duplicated in the line it joins or intersects.
Note that all points of features must be explicitly captured from the photography. No points are to be derived
or interpolated from other points already established. For example, no corner squaring or perfect curve
routines are to be applied, even if an object appears to be formed by right angles or perfect curves.
The CGIS shall supply a digital file of all ground control points and associated annotation falling within the
mapping limits. This file shall be used to incorporate the control points within the hard copy product.
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The geospatial data shall be able to plot in GeoPDF format as produced by ESRI ArcGIS technology.
The graphic overlay shall be integrated with the geospatial data and the combined file output on a film writer
or scribed. The neat dimensions of the sheet shall be 50 cm by 100 cm.
The CGIS shall provide the names to be reproduced on the hard copy. The names will be annotated on the
site verification proof plot.
The mapping will subject to comprehensive quality assurance processes applied by the CGIS. The work will
adhere to the following sequence of activities:
• Aerial Triangulation
• Photogrammetric Compilation
• Site Verification
• Final Edit
• CGIS Quality Assurance
• Final Inspection.
The CGIS shall approve each product or interim result prior to work beginning on the successive stages of the
project. The mapping will be undertaken in blocks, the configuration and priority of which shall be determined
by the CGIS. Each block will be tied to all existing mapping in adjacent blocks. The aerial triangulation
adjustment will likewise be tied to each adjacent block.
The planimetric and hypsometric data will be compiled by photogrammetric means on a model-by-model basis
and then merged into tile (map sheet) format.
Following photogrammetric compilation the consultant will produce two check plots of each sheet and submit
them to the CGIS. These plots will be made on stable base material and will carry symbology defined
specifically for the verification plots. The verification plots will extend 20mm beyond the nominal sheet neatline
so as to show continuity of features across the neatline. At the same time the geodatabases will be delivered
to support the evaluation of the horizontal accuracy of the planimetric features.
The CGIS will first verify the horizontal accuracy by collecting coordinates for well defined objects (as defined
by an independent survey of higher order than that utilized to control the aerial photography). Should the
horizontal accuracy fail to meet the required standard (refer to Section 7.4.3), the tile (map sheet) shall be
returned to have the photogrammetric compilation repeated. None of the spatial data from a failed horizontal
coordinate accuracy submission may be used on a subsequent submission.
Should the horizontal accuracy meet the required standards, the verification survey shall continue by adding
field data to one of the verification plots. This will be returned to the consultant for inclusion in the map files.
The field verification is used to identify:
• new features
• obscured features
• removed or destroyed features
• miscoded or misinterpreted features
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At the same time attribute data will be acquired in the field and annotated on the verification plots. Where new
features are to be added they will be surveyed in the field by the CGIS. The new information will be provided
to the consultant in AutoCAD DWG or DXF format with a TXT file containing the text.
[For Small scale projects (nominal photo scales smaller than 1:20,000 or GSD greater than 30cm), it may not
be possible to compile small objects since they are not visible on the photography. Objects not visible on
photography at a nominal scale less than 1:20,000 or GSD greater than 30cm will not be surveyed during the
site verification survey. If an object is visible on the photography, it must be collected regardless of how small
it is. For Large scale projects (nominal photo scales larger than 1:20,000 or GSD smaller than 30cm), all
objects listed in the data dictionary (topographic vector data) will be surveyed during the site verification
survey.]
The consultant will perform a final edit to correct problems identified in the field verification stage and to
incorporate the new information. A final proof plot will then be generated on stable base material for
submission to the CGIS. This plot will carry final cartographic symbology with the exception of line weights.
The digital data will be cleaned and the topology will be built to form the final digital deliverable.
The CGIS will verify that all changes requested during the site verification phase have been completed
properly. An inspection will be made of the final proof plot made during the Final Edit phase. The digital data
will be subjected to a rigorous and exhaustive quality assessment by the CGIS. A complete report of all
problems detected will be generated during this procedure. This report will be returned to the consultant to
guide corrections to be made to the files. It should be noted that the CGIS quality assurance routines are not a
substitute for the consultant’s own procedures. Individual tiles shall be rejected for any error. Tiles failed in
Control Point Testing (CPT) check shall be rejected and The Consultant shall recompile that whole tile again.
If the CGIS detects fewer than ten errors, none of which are major, it may elect to effect the corrections in-
house. If more than ten errors are detected, CGIS quality assurance will be terminated before completion, and
the sheet will be returned to the consultant for corrections and further quality assurance processing.
• Reports List
∗ Production Flow
∗ Aerial Triangulation Report
∗ Stereo Model Set-up
• Site Verification Proof Plots (2)
• Interim Digital Files
• Final Proof Plot
• Final Digital Files
• Original Negative Film• All Contact Prints
• All Diapositives
• Control Lists and Files (provided by CGIS)
The consultant shall institute comprehensive quality control procedures to ensure that the products delivered
are in full compliance with the specifications. Each quality control process shall be documented in the form of
a report to be delivered to the CGIS with the corresponding data product.
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7.7.2.5.3.1 Reports
The reports are to be delivered with the geospatial data files and are in addition to those specified for the
documentation of other input products (aerial photography, aerial triangulation, DEM compilation etc.).
The consultant shall deliver a production flow diagram and associated explanatory notes which describe each
stage in the production process, the systems and software applied, the quality control procedures and the
quality criteria.
Stereo Model set-up sheets shall be prepared for each model oriented for compilation. Model set-up sheets
and model orientation histories shall be part of a permanent file for the project and shall be submitted to the
CGIS following compilation.
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7.8.1 General
These specifications supersede all previous documentation pertaining to the production of digital elevation
models from aerial photography for the Centre for GIS, State of Qatar.
The Centre for GIS, State of Qatar (CGIS) shall be the final authority on the acceptance or rejection of digital
elevation model information, and hard copy products derived from, and produced under these specifications.
These specifications detail the production of digital elevation models. Compilation will be specified as being
under one of the following classifications. Unless otherwise specified, the default nominal photo scale (for
analog camera) or GSD (for digital camera) will be employed. Refer to Figure 7.18 and Figure 7.19
• They shall serve as the basis of imagery orthorectification taken from nominal photo scales range of
the same or smaller project classifications as that used to create the DEM.
• They shall support surface modeling applications.
The principles contained herein are applicable to DEMs compiled from other scales of photography with
appropriate modifications to calculated parameters.
The principal parameters governing digital elevation models compiled from a given scale of photography are:
• Character
• Density
• Accuracy
The character and density refer to the spatial structure of the DEM and the techniques employed in
compilation. These parameters govern how well a DEM describes the ground surface. The accuracy of the
DEM refers to the degree of conformity of measurements with the actual elevations as measured in the field.
7.8.1.1.1 Definition
For the purposes of these specifications a digital elevation model is a representation of a topographic surface
which has been derived from aerial photography of perspective projection or high resolution satellite imagery
with pseudo-perspective projection. The representation is compiled with softcopy digital photogrammetric
workstation (DPW) and carries specified attribute information. The digital elevation models are comprised of
points and line strings. The individual points carry X, Y and Z coordinates. The line strings are sequences of
points each carrying X, Y and Z coordinates. The data is represented in a structured format and in strict
accordance with specified nomenclature.
The principal inputs to the process of compiling digital elevation models are exactly the same as those for
digital line (vector) mapping:
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7.8.1.1.2 Quality
Each of the above inputs will have a profound effect on the quality of the digital elevation models. For
example, the quality is influenced by the following factors:
• Quality of the original negative image (exposure, aircraft movement, image blur, developing,
handling)
• Scale of photography relative to the output products
• Quality of diapositive production and handling
• Type of stereoplotter employed
• Quality and density of ground control
• Quality of the photogrammetric point selection, marking, mensuration and adjustment
• Skill of the photogrammetrist and the care exercised in the compilation process
• Data processing techniques, the algorithms used, the processing sequence, and the procedures
employed in the production of the final files
• Quality control procedures and the diligence of the editor
The CGIS philosophy is based upon achieving excellent quality and consistency in all products. Accordingly,
the digital elevation models shall be produced in strict accordance with these specifications. Where the
product or associated process is not fully defined by these specifications, internationally accepted professional
practice shall govern.
7.8.2 Specifications
7.8.2.3 Accuracy
Horizontal positional accuracy requirements are dependent on the reference scale of required mapping.
Figure 7.20
The CGIS will verify the accuracy of each map sheet by field survey methods. Both GPS and conventional
survey techniques will be utilized in the validation process. A minimum of ten well-defined and well-distributed
horizontal check points will be established. The points will be checked for absolute error, bias and precision in
both X and Y coordinates.
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Vertically, accuracy is usually the limiting criteria for aerial flying flight. The C factor is the standard empirical
factor that relate the contour interval plottable by the stereo plotting system to the flying height of the aerial
photography. For modern DPW, the C factor of 2000 is commonly adopted. The standard for contour interval
requires 90% of the mass heights to be within half contour interval. ASPRS accuracy standard for large scale
mapping define the rms error for mass height to be one-third the contour interval.
It is thus convenient to define the S factor, such that:
The S factor is thus 3x the C factor. i.e. S factor to be used is thus 6000.
Mass Points Points collected at regular gridded posting, which form the
foundation of the DEM.
The digital elevation model shall be compiled on a first order softcopy digital photogrammetric workstation
(DPW).
Mass points will be measured either automatically (with DPW template matching DTM acquisition software) or
manually. If automatically measured, manual editing process is mandatory to eliminate erroneous height
values that may arise due to cloud, water bodies, trees and buildings. The DTM height must be corrected to
the ground level.
Additional points of special significance shall be captured on top of the regular gridded DTM post. These
points are necessary to depict elevation extremities. Spot heights shall also be captured at road intersections,
along roads, on bridges, and on summits and depressions, and at water level on the ocean.
All mass point and spot height DEM points must be explicitly captured from the aerial photography or satellite
imagery. No points are to be derived or interpolated from other points already established.
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All road extents, runways etc. shall be captured as transportation breaklines. Certain features, as listed below
will always constitute breaklines whereas others shall only be included where they define a distinct change in
slope or elevation
Physical breaklines shall be captured as form lines defining breaks in slope of natural landforms e.g. ridges,
cliffs, gullies etc. and certain man-made features e.g. retaining walls, embankments etc. Certain features, as
listed below will always constitute breaklines whereas others shall only be included where they define a
distinct change in slope or elevation.
Other breaklines shall be captured where necessary to adequately characterize the complexity of the terrain.
These breaklines do not correspond to features captured in the vector mapping e.g. ridgelines, saddles, base
of slopes etc.
Several of the features captured as breaklines require that two breaklines be captured. A quarry, for example
necessitates breaklines at the rim and at the base of the excavated area in order to define the topography.
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All shorelines, shall be compiled as hydrographic breaklines. Certain features, as listed below will always
constitute breaklines whereas others shall only be included where they define a distinct change in slope or
elevation.
Both banks of ditches and canals will be compiled and coded as hydrographic breaklines.
Building heights shall be a component of the DEM. A single height will be measured atop each building. The
uppermost part of the structure of the building will be depicted. The top of antennae, masts, water tanks etc.
shall not be measured. The point must be positioned within the building polygon even if the height is
measured at the edge of the polygon. The building heights shall be delivered as a separate file.
The consultant shall implement a rigorous quality control process to evaluate, correct and verify the DEM data
prior to submitting the data to the CGIS for inspection. The following inspections shall be undertaken at a
minimum:
1. Inspection of the DEM in model formats prior to removal of the stereo model from the
photogrammetric instrument. An examination of a 3D representation of the model should identify
significant anomalies.
2. The minimum and maximum elevations on each model shall be measured photogrammetrically.
These values shall be compared to the minimum and maximum values derived from the DEM
file.
3. Ocean points, shorelines and other breaklines defining the ocean, ponds, and reservoirs must be
checked to ensure uniform heights.
7. Elevation values for all photogrammetric points on the sheet must be interpolated from the DEM.
An RMSE calculation shall be performed to quantify the deviation of the interpolated values from
the adjusted values produced in the aerial triangulation process.
The DEM shall be accompanied by a report comprised of a vertical RMSE calculation based on the evaluation
of interpolated values relative to the photogrammetric control points which fall within the DEM. In addition, the
report shall include two plots prepared from the DEM. One plot will show all compiled breaklines (minus the
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building heights). The second plot shall depict contours derived from the DEM (minus the building heights) at
an interval of 0.5m for urban mapping, 5m for whole country mapping. The contour plot shall be used as a
quality control mechanism to identify anomalous data within the DEM.
a) Plot of breaklines;
b) Contour Plot;
c) RMSE Calculation for Photogrammetric Control in the DEM.
7.8.3 Deliverables
DEM DEM GeoDatabase with mass points, high low points, physical breaklines,
GeoDatabase transportation breaklines, hydrographic breaklines, and building heights.
All materials provided by the CGIS (aerial film, calibration reports, aerial triangulation data, indexes etc.) are to
be returned at the conclusion of the project. All materials derived from CGIS materials (diapositives etc.) are
likewise to be returned.
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7.9.1 General
These specifications supersede all previous documentation pertaining to the production of 3D City Model
Mapping from aerial photography for the Centre for GIS, State of Qatar.
The Centre for GIS, State of Qatar (CGIS) shall be the final authority on the acceptance or rejection of 3D city
model information, and hard copy products derived there from, produced under these specifications.
These specifications were compiled to prescribe the production of 3D city model, which will in turn be used to
support the generation of different analysis by different applications on ESRI product lines for
photogrammetrically compiled products in the State of Qatar.
3D city models allow for computer-based photo-realistic visualization of 3D urban environments for many
applications like urban planning, telecommunication planning, engineering, architecture and 3D city
information systems. There are five consecutive levels of detail (LoD) defined, where objects become more
detailed with increasing LoD, both in geometry and thematic differentiation.
Table 7.21
For city wide mapping, LoD 2, city/site model with textured and roof structure is recommended. 3D city models
can be cost-efficiently generated using photogrammetric technique - in combination with 3D Digital Terrain
Models (DTM) textured with high-resolution oblique aerial photography or terrestrial photography for texturing.
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7.9.1.1.1 Compilation
For the purposes of these specifications a 3D model is a representation of a topographic ground surface with
3D features such as buildings, that has been derived from aerial photography of perspective projection. The
representation is compiled with softcopy digital photogrammetric workstation (DPW) and carries specified
attribute information. Compilation of the digital elevation models are described in earlier sections. The 3D
model surfaces are handled through ESRI multipatch feature format. Multipatches are a type of geometry
composing of planar three-dimensional ring or triangle faces, used in combination to model objects that
occupy discrete volumes in three-dimensional space. These faces may contain texture information, such as
oblique aerial photographs or terrestrial photographs, allowing the creation of photorealistic 3D views with
appropriate software.
For buildings, the highest point of the roof is to be measured, excluding temporary water storage tanks.
The principal inputs to the process of compiling 3D models are similar to those for digital line (vector)
mapping, with the addition of oblique or terrestrial photography for texturing:
1. Aerial Photography
2. Camera Calibration Data
3. Ground Control Data
4. Camera Orientation Parameters
5. Oblique Aerial or Terrestrial Photography
The first 4 inputs are governed by a separate set of specifications by the CGIS.
7.9.2 Specifications
The project area will be defined by the extent of the city to be mapped to be defined by coordinates in QNG or
WGS84 systems. The project files shall be provided to vendors in the form of ESRI compatible Shape file or
text file containing the bounding coordinate value.
7.9.2.3 Accuracy
Horizontal positional and vertical accuracy requirements are similar to that for Urban Mapping Vector and
DTM as follows:
Table 7.22
Vertical
Project Reference Default GSD (digital Horizontal Positional
Accuracy
Classification Map Scale photography) Accuracy (RMSE XY)
(RMSE Z)
The CGIS will verify the accuracy by field survey methods. Both GPS and conventional survey techniques will
be utilized in the validation process. A minimum of ten well-defined and well-distributed horizontal check
points per square kilometer will be established. The points will be checked for absolute error, bias and
precision in both X and Y coordinates.
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Vertically accuracy is usually the limiting criteria for aerial photography flying flight. The C factor is the
standard empirical factor that relate the contour interval plottable by the stereo plotting system to the flying
height of the aerial photography. For modern DPW, the C factor of 2000 is commonly adopted. The standard
for contour interval requires 90% of the mass heights to be within half contour interval. The recommended
contour interval for 1:1000 scale mapping is 0.5m. ASPRS accuracy standard for large scale mapping define
the rms error for mass height to be one-third the contour interval.
The S factor is thus 3x the C factor. i.e. S factor to be used is thus 6000.
Oblique aerial photography or terrestrial photography is primarily used for texturing the building façade
purposes. Small 35mm format digital camera may be used for such purposes. It is recommended that the
camera used should have more than 22 million pixels per picture frame. The image shall be acquired with
GSD less than 10cm (comparable with the vertical aerial photography).
For comprehensiveness, a multi(5)-camera systems may be used for acquisition of oblique aerial
photography. The 5 cameras are organized such that 4 are tilted with oblique angles of 40 degrees from nadir
and one is vertically mounted. The 5 cameras are connected to a dedicated data acquisition with integrated
airborne GPS (ABGS) and inertial measurement unit (IMU).
The photography flight lines shall be planned such that the 4 oblique photography are directed in the 4
cardinal directions – North, East, South & West.
All oblique and vertical photographs shall have sufficient forward and side overlap to cover the entire project
area individually.
The ground sampling distance of the oblique photograph shall be better than 10cm for the front line of the
photograph.
Each camera (fully digital) shall have the following minimum specifications:
The consultant shall implement a rigorous quality control process to evaluate, correct and verify the 3D city
model data prior to submitting the data to the CGIS for inspection. The following inspections shall be
undertaken at a minimum:
1. Inspection of the 3D city model prior to removal of the stereo model from the photogrammetric
instrument. An examination of a 3D representation of the model should identify significant
anomalies.
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2. Interactive visualization of the 3D city model with texturing, view from all directions, shall be done
to ensure correcting placement of textured image. At least 90% of the building façade should be
textured.
3. An RMSE calculation shall be performed to quantify the accuracies of positional and vertical
accuracies.
The 3D city model shall be accompanied by a report comprised of a horizontal and vertical RMSE calculation
with field surveyed check points to ensure accuracy of the deliverables.
7.9.3 Deliverables
Table 7.23
3D City Model 3D city model database at Level of Details of 2 (LoD 2), complete
with texturing in format compatible with the current version of ESRI
ArcGIS in CGIS.
Vertical Aerial Aerial photography in TIFF format with associated support/annotation
Photography file. Delivered in harddisk.
Oblique Aerial or In TIFF format unless otherwise specified
Terrestrial
Photography
Reports RMSE calculation with field survey check points. CGIS will specify
the number of check points per sq km.
All materials provided by the CGIS (aerial film, calibration reports, aerial triangulation data, indexes etc.) are to
be returned at the conclusion of the project. All materials derived from CGIS materials (diapositives etc.) are
likewise to be returned.
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References
Engineering and Design Photogrammetric Mapping, Department of the Army, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Engineer Manual 1110-1-1000, 2002.
ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps, ASPRS Professional Practicing Division 1990
Part 3: National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy, Federal Geographic Data Committee. FGDC-STD-007.3-
1998
Map Accuracy Standards, U.S. Geological Survey, Fact Sheet FS-171-99 (November 1999)
Minimum Guidelines For Aerial Photogrammetric Mapping, State of New Jersey, Department of Transport,
BDC98PR-009, 2005
Specifications for Aerial Triangulation, Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Sustainable Resource
Management, Release 2.0 May 1998.
CityGML: An Open Standard for 3D City Models, by Thomas Kolbe and Sam Bacharach, Directions
Magazine, Jul 03, 2006
3D Building Visualisation – Outdoor and Indoor Applications, by Dieter Fritsch, University of Stuttgart,
Photogrammetric Week 03, 2004
Standardization of 3D City Models, by Dr. Thomas H. Kolbe, Institute for Cartography and Geoinformation,
Univ. of Bonn, EuroSDR Meeting in Bern 4/2005
ADS40 Airborne Digital Sensor, ASPRS Potomac Region Chapter, Large Format Digital Camera Symposium,
29 August 2007
Geometric Handling of Large Size Digital Airborne Frame Camera Images, by Jacobsen, K. in Optical 3-D
Measurement Techniques. Zürich, 2007, S. 164-171
DMC Practical Experience and Accuracy Assessment, by Madani M., Dörstel C., Heipke C., Jacobsen K.,
XXth ISPRS Congress, Commission 2, Istanbul, Turkey, p. 396 ff. 12-23 July 2004
Tests And Performance Analysis Of The Dmc At The Cartographic Institute Of Catalonia (ICC), by W.
Kornus, R. Alamús, J. Talaya Institut Cartogràfic de Catalunya, Spain, Optical 3-D Measurement Techniques,
Zürich, 2007
Flying the New Large Format Digital Aerial Camera Ultracam, by Franz Leberl, Graz University of Technology
and Michael Gruber, Vexcel Imaging Austria, Photogrammetric Week 03, 2004
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Abbreviations
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The content of this section is extracted from the paper entitled “Qatar's GIS - Peering Beyond Objectives -
Challenges and Future Vision” delivered by Head of The Centre for Geographic Information System (CGIS) in
the 1998 ESRI User Conference.
State of Qatar experienced rapid urban growth during the past three decades after the discovery of oil.
Several hundred kilometers of roads, drainage networks, telephone lines, power and water networks, etc have
been built accompanied by a spurt in new real estate developments. The government agencies were unable
to keep up-to-date records of this rapid and large scale development. The lack of information together with
inadequate inter-agency coordination led to poor and inefficient physical and utilities planning and
management of resources. There was also lack of coordination between these agencies involved in physical
and utilities planning which resulted in inharmonious infrastructure expansion and urban growth leading to
large strain on government expenditures.
The government soon realized the need for an innovative means of tapping and managing vast information
resources that facilitate more constructive decision making required to sustain the developments and to
maintain newly built infrastructure. Further, wastage of resources due to duplication of efforts had to be
contained.
To solve these problems, government decided to go for an innovative mean for managing such information.
This aspect, together with the realization that eighty percent of this vast information was geographically
related, prompted the government officials to look at various information technology options to transfer the
maps/aerial photographs into electronic form. In 1988, a top-level government official Sheik Ahmed bin
Hamad Al Thani, referred to as the champion of Geographic Information System (GIS) in the State of Qatar,
pioneered the establishment and development of GIS to revolutionize the way information is managed in the
country.
In 1989, a government-wide user needs study was conducted to ascertain which areas of government would
clearly benefit from the implementation of GIS. Three key recommendations resulting from the study were:
that a Digital mapping database be implemented for the entire country; that a comprehensive fully integrated
nationwide GIS be created; and that a high level National GIS steering committee be established to set
standards and to oversee the GIS implementation.
In 1990, acting on these recommendations, State of Qatar established a National GIS Steering Committee
and The Centre for Geographic Information System (CGIS) with a mandate of implementing GIS across the
country in an organized and systematic fashion.
The objectives behind the decision to implement a nation-wide GIS program are:
(a) Eliminate duplication of efforts causing wastage of resources by avoiding data redundancy and by
enhancing inter-agency co-ordination;
(b) Make right information available at the right time to the decision-makers for efficient planning and
management;
(c) Foster teamwork among government agencies, especially those involved in physical and
infrastructure planning, environment protection and local government authorities so that they all work
towards common goals;
(e) Achieve consistency and uniformity in policies, standards and regulations for whole of Qatar; and
(f) Enable preparation of physical plans that are dynamic, flexible, easy to update, monitor and
implement.
(a) Gain support and commitment from the highest levels of government;
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(b) Make concerned agencies and officials aware of the potential and power of GIS;
(e) Establish education and training programs and make GIS tools available to everybody.
This manual documents the Strategy Team, framework for the development of GIS, overview of geospatial
data components and standard and the geospatial database specification.
Management of GIS in State of Qatar could be classified into Strategic Management, Tactical
Management, Operation Management, Executive Management and Functional Users Management.
Successful implementation of GIS in State of Qatar could be attributed to the successful managements.
Strategic management begins with the identification and organization of a GIS Steering Group to examine the
impact of transitioning to the technology.
GIS in the State of Qatar is guided and supported by the highest levels of government (See Figure 8.1). In
accordance with the Leadership’s wishes, Cabinet created the National GIS Steering Committee and the
CGIS in October 1990.
The National GIS Steering Committee plays the role of the GIS Strategic Management Team in the State of
Qatar. Whenever possible, examination of the organizational process should encompass both a “top down”
and a “bottom up” approach.
The objective of the GIS Strategic Management Team is to evaluate the business process and establish a
management framework within which the GIS Strategy can occur, ensuring that the development is efficient,
effective, and useful to the organization.
The National GIS Steering Committee plays a key role in Standardization and in fostering Cooperation
amongst Government Agencies.
• GIS Policies
• GIS Standards
• GIS training programs
• GIS database creation priorities
• Guidelines for data sharing and other GIS activities
Experience has shown that failure to succeed in the development and management of geographic information
lies not in the technology, but in organizational behavior. Successful adoption of geospatial technology has to
be perceived as more than successfully acquiring the hardware and software, it includes the awareness for
the value of planning, establishing objectives, and developing evaluation programs. A team approach then
becomes a necessary function of planning. It also allows management to distribute the burden associated
with this task while concurrently developing in-house expertise.
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The CGIS has the responsibility of the GIS Tactical Management Team effecting the implementation of GIS
in all departments. The synergy role of the National GIS Steering Committee and the CGIS would be to
organize the efforts of Qatar's Ministries & Agencies such that Qatar could realize the rewards of a nation-
wide Geographic Information System implementation.
“To coordinate a systematic implementation of GIS in Qatar, which simplifies data transfer between all
agencies, minimizes data redundancy, and ensures suitably trained personnel are available to operate and
manage the various components of the system.” (http://www.gisqatar.org.qa/new/all.html)
The CGIS also ensures continued cooperation amongst all agencies in Qatar. For this, they meet on regular
rd
basis (at present every 3 Monday) to discuss the communication, coordination and cooperation strategies for
acquisition, maintenance, sharing and dissemination of geospatial data among their respective authorities.
As the GIS Tactical Management Team, comprised of key directors and policy makers for the installation,
CGIS has the overall responsibility to:
• Obtain funding
• Identify policy requirements and prepare recommendations for review/action
• Approve resource allocations and timetable for development
• Solve interdepartmental conflicts
The objective of GIS Tactical Management Team is two-fold, the first is to fund and support the
implementation process, and the second is to build commitment, hence the high level guidance. Only at this
level can funding support be ensured. This level also demonstrates management commitment toward the
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project, lending credence to the project. While not ensuring the success of the endeavor, experience shows
that if staff members perceive that GIS is a management priority, they have vested interest to make it work.
So, support from executive management increases the likelihood of success.
Building commitment also includes getting the entire organization involved. The GIS Tactical Management
Team is in a unique position to provide the necessary support to ensure organizational involvement. Getting
everyone to be a part of the solution helps alleviate the fear experienced in transitioning to a new technology.
It decreases the amount of resistance and encourages cooperation within the organization. If done properly,
morale rises, and unit cohesiveness evidenced by esprit de corps is noted.
After the formation of the National GIS Steering Committee and the CGIS, each member agency set off to
implement their own GIS with the condition that it must be capable of integrating its data with any other
member agency's GIS. Central to their goal of implementing GIS was the establishment of GIS Working
Groups by each agency to provide the Operation Management of GIS in the State of Qatar.
• Senior Agency Technical & Management Staff - Leadership in defining agency specific
responsibilities, demands, and priorities for GIS implementation.
• Agency GIS Coordinator - primary organizer of agency GIS implementation
• Agency GIS Technologist - to carry out, and report on implemented technical GIS activities
• Centre for GIS Staff - act as coordinating agent among all Agency Working Groups.
These working groups had before them, the following basic objectives to achieve before they could reach their
goal:
Each member agency is set off to implement their own GIS with the condition that it must be capable of
integrating its data with any other member agency's GIS. To facilitate this, a single GIS software platform was
selected as the standard for Qatar.
Figure 8.2 depicts the working relationship between the National GIS Steering Committee, the CGIS, and
each of the Agency Working Groups.
44 government agencies in Qatar (see Appendix 8A) are using fully integrated GIS in their day to day
activities. Agencies providing the following government services today functioning on the integrated GIS
system are: Urban Planning and Development Authority, Roads, Electricity, Drainage, Water, Police Services,
Agricultural Services, Telecommunications, National Statistics, Environment, Land Registration, Education,
Health, Fisheries and Qatar University.
The GIS Coordinators Group for the Inter-Agency Project is the coordinators group to the GIS Working
Groups. The GIS Coordinators Group (see Figure 8.3) addresses and acts upon, as part of a national effort,
issues of common concern to all Agency Working Group. This group was organized within the CGIS, and
offered Coordinators the opportunity to exchange ideas. In fact, many GIS Coordinators held offices within the
CGIS premises, allowing further interaction.
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Figure 8.2: The Working Relationship between the National GIS Steering Committee,
1
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Extracted from State of Qatar – GIS Database Specifications and Data Dictionary.
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The GIS Coordinators supports objectives of the GIS Executive Management Team, i.e. CGIS, in providing
Executive Management. Personnel assigned to this group should have an in-depth understanding of their
area of expertise, databases, GIS software/hardware, networking, etc. This team has the overall
responsibility to:
CGIS is the chairing body of GIS coordinators group, and by setting regular meetings with representatives
from every ministry/corporation, it encourages cooperation, sharing and coordination of GIS activities and
ensures compatibility of all GIS standards.
This group works to create and sustain a spirit of harmony in the community of GIS users in Qatar, which is a
major goal of CGIS. This is achieved by bringing together and providing required support and training for all
candidate people from involved GIS Ministries/Corporations. GIS Coordinators, who are responsible for
setting up and maintaining the GIS databases in their respective Ministries/Corporations are focused on to
receive a variety of GIS training classes, learn about implementation techniques. GIS Coordinators meetings
are held at CGIS every three weeks regularly; it never stopped for the last 20 years. At these meetings ideas
are shared, problems are solved, technical policies are formulated, and work initiatives are explored.
The technical support and services offered by CGIS to the entire GIS community in the State of Qatar go a
long way to cement friendships and strengthen the spirit of community.
Cooperation, sharing and coordination of GIS activities are all encouraged by CGIS, particularly when it
comes to the development of applications. There is a mutual agreement to clearly document any tools, utilities
and scripts that anyone develops so they can be shared by all.
Such efforts, in the long run, save time and money for all and help to ensure the reliability as well as the
suitability of the products developed.
Finally, by enforcing adherence to all GIS standards, CGIS has ensured compatibility throughout the GIS
databases in Qatar. Compatibility itself tends to encourage and sustain cooperation because the data is
readily transferred and easy to use.
Moreover GIS has been successful in fostering teamwork among government agencies especially those
involved in planning, environment protection and local government authorities so that they all work towards
common goals.
High resolution, fully integrated GIS is available to all agencies and the public. The agencies make use of the
same base information, so all new data collected are also integrated. CGIS sets standards, provides training,
supports the National GIS steering committee, creates data sets, and in general coordinates all aspects of
GIS development and use throughout Qatar.
The GIS Coordinators have jointly developed a volume set of National GIS Database specifications and data
dictionaries consisting of 16 volumes, one for each agency. All specifications and data dictionaries are
approved and administered by the National GIS Steering Committee in order to ensure that the compatibility
necessary for data sharing is never jeopardized.
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The CGIS staff as coordinating agent among all Agency Working Groups has responsibility to:
This single point of contact serves as a liaison to all teams and groups, internal and external to the process.
This position is imperative because a knowledge void typically exists between the user and management. The
CGIS staff acting as coordinating agent bridges that void. The CGIS Coordinator possesses a detailed
understanding of the political environment and the technology. The CGIS Coordinator as Executive Manager
acts as a facilitator or negotiator, solving problems as they arise. The CGIS Coordinator has the technical
background and can assist management in aligning the technology with the strategic direction of the mission.
A common cause for failure in developing a GIS has been the lack or absence of expert guidance.
The Functional Users Group is a subordinate group to the Agency Working Group. Personnel assigned to this
group are the users who gather, process, analyze and disseminate geographic information. The Functional
User Group is tasked to:
This is the group that is intimately familiar with the data that are collected and the output products the data
supports. It’s the user for whom geographic information applications are written. It’s the user who accesses
and shares data. The key point to remember is that Geographic Information System is user driven. The user
is the client!
Building and implementing a full-scale GIS is a long and complex process. It impacts every organization on
the installation and requires a substantial investment to construct and maintain. Figure 8.4 displays the
structural framework for constructing a GIS. The entire process, beginning with the decision to implement the
technology through its completion, can be divided into six logical phases, i.e. Initiation (Section 8.3.1),
Evaluation (Section 8.3.2), Preliminary System Design (Section 8.3.3), Implementation Management (Section
8.3.4), Maintenance (Section 8.3.5) and Feedback (Section 8.3.6). Each phase is discussed below.
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Phase 1
Initiation
Phase 6 Phase 2
Feedback Evaluation
Phase 5 Phase 3
Maintenance Preliminary
Design
Phase 4
Implementation
8.3.1 Initiation
The process begins with a review of the Strategic Plan. The strategic plan is a document that provides the
installation with general guidance. It is usually comprises several sections including the mission statement, a
set of guiding principles, goal statement, and program direction. The strategic plan defines the purpose of the
installation (mission statement), in general terms of what it is the installation is tasked to accomplish (goal
statement), and it provides specific direction for subordinate units (objectives). Each unit that comprises the
enterprise also has a “plan” that provides guidance to the unit. Examine these as well and determine where
they fit into the overall direction of the enterprise-wide process.
The purpose of this analysis is to understand the existing organizational framework, how it operates, how the
new technology will change the structure, and to create a framework under which the impacts of change can
be managed. This analysis is an opportunity for management to tune-up virtually every job and function that is
performed on the installation.
GIS Strategic Management (See Section 8.2.1) must determine if information flow can be streamlined using
a GIS. What information is gathered within the organization? In broad terms, examine the information and
determine whether this information can best be displayed as locational information or as tabular data. Do
spatial relationships exist with other data? Can these relationships be portrayed more efficiently with GIS?
Is redundant information being gathered and maintained within the organization? Do multiple agencies collect
the same data? Does information within the organization conflict? Are these duplicate data files necessary?
Do they hinder dissemination of accurate information or hamper communications within the organization?
If efficiency and efficacy are issues, is GIS the appropriate mechanism to solve the problem? Providing
answers to these questions allows management to determine organizational needs and allows management
the opportunity to identify and examine alternative solutions.
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Feasibility falls into three basic categories – technical, financial, and organizational. To determine whether or
not a project is feasible, GIS Tactical Management (See Section 8.2.2) must examine and answer the
following questions:
• Technical. Is the necessary technology available? Can it be procured at a reasonable cost? Is the
required staffing available? Can it be obtained with a reasonable amount of funding? With a
reasonable amount of training, can it be used by the staff?
• Financial. Is cost within the realm of resources that can be obtained? Does the return on investment
(ROI) justify the investment? Can funding be allocated and sustained over the entire planning
horizon?
• Organizational. Are organizational impacts (structural and processes) within acceptable
parameters? Can performance measures be determined that satisfy management and policy
requirements? Can funding be sustained throughout the planning horizon?
Answers to the above questions determine whether or not the installation should proceed with the
implementation. If the answers to all three parameters indicate feasibility can be supported, then the current
business process should be examined for efficiency and effectiveness. This examination is time consuming.
GIS Tactical Management must determine whether or not information flows efficiently throughout the
organization. Identify where the bottlenecks to information flow occur. Identify processes that are uniquely
geospatial in nature, e.g., data that pertain to locational features and their related attributes – buildings, roads,
land parcels, real estate.
8.3.2 Evaluation
The primary concern during this phase is to obtain an accurate and detailed assessment of the present
method of operation coupled with a complete inventory of equipment and resources. This will provide a
baseline against which all actions will be measured.
Building on the steps initiated with the analysis of the business process, the system inventory, i.e. the
computers (both hardware and software) and the peripherals (digitizers, plotters, scanners, digital cameras
etc.) are examined. Also examined are the established communication links – determine how computers and
peripherals communicate with one another and the networking capabilities of the organization.
The site survey employs a variety of techniques that can include (but are not limited to) interviews, workshops,
questionnaires, and modeling. The goal of the site survey is to obtain an accurate depiction of the
organization’s requirements – both present and future. The survey should examine not only the computer
needs, but also personnel requirements e.g., skills available, skills needed, training requirements, and past
investments that support geospatial technology.
During the site survey the Tactical Management assesses what data the organization collects, activities that
collect the data, and mapping and graphic needs of the organization. This survey should include all collected
data, e.g., tabular data, graphic data, charts, and maps. Compare data collection with present mission
requirements and identify extraneous data and data voids (data that should be but is not collected). Examine
future needs of the organization. Is a mission change scheduled? What data are needed to support this
tasking?
Identify and list the products (inputs and outputs) generated by the organization. What is produced? Why is it
produced? How is it produced? Who produces the product? How often is this product produced? What data
is needed to support the product? How does this product support mission accomplishment? To answer these
simple questions it is imperative that the Tactical Management thoroughly understands the installation mission
and have an in-depth understanding of the requirements the organization will place on the new system.
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After compiling “current products inventory” meet with the customer and develop a detailed listing of the
products the system should produce. Combine the two lists and prioritize the inventory based upon some
functional criterion e.g., mandatory product, product aids mission accomplishment, internal use only etc.
Using the product list as a guide, determine the specific data requirements for the system – are data spatially
related? Are they maps, reports, images? Are tolerances or accuracy specified? What mapping scales are
required to adequately present the data?
If the product is a map, attach a sketch and itemize the visual aspects (features) on the map. If it’s a report,
define the information that is needed, including the headings and other common data fields – if possible;
obtain a copy of the product. Identify the relationships between the data elements and the database. Finally,
examine the tolerances and accuracy that are needed for the data. Error tolerance impacts the cost of the
system. Determine how much error can be allowed and still retain the integrity of the final products. The less
tolerance acceptable the higher the cost – cost of data precision is exponential.
Analysis of the site survey and inventory of available resources allows the Tactical Management to define the
scope of the proposed project. Knowing the mission requirements, available resources, data needs, and
product requirements, allows the Tactical Management to prepare a requirements document. The
requirements document should include all of the information discussed above, i.e., results of survey, results of
inventory, current practices, current resources, needed resources, current training status, and a history of past
investments toward the technology. It should also include a listing of output products – including examples of
maps and map scales, reports and graphs etc., data requirements, types of data collected, logical linkages
and error tolerances, and cost projections for the technology. Finally, a projected timetable should be
developed and provided to the Strategic Management. This document, including recommended priorities, is
presented to the Strategic Management for approval – remember the Strategic Management has the
responsibility to set priorities and align the project with the overall organizational goals and objectives.
During this phase, the Tactical Management will develop a preliminary system design based on the
information compiled during the mission review and the needs analysis. This step allows the Tactical
Management and the users to optimize the system based on input received from the users and to examine
the system design to ensure it is developed along a logical path.
While the basic components of the system – data, hardware, software, and maintenance are discussed as
disaggregated elements, they are not mutually exclusive – each has an impact on the other and is typically
accomplished at the same time. They are separated below only to facilitate discussion.
• Database issues are concerned with data storage - where and how the data is stored, data access,
data security, data accuracy, data standards, and data conversion.
• Software issues relate to what software should be used, and the modules necessary to support the
GIS.
• Hardware concerns configuration requirements, communications (networking), type of equipment,
location of equipment, and system performance.
• Maintenance is concerned with support issues e.g., responsibilities for maintenance and updates,
procedures, and access.
(a) Database
Database issues are a major concern because they are the most cost intensive factor of the system. Seventy
percent of the total cost of a GIS is attributed to data collection, standardization, and conversion. Adoption of
a spatial data standard provides a relational database schema and a naming convention that is compatible
with most software and eliminates the cost of data conversion. Using the standards also facilitates data
sharing across services – this means that applications can be readily shared between the services with little or
no modification reducing the cost of application development. Reference could be made to the website of the
International Cartographic Association (ICA) http://ncl.sbs.ohio-state.edu/ica/3_spatial.html.
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Database issues also need to address how data will be stored. Is it centralized or decentralized. Where will
the data be stored? Who has access to the data? What level of access – read only, read and write? Not
everyone has a need! Access should be granted only to those who have a legitimate need for the data.
Finally, the level of accuracy or error tolerance must be specified for the GIS. It is impossible to develop a
GIS without error. Error is built into the system! It comes from a variety of sources. Algorithms are used to
convert images from raster to vector – error occurs. Vector images, complete with their errors, form the
foundation for many CAD drawings. These drawings are “stretched and warped” to force-fit drawing to the
digital geometry - increasing error. Error cannot be avoided – it can be minimized and an acceptable level of
error can be prescribed. It is important to understand the needs of the end product and not over specify
accuracy requirements. The more accuracy required the higher the cost of the GIS. The cost increases
geometrically. Be cautious of vendors who prescribe centimeter accuracy!
(b) Metadata
Metadata is nothing more than data about the data. Metadata describes the content, quality, condition, and
other characteristics of a data. Metadata serves three important functions. First, it provides end-users if data
sets with adequate information for proper use of the data (documentation). Second, it provides a listing of
work that can be shared with others (inventory). Third, it supports search capability of a data set based on its
extended properties for others to find (catalog).
(c) Software
Software, too, is a critical element. The software chosen to support the GIS must consider the interoperability
between the software packages e.g., CAD, GIS, spreadsheet, word processor, database etc. The applications
developed for the system will also have a bearing. Identify programming needs. Automate routine functions.
(d) Hardware
Again, consider operability between software and the computer hardware (memory, ram, speed of processor,
video card, compact disk, etc) and peripherals (scanner, digitizer, plotter, printer, camera, etc.).
As a minimum, this report should address two functions - data and system. Based on the inventory, compile a
list of data layers needed to support the GIS. Annotate data availability e.g., available, partially available, not
available. How much of the available data is usable with the planned system? How much data conversion
will be required? Prioritize this list. The systems section should include a description of the existing system
and a description of the planned system and a map explaining how the organization will transition from one to
the other. A description of the hardware and software components should be provided to include
communications and interface requirements. This report will serve as the guideline for the development of the
GIS. As with all reports that support this undertaking, send to the Tactical Management for their concurrence
and approval.
The purpose of the implementation plan is to ensure the implementation process is efficient, effective, and
useful to the organization. The process involves transforming the implementation process into specific tasks
that can be accomplished within the constraints identified during the initiation and evaluation phases. It allows
Tactical Management the opportunity to schedule time and resources against a logical sequence of events.
The focus now shifts to the realm of application development – transitioning from the conceptual model to the
practical application – translating the previously gathered information into a working GIS.
The detailed design is a continuance of the preliminary design. During this phase the preliminary design is
translated into a specific functional system aligned with the organization’s business process. The database
architecture is finalized and data compiled and converted to work within the architecture. Acquisition and
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assemble hardware and software components. Personnel are trained and position to receive the final
product. The organization work process is restructured and production is transferred to the new process.
A database schema is required to be developed. Spatial data standard forms the foundation of the approved
schema for use on installations. Additionally, it provides a data dictionary. The standard reduces the cost
associated with the development of a schema and it facilitates data sharing within the unit, the installation,
and between major commands, and services. Data sharing is a key concept of the system.
Data compilation began with the survey and inventory discussed in the evaluation. A list of all the data the
organization uses was compiled. Now that data is reviewed for its quality and appropriateness. If it is
compliant with the database structure then the data is uploaded. If not, the data must be converted.
Conversion includes taking manual maps, engineering drawings, plans, as-builts and digitizing them in a
standard format. Existing digital files are converted to a single format, flat files are converted to relational
files, raster files to vector, tabular sets are geo-coded, and images sets are geo-referenced to their relative
position on the earth’s surface.
As the data is gathered it will become readily apparent that it is not standardized. This results in increased
cost in data conversion. Data conversion is typically the most expensive portion of the GIS development.
Procurement of the system components is dependent upon the individual service policies and procedures. It’s
beyond the scope of this guide to evaluate or make recommendations related to their individual practices.
(d) Pilot
During this phase, hardware and software are delivered, assembled, and tested according to some formal
acceptance testing procedures – preferably stated in the functional specifications of the project. These
procedures are designed to ensure the operability of the system, validate the database, its structure and
format, create a benchmark, and provide hands-on training. This is not a complete system but rather a
sampling or a cross-section of the entire system. It should allow the user to validate digitization routines, data
entry, data retrieval, map production, functionality of specific applications, and its analysis capability. As the
system undergoes the testing procedures technical problems will arise. This is one of the major functions of
the pilot project, it ensures the operability of the system, that the system accomplishes what it was designed
to do.
Training is also provided during this phase. Training is provided by the contractor (if one was used), the
vendor, or the team responsible for the system development. Ideally, this training is conducted on base, using
the installations system, data, and applications. Training should consist of application familiarity, commands,
product generation, system operation and system maintenance. It is important that training include long-term
data maintenance and procedures on how to update the database.
After the pilot project is thoroughly tested and all identified errors or technological problems corrected, the
remaining applications and complete data files should be loaded. It is imperative that the data files undergo a
quality control measure prior to loading into the system. The quality control measure should allow the
database administrator the opportunity to evaluate the data contents, accuracy, continuity, and data
consistency. The administrator should also examine the structure for integrity of the layering scheme and
ensure the definitions for each of the elements are present and accurate.
(f) Training
An integral aspect of designing a Geospatial Technology is the development of an effective training plan. The
training plan outlines a basic curriculum that allows the student to achieve a stated level of competency in
GIS. The training process involves all staff and support personnel throughout the organization. It must
recognize that there are at least three distinct levels of proficiency that must be addressed in the GIS
Profession. Each of these is unique and requires a specific set of skills. The three levels are:
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• Doer. The doer is the most highly trained GIS technician within the organization. These are the
experts who create the data and write the applications.
• User. The user’s focus is on manipulating and analyzing the data. This person creates derivative
data sets from the parent database.
• Viewer. The viewer views, extracts, analyzes, and displays data for communication purposes.
The training plan must also address the source of training, e.g., vendor, university, on-the-job training,
consultant, or government based courses. GIS technology is not limited to a single discipline but rather
encompasses a variety of skills across a multitude of practices. In reality, GIS is an inter-disciplinary tool,
drawing its knowledge from several fields of study consequently, the GIS technician must have an
understanding of several disciplines. The CGIS has developed a recommended curriculum for the GIS
professional and has provided a list of training sources.
The training plan must also target the student based on the level of interaction. Training demanded of senior
management (viewer) differs from that required for middle management (user) and again for the training
necessary for the operator (doer). Each has a specific need that must be met. Senior management is
concerned with issues that relate to how the technology will impact the budget, personnel, policies, and
procedures. They will be concerned with how the system will be implemented and what their specific role is to
ensure the success of the endeavor. Middle management is also interested in these items. They also need
more specific knowledge on how it works, what makes it successful, what tasks need to be performed, and
what impact this technology will have on the business process. Operators need to know how to use the
specific programs, enter data, generate reports, and maintain the system.
The vendor usually provides GIS training for vendor specific programs. However, due to the complexity of the
technology, education should go well beyond vendor supplied training. They should also receive training in
computer-aided design and drafting, cartography, coordinate geometry, spatial relations, information
technology - programming, database management, systems administration, and presentation skills. Providing
the user with in-depth the knowledge base will help alleviate problems during the implementation of the
technology. It will provide the user with the skills necessary to recognize and avoid product bias.
(g) Staffing
GIS is an inter-disciplinary field. Consequently, there are various full-time skills that are necessary to ensure
the success of this endeavor. Some of these skills have been identified and can be stated as positions, e.g.,
GIS Manager, GIS Analyst, Computer Programmer, Systems Administrator, Database Manager, and a CAD
Operator or Draftsman. These positions can be filled with existing personnel who have the stated skills or
existing personnel can be trained to accomplish these tasks. The option also exists to go outside the
organization and hire personnel with the requisite skills or the function can be outsourced to a contractor.
Consequently, a combination of contracting and existing personnel, working together is prudent.
Initially only the GIS Manager, working in concert with the Executive Management (See Section 8.2.4) should
be sufficient. However, as the system evolves other skills are brought into play. For example, application
development should involve the programmer; database design should involve the database manager. A
definitive schedule should be developed to allow this transition. If contractors are initially used, then a
scheduled transition from contractor to in-house personnel should be explicitly built into the process. The
training plan should ensure that personnel are identified and provided the necessary training to ensure they
are capable of assuming the assigned tasks and responsibilities.
Everything known to mankind has a beginning and an end. Just as every project has a beginning and an end,
somewhere along the line the GIS Implementation reaches fruition - the project ends and the system becomes
operational. Exactly when this change occurs varies from base to base depending on a multitude of factors.
Whenever the transition occurs there is a corresponding change in the business process. The focus shifts
from planning and education to operation and maintenance of the system.
Budgeting for a GIS is related to (1) labor, (2) hardware, (3) software, (4) maintenance of existing system, and
(5) miscellaneous expenditures.
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• Labor cost includes the annual salary of the personnel assigned to the GIS functions. While the
salary is set, the manager may prefer to track internal costs in separate categories such as direct and
indirect labor costs. Direct costs are associated with time spent on project management or project
completion. Indirect costs are costs not directly attributable to the GIS such as time spent in training
and administrative functions.
• Hardware cost should include all existing maintenance and or service contracts for all hardware
necessary to support the GIS function to include the CPU’s, modems, digitizers, scanners, etc. It
should also include indirect costs of replacement and modernization of equipment. Computer
hardware life cycles run about eighteen months and become truly obsolete every three to five years.
• Software cost should include funds associated with the purchase and or lease of software packages
including periodic upgrades of software. In general, GIS software tends to be upgraded on an annual
basis. For planning purposes, a GIS life cycle for management applications is about five to seven
year life cycle, after which much of the technology and many of the procedures should be replaced.
• Maintenance cost should include time spent maintaining the system. Maintenance includes
preventative maintenance, backup of system files, system repairs, and changing parts (if assigned to
this function). A general rule of thumb estimate for an annual budget is to fund fifteen percent of the
systems total purchase price.
• Miscellaneous cost includes all other costs. As a minimum, these should include administrative
support, office supplies, and travel and per diem costs.
At this point, an operational GIS is available. This implies that more than just hardware and software are
functional. It also means that the system is making a difference in how the organization is meeting its mission
tasking. Being operational means the customer is receiving the products they have been promised in the
implementation plan.
8.3.5 Maintenance
Maintenance of hardware and software includes: determine where equipment will be located, and identify who
is responsible for the maintenance of the equipment; develop operating procedures for maintenance,
(schedules, instructions, etc.) and determine access requirements. It is imperative that line item funding for
system upgrades be part of the budget. Schedule system upgrades annually. For example, computer
technology changes render computers obsolete every five years – the budget should allow for a fifteen-
percent turnover of computers annually. Software upgrades will be needed annually in some cases and semi-
annually in others. Ensure these items are included in the budget.
Building a database consists of two distinct steps. The first step is inputting the initial data and the second
step is maintaining the data. Inputting the data consisted of acquiring from multiple sources the data
necessary to support the selected geospatial applications. Maintenance consists of keeping the data current.
Data is the heart and soul of any information system. It provides the foundation upon which decision-makers
plan their activities. Sound data and maintenance procedures are essential to ensure that data and the
information derived from the data are above reproach. Once the quality of the data is questioned then the
value of the geospatial system is negated. Data are of little value if they cannot be trusted.
It has been stated that the most significant costs attributed to the development of a GIS lies in the data and
data-related activities. Conversely, the greatest savings are gained from data and data related activities. A
significant saving is realized by reducing the number of times a piece of data must be entered and
manipulated. For example, savings are realized when data are shared from a single data file rather than from
multiple inconsistent entries. This also leads to increased efficiency in data processing, increased data
reliability, and better decisions based on accurate and current data. An underlying goal of information
technology is to increase the efficiency of data entry and serve consistent, accurate, and current information
to the decision-maker.
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Data maintenance is probably a larger problem than data collection mostly because data maintenance is an
on-going process. Not only is it on-going, maintenance cost over the long haul are just as (or more)
expensive than the initial data gathering. But, it also provides a platform from which the user may realize
significant savings through gains in efficiency.
8.3.6 Feedback
Even the best laid plans change. The implementation process must remain flexible to accommodate evolving
missions, technological advances, and personnel changes. Short-term focus may redirect the course of the
implementation plan. Consequently, a systematic review can ensure the implementation remains on track or
reflects its direction as mission needs change.
The initial review of the system should entail some sort of formal appraisal. It should be channeled toward
specific, pre-defined aspects of the system comparing the original design to the delivered or manufactured
product. Is this system accomplishing the tasks as designed? Does it function as expected? Is it more
efficient than the “old way”? Does it follow the parameters established in the Delivery Order? Is it producing
the designed products?
Remember that the GIS is a tool that provides the decision-maker with the tools necessary upon which they
can base decisions. Decisions are based on their confidence in the data provided. In order for the GIS to
remain a viable tool, it must continue to meet these expectations.
Plans do change. The GIS must remain flexible to meet these changes. As mission change and evolve, so
too should the GIS.
Periodic reviews of the system are in also in order. The frequency of these reviews remains at the discretion
of the GIS Manager. However, every change in installation plans should be reflected in the GIS. The GIS
Manager must constantly re-evaluate the GIS to ensure its integrity.
GIS technology helps users to perform a variety of tasks. It is important to focus on standardizing data and
data life-cycle management to meet the many challenges today and tomorrow. This focus on standards and
life-cycle management enables interoperability and provides an effective tool to manage the investments
made in GIS technologies. The cost of developing and maintaining geospatial data is the most expensive and
crucial part of implementing geospatial strategies. Standardization will enable the data collected to be used
throughout the organization in an enterprise implementation. In addition, strict adherence to national and
international standards will extend their usefulness to local, national, and international agencies. Strict
compliance will also ensure that the data these other agencies collect will be compatible and interchangeable
with CGIS data sets.
It is not the intent to describe in detail geospatial data. There are numerous books and published reference
materials on geospatial data. It is the intent of this paragraph to describe geospatial data and identify
applicable standards.
An entity or feature is a real-world phenomenon, such as a lake, river, house, etc. It can be modeled as a
point, polygon, line, raster; but it is the thing being described. Entities, features, and geospatial data in general
can be broken into three parts: the spatial component, the attribute component, and the metadata (See CGIS
Topographic Data Dictionary).
(a) Spatial Component – All geospatial data has a spatial component or locational information
associated with it. Locational information can take the form of latitude/longitude, state plane coordinates,
universal transverse Mercator coordinates, etc., but in order for it to be integrated with other data sets, it must
have locational information tied to a geographic information system. Traditionally, survey data have been tied
to local coordinates rather than a geographic reference system. CAD drawings for architectural, structural,
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mechanical, and electrical disciplines have not been tied to a geographic coordinate system. CAD civil/site
layout drawings are traditionally tied to a state plane coordinate system. In order for CAD and survey data to
be used in a GIS solution, the data need to be referenced to a geographic coordinate system.
(b) Attribute Component – The attribute component, or the non-graphical component of the geospatial
data, is the information about the geographic phenomena. For example, the information associated with a
lake, such as the name of the lake, volume, discharge rate, etc., are all attribute information. Without the
attribute information, the ability to perform spatial analysis is limited to automated mapping.
(c) Metadata – Geospatial metadata refers to the documentation of geospatial data sets. Geospatial
metadata describes the content, quality, condition, and other characteristics of data.
1
8.4.2 Geospatial Data Standards
Standards may be catalogued in several ways. Usually they are developed in either an informal or formal
process, in reaction to or in anticipation of need. An informal process is developed by source of authority. An
informal standard, or de facto standard, is exemplified by AutoCAD DXF. This is when the user community,
through constant use, adopts a practice without any formal certification. A formal process for developing a
standard requires certification by a government body or a professional organization. Types of geospatial data
standards include the following:
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8.5.0 Geospatial Database Specification
A database specification should be established to serve two purposes: provide a firm set of rules for data
collection and database construction, and describe the database in sufficient detail to permit application
development. This specification will permit use of the database inside and outside of the producing
organization and result in a substantial cost savings to users. At a minimum, the specification should include
the following sections:
A database should be built to meet the requirements of the database specification. Before the design of a
database is finalized, it is advisable to create a prototype database and distribute it to potential users, along
with a copy of the draft specification. This procedure is valuable, even if only for internal use.
1
Reference: Metadata Details document of CGIS, CGIS Data Dictionary and Specifications and CGIS Database Design Document.
2
Reference: CGIS Data Dictionary and Specifications.
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The geodatabase model supports an object-oriented vector data model. In this model, entities are represented
as objects with properties, behavior, and relationships. The employed geodatabase is used by ArcGIS
products®, a Geographic Information System software platform produced by Environmental Systems
Research Institute (ESRI). Geometric data types used in this dictionary are as follows:
For further reference and latest information on vector data model, refer to the supporting documentation from
ESRI on the ArcSDE® data model or visit www.esri.com.
Data Mapping:
All feature class and attribute item types in coverages are mapped to geometry and field types in the
geodatabase. More than one feature class type in a coverage will map to the same geometry type in the
geodatabase. For example, points, tics, and nodes all map to geometry type point. Following Table 8.1
illustrates the mapping of feature class type to geodatabase geometry type between coverage and the
geodatabase.
Table 8.1: Geometry Type Mapping between Coverage Feature Class and Geodatabase
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Annotation in the geodatabase is not a geometry type but is implemented as a feature type.
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Table 8.2: Field Mapping between Coverage (INFO Item) and Geodatabase:
Table 8.3: Geometry Type Mapping between Shape File and Geodatabase
Table 8.4: Field Mapping between Shape File (dBASE Field) and Geodatabase:
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1
Annotation in the geo-database is not a geometry type but is implemented as a feature type.
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The use of tabular data model depends on the Database Management System (DBMS) in which the table is
stored such as Oracle®.
The geodatabase supports only the following seven generic field data types, data types not in the table cannot
be used:
Oracle®
®
Data types used in Oracle are as follows:
These specifications are administered under the authority of the National Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) Steering Committee. It is the responsibility of this committee to provide national standards and
specifications for all GIS databases in the State of Qatar that are compatible, and provide for effective
sharing/exchange of data where such sharing is warranted.
The Qatar National Geographic Information Systems Database Specifications & Data Dictionary is a
multi-volume set of “Information Resource Catalogues”.
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Each GIS Data Dictionary is one volume in a series, of which focuses on a particular resource. The full series
includes the following:
Geodatabase is a container of geographic data objects and often refers to as workspace. The various types of
objects it contains such as Tables, Feature classes, Subtypes, Feature datasets, Raster datasets,
Relationship classes, Geometric networks, Topologies, and rules.
Geodatabase addresses both geographic and non-geographic data issues. They are organized as follows:
Data modeling plays an important role in all software environments. Data models can be used as simple
representations of reality. The focus of most geographic information systems (GIS) is on the spatial
relationships between entities in the real world. Having an accurate and structured dataset is crucial to the
validity of the complex spatial analysis that is to be performed by a GIS. In order to maintain the integrity of
data imported and edited by the end user, strict controls must be imposed via the model.
Place all schematics of Object Oriented data models created either using CASE and UML for designing and
building a geo-database e.g. Visio or any latest tool available/supported by ESRI technology to specify UML
model.
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The purpose of this section is to identify all feature datasets, topology layers, geometric network and
geographic object classes including Annotation and Dimension object classes required for each datasets.
These should be listed alphabetically by the classes name in respective Feature Dataset.
Feature Datasets is a collection of feature classes that shares the same spatial reference. To model or
maintain spatial relationships in feature classes using a topology or geometric network, the feature classes
must reside in a feature dataset. Feature classes that store simple features (not part of a topology or network)
can be organized either inside or outside a feature dataset.
Feature class stores features with the same type of geometry and the same attributes. In geo-database,
an object class that stores features and has a field of type geometry. For naming convention, please refer
to Feature Class section.
Topology: Identification of the spatial relationships that meet the needs between features in one or more
feature classes or subtypes that meet the needs of data model. The following types of rules are available:
Point rules
Line rules
Polygon rules
Separate one or more pages should be devoted to list the names of feature datasets, feature classes, and
topology layers or any object classes those are participating in the geo-database. Following illustrates a list of
feature datasets, feature classes, and topology layers for topographic database.
For example: List of Feature Datasets, Feature Classes and Topology Layers
1. Landscap
• Landscap_Arc
• Landscap_Polygon
• Landscap_Topology
2. Landuse
• Landuse_Arc
• Landuse_Polygon
• Landuse_Topology
3. Veg
• Veg_Arc
• Veg_Polygon
• Veg_Topology
4. Landchng
• Landchng_Arc
• Landchng_polygon
• Landchng_Topology
5. Urban
• Urban_Arc
• Urban_Polygon
• Urban_Topology
6. Trnsport
• Trnsport_Arc
• Trnsport_Polygon
• Trnsport_Topology
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7. Landmark
• Landmark_Point
8. Height
• Height_Point
The Feature Datasets must be described in alphabetic order by its name. The description of particular feature
dataset should be started from separate page. One or more pages should be devoted for each feature
dataset. Each page (or group of pages) is of the same format. At the top of the page is the full feature dataset
name. This must be unique of any length, but is generally kept of 10 characters. The feature dataset is then
described in the following headings:
♦ Description: A long description of the feature dataset's contents in terms of what criterion was
used to define it. This will generally be the theme by which compulsory physical relationships
were examined.
♦ Name: Write a name of feature dataset which will be used in other naming conventions such
as for feature classes, topology layers, etc.
♦ Feature Classes: A list of feature classes that can be found under this feature dataset.
♦ Feature List: A list of features (classes of objects) those can be found in a feature class are
1
listed with each feature name and its Feature GFCODE . The feature list should be further
subdivided into separate lists based on the geometric representation of the feature. Each of
these lists is sorted in alphabetical order on GFCODE. The geometric representation has been
classified into the following categories:
Known Redundancy: Notes regarding any features in this layer for which their geometry exists
redundantly in other layers.
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Features and Feature GFCODEs are explained further in the Features – Section 8.5.3 (j).
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Hierarchy: An indication of any topological hierarchy that may exist. For example, polygonal features
may be bounded only by those linear features greater than a defined level in a hierarchy of linear
features. A similar relationship may also exist between linear and nodal features.
History Notes: If geometric history is maintained, the means by which it's done is identified.
Owner: The agency which owns (or has been appointed as custodian for) the geometry in this layer.
Update Rights: The agencies entitled to submit changes to the geometry in this layer.
The list of features' hierarchy under a respective feature dataset should be started from separate page. One
or more pages should be devoted for the same. Write at the top of the page "Feature Hierarchy" then feature
data set name and followed by list of all features with their hierarchy.
The purpose of this section is to identify all feature classes required for each datasets. Here details explain
business table of feature class.
List and order all the identified feature classes by its name and describe them accordingly. One or more
pages are devoted to the description of a feature class. Each page (or group of pages) should have same. At
the top of the page is the feature class's full name.
Name: The entity name, for primary geographic feature tables (business table) of type point, arc, or
polygon, the Name assigned must be (<feature dataset>_<feature type>). For example, table
landscape_arc would have this Name for arc feature class of landscape feature dataset.
Feature Dataset: Name of the feature dataset that contains this feature class, if applicable.
RDBMS: The name of the Relational Database Management System within which this business table
resides.
Known Redundancy: An indication if there is any data in the table which exists redundantly in other
tables.
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For the primary geographic feature attribute tables (business tables) in ArcSDE® , a number of
mandatory columns exist. Some fulfill GIS software requirements, whereas others fulfill national feature
inventory requirements.
Column Data Types: The breakdown of each column in the table should be identified in the following
headings such COLUMN (name of the column), TYPE (what kind of value does it accept), WIDTH (how
much is the width of column to accommodate the required values) and DECIMALS (number of decimal
2
places) for Oracle® tables, and CHARACTERISTICS to define domain and constraints such as
acceptable values, range, validation checks, constraints for further limiting column values, unique key,
primary key, foreign key etc. Note that column names can only be of maximum 10 characters in length,
and must not conflict with any reserve word identified within ArcSDE® or Oracle® DBMSs. For the
primary geographic feature attribute tables (business tables) in ArcSDE®, a number of mandatory
columns exist. Some fulfill GIS software requirements, whereas others fulfill national feature inventory
requirements.
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Refer to ArcSDE® documentation for further details
2
Refer Oracle® documentation for further details
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List of Features: Provide a list of all features lie in this feature class in a table format with two
columns under heading of GFCODE and definition, for feature details refer Features – Section 8.5.3
(j).
Owner: The agency that owns (or has been appointed as custodian for) the data in this table.
Update Rights on Columns: The agencies which are entitled to submit changes to the data in
specific columns of this table.
Relate Table: A table which contains a list of all direct relationships for the given table. In case of
many-to-many relates via a link table, both sectors of the relate table are shown on the same row.
Diagram methods: Design documents are often simplified (abstracted) so they may be easily read and
understood. Use Unified Modeling Language which is independent of process and language under the Visio
environment or any latest visual tools for data and software modeling available at ESRI. ESRI provides Visio
templates needed in order to build designed model. They contain ArcObject geodatabase classes, their
interfaces, and ESRI extensions to UML. Provide Data Model depicting relationship between feature classes,
subtypes for a respective feature dataset. Also list out all domains applied for each feature class/subtype for a
feature dataset. For clarity, Link Tables may be omitted. The Lookup Table that does not have its own
Appendix C listing must be shown on in the model Master Tables it’s referenced with. A Lookup Table that
has its own Appendix C listing must either have its own model, or be shown on the models of Master Tables
it’s referenced with. The following class diagrams illustrate the representation of Feature Datasets used for
developing topographic model.
LANDMARK HEIGHT
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The following illustration depicts the modeling of Feature Dataset, Feature classes, subtypes, and
domains in UML/Visio, showing an example for Urban Feature dataset and its feature classes, subtypes
and domains used for modeling topographic database.
Generalization
URBAN_ARC URBAN_POLYGON
+ OBJECTID + OBJECTID
+ GFCODE + GFCODE
+ LNURBN_KY + TYPE
FEATURE CLASS + DATE_LUPD + GFCODE1
+ METHOD + TYPE1
+ AGENCY + ARURBN_KY
+ SHAPE + DATE_LUPD
+ SUBTYPECOD + METHOD
+ AGENCY
+ ARURBN_KY1
+ SHAPE
+ SUBTYPECOD
Binary Association
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Topology: Identification of the spatial relationships that meet the needs between features in one or more
feature classes or subtypes that meet the needs of data model. The following types of rules are available:
Point rules
Line rules
Polygon rules
The primary purpose of geo-database topology is to define spatial relationships between features in one or
more feature classes. It stores edited area, rules, errors, and exceptions. The primary spatial relationships to
model are adjacency, coincidence, and connectivity. More than one topology rules may be applied in one
feature class. Provide a list of all feature classes and/or subtypes affected by topology rules. All topology rules
those are going to be applied on feature classes of a feature dataset should be listed under a same feature
datasets.
List and order all the identified topology layers by its name and describe them accordingly. One or more
pages are devoted to the description for each topology layer. Each page (or group of pages) is of the same
format. At the top of the page is the full name of topology layer. The topology layer is then described in the
following headings:
Feature Class Name: is the name of feature class whose rank is the highest in the topology relationship. If
there is only one feature class in topology then same name should be used.
Description: Long description of topology layer's contents in terms of what spatial relationships is maintained
and why.
Cluster Tolerance: Define a distance in which all vertices and boundaries are considered identical, or
coincident. The default is the inverse of the precision of the feature dataset.
Feature Dataset: Name of the feature dataset which contains this topology layer.
Feature Classes: List out all feature classes those will participate in the topology.
Ranks: Ranks allows controlling how vertices move during validation process. Determine the number of ranks
(up to 50) based on data, and the priority of the rank of each feature class in the topology.
Rules: These define conditions in the topology, and are used to specify and constrain the topological
relationships that must exist within the topology. Specify topology rules those will be applied and
corresponding feature classes.
(e) Domains/Subtypes
Domains:
Attribute domains define additional rules/constraints for fields in table, feature class, or subtype. They are
created as properties of the geo-database, and then are assigned to fields by editing the field properties of a
feature class or table. The same domain may be assigned to many fields in different tables. Also, domains
may be applied to all records, or to specific subtypes of records. These are used in defining legal values or
defining split or merges policies for features. Following are the types of domain:
• Range Domain
• Coded-value domain
Range domain specifies a valid range of values for a numeric attribute. A coded value domain can apply to
any type of attribute – text, numeric, date, and so on.
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List and order all the identified domains needed for database by its name and describe them accordingly.
Description of each domain should start from separate page. One or more pages should be devoted to the
description of each domain. On the top of the page is the name of the domain and it must be unique of any
length. Then describe domain as follows: domain properties, codes/ranges and values. The naming
conventions for the domains are as follows:
AgencyCodeFeatureClassName_DomainName
AgencyCode_DomainName
Following example shows the naming convention used, domain properties, coded values for specifically arc
feature class of vegetation feature dataset in topographic database.
Name: Veg_Arc_GFCode
Domain Properties
Field Type Text
Domain Type Coded Value
Split Policy Duplicate
Merge Policy Default Value
Coded Values
GFCODE Description
TGLESCRB Scrub Extent
TGLEWDAR Wooded Area Extent
TGLNHDGW Hedgerow
TGLNTRLN Tree Line
TGLVMPLT Mapping Limit Extent
TGLVNEAT Neatline Extent
Subtypes:
The geodatabase has several data integrity and data management capabilities, one of them is subtypes. The
objects stored in a feature classes or table are organized into subtypes and can have set of validation rules
associated with them.
When to use subtypes it depends upon business requirements. For example, if we are trying to distinguish
objects by their default values, attribute domains, connectivity rules, and relationship rules, it is recommended
to create subtypes for a single feature class or table. If we are trying to distinguish objects based on different
behaviors, attributes, access privileges, or whether the objects are multi versioned, we must create additional
feature classes.
The description of each subtype should start from separate page. One or more pages can be devoted to the
description of each subtype needed to database. Use following subtype values and associated features those
are common to all feature classes:
0 - New feature
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Feature Dataset Name: Write the name of feature dataset that will contain these subtypes.
Feature Class/Table Name: Specify the name of feature class/table where these subtypes will be applied.
Description of Subtypes: Write the description of each subtype and respective code.
(f) Tables
The purpose of this section is to identify all tables. List and order all the identified tables by its name and
describe them accordingly.
One or more pages are devoted to the description of a particular table. Each page (or group of pages) is of
the same format. At the top of the page is the RDBMS table name. Other than the primary geographic feature
attribute tables in ArcSDE®, there are 3 different types of tables indicated in this document. These are:
MST Master Table - A primary table representing an entity and maintaining its characteristics.
1
Master Table names are given the following structure :
<GFCODE>_MST
LNK Link Table - A table which only maintains foreign keys for the purpose of allowing relates
between Master Tables (usually when a many-to-many relationship exists between them). Link Table
1
names are given the following structure :
<Resource Area>ZZ<sequence>_LNK
Where Resource Area is the first 2 characters from GFCODE, and sequence is a
sequential value between AAAA and ZZZZ (i.e. AAAA, AAAB, AAAC, etc.) such that
the full 8 characters before the extension (LNK) are unique.
e.g. TGZZAACL_LNK
2
LKP Lookup Table - A table which maintains a single column of long text, along with its
abbreviation. This abbreviation is essentially a primary key to substitute for long text in Master Tables
1
thus minimizing data storage requirements. Lookup Table names are given the following structure :
<Resource Area>ZZ<abbrev>_LKP
Where Resource Area is the first 2 characters from GFCODE, and abbrev is an
abbreviation to represent the file such that the full 8 characters before the
extension (LKP) are unique.
e.g. TGZZCHPT_LKP
1
The underscore ("_") delimiter is used with Oracle®. In INFO®, a period (".") is used as its delimiter.
2
A Lookup Table may maintain two columns of long text where one is in Arabic, and the other in English.
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GFCODE: An 8 letter identifier to nationally identify a unique entity or feature (geo-entity). Refer to the
previous section FEATURES description (page) for generating GFCODE and more details. For
primary geographic feature attribute tables (.AATs, .PATs, etc.), the GFCODE assigned must not
have PV, LV, LE, LX, RV, AV, GV, or CV in character positions 3 and 4 (i.e. basic geometric
representation without the qualifiers “virtual” or “extent”).
RDBMS: The name of the Relational Database Management System including version number within
which this table resides.
Normalization: Mention what degree of normalization such as first, second, third, etc. could have
been achieved by normalizing a table, if applicable; or specify clearly why de-normalization is
preferred.
Known Redundancy: An indication if there is any data in the table which exists redundantly in other
tables.
Column Data Types: The breakdown of each column in the table should be identified in the following
headings such COLUMN (name of the column), TYPE (what kind of value does it accept), WIDTH (how
much is the width of column to accommodate the required values) and DECIMALS (number of decimal
1
places) for Oracle® tables, and CHARACTERISTICS to define domain and constraints such as
acceptable values, range, validation checks, constraints for further limiting column values, unique key,
primary key, foreign key etc. Note that column names can only be of maximum 10 characters in length,
2
and must not conflict with any reserve word identified within ArcSDE® or Oracle® DBMSs. For the
primary geographic feature attribute tables (business tables) in ArcSDE®, a number of mandatory
columns exist. Some fulfill GIS software requirements, whereas others fulfill national feature inventory
requirements.
Column Definitions: A verbal description of what each column represents. If a Lookup Table (LKP)
is to be referenced, and it does not have its own Appendix C entry, the Lookup Table's Column Data
Types must be listed.
Owner: The agency that owns (or has been appointed as custodian for) the data in this table.
Update Rights on Columns: The agencies which are entitled to submit changes to the data in
specific columns of this table.
Relate Table: A table which contains a list of all direct relationships for the given table. In case of
many-to-many relates via a link table, both sectors of the related are shown on the same row.
Diagram Methods: Design documents are often simplified (abstracted) so they may be easily read
and understood. Use Unified Modeling Language which is independent of process and language
under the Visio environment or any latest visual tools for data and software modeling available at
ESRI. ESRI provides the Visio templates needed in order to build designed model. They contain the
ArcObject geo-database classes, their interfaces, and the ESRI extensions to the UML. Provide Data
Model depicting relationship between feature classes, subtypes for a respective feature dataset. Also
list out all domains applied for each feature class/subtype for a feature dataset. For clarity, Link
Tables may be omitted. The Lookup Table that does not have its own Appendix C listing must be
shown on in the model Master Tables it’s referenced with. A Lookup Table that has its own Appendix
C listing must either have its own model, or be shown on the models of Master Tables it’s referenced
with.
1
Refer Oracle® documentation for further details
2
Refer to ArcSDE® documentation for further details.
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Geodatabase relationship classes manage the relationship between pairs of classes in the geodatabase.
Relationship rules restrict the type of objects in the origin feature class or table that can be related to a certain
kind of objects in the destination feature class or table. A relationship is implemented as a class in the
geodatabase. Geodatabase relationship classes provide many advanced capabilities not found in ArcMap
joins and relates such as read-write access, versioning support, all cardinalities, relationship rules, simple or
composite, referential integrity. These are created in ArcCatalog and use them in ArcMap. Relationships are
established between a pair of classes, one of which is the origin and the other is the destination. Objects in
two classes are matched based on the values found in their key fields. The key fields may have different
names, but must be of the same data types and contain the same kind of information. Fields of all data types
except BLOB and Date may be key fields.
Maintaining relationship classes requires more computer processing to maintain than joins and relates. Use
them only when you need their advanced capabilities.
List and order all the identified relationship classes by its name and describe them accordingly. One or more
pages are devoted to the description of a particular relationship class. Each page (or group of pages) is of the
same format. At the top of the page is the full relationship class name. The relationship class is then described
in the following headings:
Name: Relationship classes have names, like tables and feature classes, and their names must be unique
within the geo-database. Use descriptive naming conventions; a label is easiest to use when its name is
descriptive, like ToOwner and ToParcel. You might preface the name with the relationship, like
OwnerToParcel:ToParcel.
Description: A long description of the relationship class's in terms of what type of relationship, the objective,
relationship rule, cardinality, need of intermediate key table, and so on.
Origin Class: Write a name of origin class with breakdown of its all fields, which has an impact on referential
integrity enforcement.
Destination Class: Write a name of destination class with breakdown of its all fields.
Key Fields: Write name of fields, data type, and their width from origin and destination classes those are
going to be used for matching the values between classes.
Types of Relationships: Relationship type should be written here such as simple, composite, or other types.
There are two types of network: geometric and topologic. A geometric network is a topological relationship
between line and point feature classes in a feature dataset, and a feature class can participate in one
geometric network. Each feature has a role in the geometric network of either an edge or a junction. The point
and line features acquire more behavior and become junction and edge features in a single, integrated
dataset. Junction is of two types: simple and complex. Geometric network satisfies the needs of vector
datasets required to model utility networks to support tracing through a set of connected lines and points.
List and order all the identified geometric networks by its name and describe them accordingly. One or more
pages are devoted to the description of a particular geometric network class. Each page (or group of pages) is
of the same format. At the top of the page is the geometric network class name. The geometric network class
is then described in the following headings:
Name: Geometric network classes have names, like tables and feature classes, and their names must be
unique within the geodatabase. Use descriptive naming conventions such as WaterNet, DrainageNet.
Description: A long description of the geometric network class's in terms of what type of network such as
simple or complex, the objective, and so on.
Feature Dataset: Write the name of feature dataset that will contain the network.
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Feature Classes: List out all feature classes those will participate in the network. A geometric network
doesn't have to include all feature classes in a feature dataset.
Snapping Tolerance: Specify the map units that features are going to be snapped to and the features
classes that are going to be snapped. Moreover, specify some feature classes to snap while others remain
stationary. It would be required if one feature class is more accurate than another, and want the less accurate
class to snap to the more accurate feature class.
Connectivity Rules: Specify the network connectivity rules those constrain the type of network features that
may be connected to one another and the number of features given type that can be connected to features of
another type. For example, in a water network, 10-inch transmission main can only connect to an 8-inch
transmission main through a reducer.
Network Weights: Identify the names and type of weights will have in network and fields those weights are
associated with it. Network weights are required to control tracing operations. These are three types: Ratio,
Nominal, and Bitgate.
The purpose of this section is to identify all raster datasets. List and order all the identified raster datasets by
its name and describe them accordingly. One or more pages are devoted to the description of raster images.
Each page (or group of pages) is of the same format. At the top of page is the full name of raster image such
as satellite images, ortho images, etc. Description of each type of images should be started from separate
page.
Name: It is the same name as of business table which will be stored in the database. Naming convention
should include the following:
Area Name: Image name should be preceded by including the meaningful name of area to which this
imagery belongs such as DOHA, ALKHOR, QATAR, etc.
Year: After preceding by underscore, include 4 digits for year in which image was taken such as
1994, 2003, 2009, etc.
Month: After preceding by another underscore, include 2 digits for the name of a month in which
image was taken such as 01 = Jan, 02 = Feb, 03 = Mar, ……, 12 = Dec.
Resolution: After preceding by another underscore, include resolution of image in centimeter such as
C20, C100, C2000, etc in the part of name.
Source of Image: After preceding by another underscore, include three characters code suitable for
the source of Image such as ORT = Ortho, IKS = Ikonos, LNT – Landsat, SPT = Spot, QKD =
Quikbird, etc as a last part of full image name.
For example: RASTER.ALKHOR_2008_05_C080_IKS
Description: A long description of raster image, it may include resolution of image, name of the source,
date of image, source type (continuous, discrete), area of image, etc.
Storage Type: Specify the appropriate raster storage type needed such as Mosaic, catalog or any other
type.
RDBMS: The name of Relational Database Management System within which this image will reside.
Known Redundancy: An indication if there is any raster dataset in the database which exists
redundantly.
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Compression Method: Specify compression method needed and used to store raster image into the
geo-database such as LZ77, JPEG, JPEG2000, etc, along with type of compression or percentage of
compression respectively.
Owner: The agency that owns (or has been appointed as custodian for) the raster dataset.
Update Rights on Columns: The agencies which are entitled to submit changes to the raster
dataset.
(j) Features
The purpose of this section is to identify all required geographic features for respective data dictionary. These
are listed first by Geometric Representation (in the order shown under GFCODE below, excluding Section and
Not Geographic), and then alphabetically by the Feature Name.
One or more pages should be devoted for the description of a particular feature. Each page (or group of
pages) is of the same format. At the top of the page is the feature name. This may be of any length, but is
generally kept short. The feature name is given in the following structure:
Where Feature Name is given with all first letters in upper case, and Geometric
Representation (see under GFCODE below) is given inside round brackets, and with all
letters in lower case. e.g. Guard Rail (line)
♦ The first two characters in positions 1 and 2 combine to represent the Resource Area from which the
entity/feature was identified. The available Resource Area values are:
Treated Sewage
CD Civil Defense FS Fisheries TE
Effluent
Immigration &
CI Crime Investigation IM TG Topographic
Residence
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♦ The characters in positions 3 and 4 combine to represent the Geometric Representation of the
entity/feature. The available Geometric Representations are as follows:
PT Point
PV Point Virtual
LN Line
LE Line Extent
LX Line Extent Virtual
LV Line Virtual
ND Node
NV Node Virtual
AR Area
AV Area Virtual
GN Region
GV Region Virtual
RT Route
RV Route Virtual
EP Event/Point
EL Event/Linear
EC Event/Continuous
1
TX Text
CX Complex Object
CV Complex Object Virtual
PX Pixel Cell
SC Section
ZZ Not Geographic
♦ Given the Resource Area and Geometric Representation identifiers, the characters in
positions 5, 6, 7, and 8 combine to identify a particular entity/feature. If numbers are to be
used in positions 5, 6, 7, or 8, in order to avoid confusion between letter “O” and the number
zero, the only valid configurations of letters (“L”) and numbers (“N”) are as follows:
Position
Remarks
5 6 7 8
L L L L
L L L N no letter “O” in position 7
L L N N no letter “O” in position 6
L N N N no letter “O” in position 5
N N N N
♦ Virtual applies to objects which require geometric representation, but do not physically exist
(e.g. Administrative areas or boundaries).
♦ Extent applies to linear objects which only exist to delineate the limits of areas.
Definition: A long definition of the feature. This will describe what the feature is in its true existence
(not how it will be geometrically represented).
Aliases: A list of any aliases or alternative spellings for the feature name.
Feature Dataset: Name of feature dataset within which the feature can be found.
1
Text is available as a Geometric Representation since it fulfills cartographic demands that can't be satisfied by other means. However,
it should be noted that where the text string labels characteristics for a coded geometric object, the content of that text string must not
be considered as the primary source of that characteristic. The characteristic's primary source is its attribute association with the
geometric object.
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Feature Class(es)/Object(s): Name of feature class(es)/Object(s) within which the feature can be
found. A list of more than one feature classes/object(s) represents the presence of redundancy in
feature geometry.
Geometric Representation: An explanation of how an object's true shape and position (and possibly
orientation) are geometrically represented.
Sharpness: An indication of how fixed & distinct the feature is. This essentially classifies features in
1
terms of their potential to have a significant degree of positional accuracy associated with them . Valid
options are:
Mixed – fixed & distinct in shape in some cases, but not in others.
Not Applicable – feature for which Sharpness does not apply (such as cartographic text).
Examples: Any diagrams, images, etc. which add to the clarity of how the feature is to be identified
either on site, or in the GIS Database.
The issue of accuracy is dealt with in this section under 4 general headings. These are:
For determining positional accuracy, one undertakes computation of the exact range from an object's
measured position within which its true position will fall. This is dependent on numerous factors. In the data
dictionary, the computed positional accuracy is not recorded for any objects. However, there are three values
which are stored against each which allow the user to gauge the data's positional accuracy. These are:
1
Positional accuracy requirements for future “survey / data collection” exercises of a particular feature are listed in the Qatar National
GIS Survey Specification (not yet produced at the time of this document’s printing).
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Most applications will be able to rely on the RELIABLE and CONFIDENCE values alone. More rigorously
determined accuracy could be established by interrogating the details available via the SOURCE field. This
field allows linkage to the following details, defining how a position was established:
The means by which these details are accessed are mapped out in the ERD in Figure 8.7.
constitute
be used by
consist of part of
Source be
created
by
Resource
Custodianship
of
Appointment conform to use
have create
Resource Type available
be issued to
define
Specification
receive be used by use
be
issue be issued by Project generate generated
by
be used
be qualified be a qualified use
by
to perform service of
Method
divide into have
be for
be a division of
spawn
Equipment Equipment
be spawned by Custodianship Requirment
Appointment
Task
be of
Agency be credited with be credited to consist of
form part of
Equipment consist of
Purchase
constitute Equipment
part of Type
be made by constitute
part of identify the
make
classification of
be
classified as
be Equipment
manufacture manufactured be used by use
by
have been
have done
done by
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If they are required, accuracy for characteristics will be recorded in separate columns.
Typically, measured values (which includes date & time values) will have their accuracy recorded in columns
much like RELIABLE and CONFIDENCE in the previous Positional Accuracy section. Columns carrying text
(alpha, numeric, or both) may have their accuracy recorded in columns that indicate "Verified/Unverified"
values. In the case where translations are involved, additional columns may be used to indicate if the
translation is phonetic, or based on meaning.
Via the SOURCE column, all tasks associated with the establishment of an object's position can be queried.
The START and FINISH date characteristics recorded for these tasks indicate when an object was positioned,
but they do not give any indication of whether or not anything has happened since. Has it since been
destroyed? Has something new gone up in the vicinity?
To determine when an area was last examined for any changes, a change verification START and FINISH
1
date exist as characteristics against each tile . In some cases, changes may take place in a portion of a tile
during the examination for changes. If that change is in an area already examined, it will not be picked up.
Thus, the change verification START date for a tile is the date one can rely on as an indication of how current
a position is.
Where required, the currentness for any characteristic of any entity or feature, are established by one or more
date last examined columns. These reflect the last time when one or more characteristics were verified.
One last date characteristic which is of particular importance is the date a piece of data became available on
2
the database . For position, this is stored in the DATE_LUPD (date of last update) column of the business
table of feature class. Where required for characteristic values, similar date fields are added.
1
A Layer can extend, geographically, to infinity. It is often more practical to geographically partition a layer into more manageable
areas. Each of these is referred to as a Tile.
2
For historic data, the date of removal carries a similar level of significance.
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References
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Appendix 8A
To continue
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Appendix 8A (continue)
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Document Control Page
Document version: 1.0
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