Contents

Foreword
Software Defined Radio and RTL-SDR
Part I – Theory and Jargon
Frequency vs Wavelength
How radio waves travel
Analog to Digital conversion
Bandwidth
Resistance, Impedance, SWR, VSWR
Decibel
Part II – Hardware
Computer
USB Extension cable
RTL dongles
Alternatives

Coax Cable
Connectors and adapters
PAL Connector

F Connector
MCX connector
SMA connector

BNC connector
SO239-PL239 connectors
N-type connector
Recommendation

Ferrites and Toroids

Upconverters
Ham-It-Up v 1.3 guide

Preamplifiers
Headphones
Tools of the trade
Part III - Software
Download Banzai
Drivers
SDRSharp

HDSDR
SDR Radio v2.3

CubicSDR
Virtual Audio Cable
RTL power and heatmap tools

Shortwave software
Weather Satellites
ADS-B

SDRSharp
Microsoft .Net Framework 4.6
Microsoft Visual C++ 2010 SP1 Redistributable Package
SDRSharp rev 1430 (a.k.a. SDR#)
Zadig

Using SDR Sharp

What’s what on the screen
Settings – Sample Rate
Tips and tricks

HDSDR
How to use

SDRConsole / SDR-Radio v2.3

CubicSDR
Virtual Audio Cable
Heat map
Shortwave Software
General Receiver Software

Commercial FM radio
Airband
Weather Satellites
Watching DVB-T Terrestrial television
Airplane position signals – ADS-B
Calculating maximum range
PiAware

Decoder software
Graphical Radar Software

Part IV - Antennas
Theory and Jargon
Antenna Types

Path of the beginner

Antenna placement
Commercial antennas
Stock antenna and improvements
Telescopic antennas
WiFi antennas
Rubber duckies

Discone

Homemade Antennas
Connecting two coax cables
Terminal connectors
Monopole

Dipole
Ground Plane
Coax collinear

Bowtie / Butterfly antenna

Turnstile
QFH
Shortwave – Random Wire
Shortwave - Terminated Tilted Folded Dipole

Part V – Maximizing performance

Importance of Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Dongle anatomy
Altering the Printed Circuit Board
IR receiver

LED light
Removing static protection diode

Replacing antenna connector with coax

Replacing USB connector

Adding Capacitor to power line

Direct sampling
Bias-T
Impedance mismatch
Avoid Adapters
Verifying performance improvements – rtl_power guide
Dummy load
RTL_Power
Creating a graphical output for comparison

Housekeeping
Cleaning desktop PCs
Cleaning laptops

Power
USB extension / connector mod
Air choke / Dirty balun
Enclosures
Ventilation and cooling
Air Cooling
Cooling Fans
Heatsinks
Thermal pads

Liquid / Water cooling

Liquid / Oil Cooling
Peltier cooling

Ferrites and toroids

Spikes
Preamps
Filters
Software

Stubs
Bandpass

Baluns and Ununs

1:1 Balun / Antenna isolator

4:1 Balun
9:1 Unun
9:1 Balun

Part VI - Raspberry Pi
Required hardware
Software Installation
Required software and steps

Connection options
Connection – Router available
Connection – No router

Remote Access
Command Line Interface only – no display
Graphical User Interface – Windows Only
Graphical User Interface – Multi-platform

Raspberry apps for tablets and smartphones

Powering options
Battery banks
Power over Ethernet (PoE)

Radio server
Part VII – Notes for the reader and Legal
Foreword
Listening to radio is great fun, and can prove invaluable in times of
emergency. A common obstacle is the jargon used by enthusiasts and the dryness
of textbooks – so minimal terminology, no complicated formulas and real-life
solutions presented here.
Beginners commonly find setting up the reception system and building
antennas confusing, so several working examples are explored in great detail. An
often overlooked, but key aspect to great reception is electrical noise reduction –
if you live in an urban or suburban area, definitely apply the tips and tricks listed
here.
Common materials and tools used throughout the book. In fact, a knife and
electrical tape is all you need, household items are utilised as much as possible.
Read the first part on theory to understand the basic principles of radio.
The second part covers all necessary hardware including various RTL
dongles, coax cables, connectors, upconverters, amplifiers, and tools of the trade.
Software is important for good reception, installation of required programs
are detailed in Part III.
Antenna designs are explored in detail, with particular emphasis on easy-to-
make beginner antennas.
The gravity of radio reception lies in noise reduction: so Part V looks at handy
tips on minimising interference around the house, filters and best practices.
Part VI guides your through installing a Raspberry Pi 2 as a radio signal
server.
Formulas and background information are included to show why it works,
but the emphasis is on how to make stuff work.
This book is primarily for ordinary folks, people with little or no
programming, electronics, or computer knowledge.
Concepts already familiar to some might be totally new to others, so please
understand that not everyone was born in the same age, to the same family
background, or possess the same disposable income.
As non-native speakers and readers of English outnumber native speakers at
least three-to-one, the proofreading goal was to make this information
understandable to everyone.
The target audience encompass a private-school educated native speaker,
who will frown at the English herein, and a hard-working provider from a third
world country, who - unfortunately and very likely - never encountered the
words “encompass”, “frown” and “herein”.
Throughout the book “dollar” is used as a reference currency, United States
Dollar or USD, as a value most people can relate to in their respective countries.
The author is not affiliated with any company, foundation, business, service
provider, supplier or manufacturer of any products, services, components, or kits
mentioned in this book.
This book has been optimized for Kindle and all devices – such as tablets and
smartphones – that capable of running Kindle. Command-line instructions are
easier to copy-paste, so Kindle for PC (download link) is recommended for a
quicker workflow.
Text in blue, underlined with (link) such as the one above means that tapping
/ clicking brings you to an external website.
The RTL-SDR scene is rapidly evolving, with new mods, products and
discoveries coming out on a monthly basis. This book will be periodically
updated, but due to Amazon’s content policy you won’t get the latest version
automatically. Write an email to Amazon, requesting an update and they’ll send
out the latest version free of charge – but this must be done by you.
Please visit my blog at rtlsdr4everyone.blogspot.com for the latest news and –
and a lot of background information connected with this book.
Should you have any questions, wish to provide feedback or have any
comments, your feedback will be appreciated at rtlsdr4everyone@gmail.com.
The author is not affiliated with any company, foundation, business, service
provider, supplier or manufacturer of any products, services, components, or kits
mentioned in this book.
Software Defined Radio and RTL-SDR

In a traditional radio receiving setup, expensive components transform radio

waves into useful information for your enjoyment.
In Software Defined Radio, instead of a purpose-built receiver, a radio
receiver is connected to a computer, replacing costly hardware radio equipment
with the power of the computer and suitable software.
A specific USB TV tuner used as a receiver is called RTL-SDR, due to the
RTL2832U chipset used in the dongle. Since it only receives radio signals, and
unable to transmit, the setup is legal in most countries as you’re just listening -
not interfering with licensed operators or government agencies.
The receive range is usually from 24 MHz to 1700+ MHz (slight variations
exists).
Part I – Theory and Jargon
A broadcasting station uses a transmitter and amplifier to create a radio
wave, uses an antenna to radiate it, then the radio wave travels through a
medium, reaches your antenna, travels in your transmission line, and finally gets
demodulated by the receiver.
Let’s make the above sentence understandable:
The source of a signal is commonly called a station, and can be a local FM
radio with the morning news, or shortwave programming on the other side of the
world.
A transmitter converts the input information into an electrical form, then an
amplifier increases this to a much higher level. The strength of the signal is
measured by its energy, in Watts: large government-operated radio stations
pump out hundreds of thousands Watts, radio amateurs average 100W, and
satellites transmit using 10-20 Watts. As a reference, 1W or less is enough to
communicate worldwide.
[Confusion avoidance: “antenna” is also called “aerial”, particularly in British
English – the word “antenna” is used in this book.]
The antenna radiates the amplified signal as a radio wave / electromagnetic
radiation. Guessed it right, radio waves have an electric and magnetic part. The
actual distance between the top of radio waves is called wavelength, and is
measured in meters.
 Radio waves travel through air, in a straight line, at a speed close to the speed
of light. Increasing distance between source and receiver increases energy loss –
the further the signal from the receiver, the weaker it becomes.
Sooner or later the radio wave encounters your antenna and transfers some of
its energy; this energy travels further onwards in your transmission line, usually
coax cable.
 At the end of its journey, the radio wave arrives at the receiver input, where it
is “demodulated” – term for getting useful information from the signal. This
process is what makes radio reception complex and expensive with traditional
radio sets, as components are expensive. The RTL-SDR receiver converts the
signal into a digital form, so the complicated part is done by a personal computer
running radio-specific software.
Frequency vs Wavelength

Higher frequency number – shorter wavelength – smaller antennas.

Frequency is inversely related to radio wave length, and as radio waves travel
close to the speed of light, the only formula you need to remember is:
300 divided by Frequency equals wavelength in meters.
The unit of measurement is Hertz, common prefixes are:
Kilo (300 kHz = 300,000 Hz),
Mega (3 MHz = 3,000,000 Hz),
Giga (1 GHz = 1,000,000,000 Hz).
To increase confusion, radio enthusiasts refers to a set of specific frequencies
according to the wavelengths of the signal, such as “2-meter band” or “40-meter
band”.
A good starting point is that 30 MHz is the “ten-meter” band, and 144 MHz is
the “2-meter” band.
RTL sticks require an upconverter to hear anything below 25 MHZ, in a best
case scenario the following bands are available:
Low Frequency (LF, 30kHz – 300kHz), also called longwave.
Medium Frequency (MF, 300 kHz to 3 MHz), also called medium wave.
High Frequency (HF, 3 MHz – 30 MHz), also called shortwave.
Very High Frequency (VHF, 30 MHz – 300 MHz), most local signals will be
around this band.
Ultra High Frequency (UHF, 300 MHz – 3 GHz). Lower end of the band tend
to be local signals, upper end used for a wide variety of applications. For
example, WiFi, Bluetooth and your kitchen microwave all work around 2.4 GHz.
How radio waves travel

Technically called “radio propagation”, ways for a radio signal to get from
point A to point B, two main methods: via ground waves and sky waves. Ground
Waves travel in the lower atmosphere, whereas Sky waves are reflected back to
earth by layers in the upper atmosphere.
Earth’s upper atmosphere (the light blue outer part visible on satellite
images) constantly changes due to various factors, but primarily due to Sun’s
solar radiation. Sunlight can charge molecules found here (just like a wall
charger tops up rechargeable batteries), which is called ionization, so this
atmospheric layer is called ionosphere.
Boundaries of the ionosphere constantly change, with layers like an onion.
These layers are named (from the surface outwards): D-layer (60-90 km), E-
layer (90-150 km), and F1 and F2 layer (150 to 500 km). To put this info in
context, airplanes fly around 11km, the highest parachute jump was from ~40
km, and the International Space station orbits around Earth at a height of 380
km.
Why the atmospheric lesson? Wavelength / Frequency determines how a
radio signal will behave: signals below 3MHz will follow the surface of the Earth,
so they are called Surface wave. Another method is called line-of-sight, means
the receiving antenna can see the transmitter antenna, geographically local
signals will be heard.
Skywave signals use the ionospheric layers discussed above to reach their
destination: commonly frequencies between 3 MHz to 30 MHz, called shortwave
signals, are influenced by ionospheric conditions. In practice, this means that
signals below 6-7 MHz are rare / non-existent during the day, but signals above
11 MHz come in loud and clear.
If you’re hungry for more textbook information, the official ARRL (American
Radio Relay League) handbook (link) for prospective radio amateurs has more
relevant information than you’ll ever need this side of a PhD degree.
Analog to Digital conversion

Eventually, the radio wave will reach your antenna, slow down a bit in coax
cable (how much is called the “velocity factor” of coax), then enter the RTL
dongle.
Still a tiny analogue voltage, signal must be digitized by an Analogue-to-
Digital converter – the RTL2832U chip in this case.
Digital information can be either a “1” or “0”, like simple answers “yes” or
“no”. An 8-bit digital resolution means an analogue value, such as signal voltage,
can be only the eight power of two, 256. Higher bit analogue-to-digital
conversion is better, as weaker signals can be detected with higher bit rate: for
instance, a 10-bit resolution offers 1024 values (tenth power of two). 16-bit
digital resolution
RTL dongles feature 8-bit resolution ADC, which is enough for most intents
and purposes. Higher resolution devices are also available, at an increased price.
Bandwidth

Sample rate / bandwidth means how much of the frequency band you see:
measured in MSPS (Mega Samples Per Second), 2.4 MSPS is the highest reliable
setting, resulting in 2.4 MHz worth of signals on screen. Higher bandwidth
means more processor use and more signals visible.
Resistance, Impedance, SWR, VSWR

Resistance is how hard for an electrical current to pass in an electrical circuit,

and measured in Ohm. A resistor, when placed in a electric circuit, will reduce
current flow – think of the Hoover Dam, which resists the flow of Colorado
River.
Impedance is how hard for an electrical current or voltage change to pass an
electrical circuit. The magic word is “change”: radio uses alternating current for
signal transmission, and the rate of change is commonly expressed as a
frequency. Without getting bogged down in formulas, think of impedance as the
AC / radio version of resistance, which also changes depending on frequency.
Impedance is also expressed in Ohm – hence the words “50 Ohm antenna” or
“impedance matching 50 to 75 Ohm”.
Amateur and professional radio systems use 50 Ohm impedance, TV and the
RTL-SDR dongle (originally made for TV reception) use 75 Ohm.
With a change in impedance, some of the energy is reflected back in the
electric circuit – how much is called the Standing Wave Ratio. Because radio
works with voltages, the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is commonly
used for antennas.
The ideal VSWR for an antenna is 1:1, meaning perfect energy reception or
transmission – VSWR is most often used for transmission optimisation, as a
large number will fry expensive equipment. It’s also useful for reception, due to
reciprocity in radio: what’s good for transmission is good for reception, and vice
versa.
Antennas often feature additional performance data such as “excellent VSWR
of 1:1.3 between 200 MHz and 800 MHz”. Online calculators (link) will tell you
that a 1.3 VSWR means 1.7 % of power is reflected – think of it as working at 98.3
% efficiency. Antennas below a 2 VSWR ratio will be excellent, even a 5:1 VSWR
antenna will let you hear signals.
Decibel

A logarithmic unit of measurement, expressed as dB, three decibels equals

double, 6 dB equals four times, and 10 dB equals ten times the power or signal
strength from an original value.
Decibel is relative, for example, crankin’ up the home stereo to sound twice as
loud would be called “increased signal strength by 3dB” in radio speak.
Don’t be confused, remember 3dB is twice the power and 10 dB is ten times
the power, or use online calculators for exact figures like this one (use energy
size, link here).
Decibel-to-power ratios for common gain settings in SDR receiver software in
the table below.
Part II – Hardware
Computer

To use the software in “Software Defined Radio”, a computer is required: this

can be either a laptop, a desktop, or a microcomputer such as a Raspberry Pi
(which is detailed separately in the Raspberry Pi chapter). With RTL-SDR, the
computer is doing the hard work, so a faster processor (higher GHz number) and
more memory is better.
A dual-core processor of at least 2 GHz will be adequate. Intel and AMD are
names of manufacturers, “i3”, “i5” or “i7” are processor generation numbers,
higher is better. A minimum of 2GB memory is recommended, 4 GB is common,
8GB and 16GB will be plenty.
Screen size only matters for viewing enjoyment, the larger, the better. With
laptops, the price difference between 15.6” and 17” is about the same as the price
of a 24”-26” standalone display.
Graphics cards are not really utilised, so any basic video card will do. More
eye candy in software / higher resolutions with multiple monitors will require a
dedicated graphics card.
Sound cards are almost always built-in with laptops or integrated onto the
motherboard with desktop PCs, if you get sound out of the machine, you’re fine.
External sound cards, such as USB sound cards work.
Unfamiliar with all the specifications? If you bought your computer in the last
5 years new for more than $300, it will be probably suitable.
The laptop or desktop will need a USB port: brick-shaped hole on the side of
your computer. If the edges are trapezoid it’s not USB, do not use that. Older
laptops available online at fire-sale prices will be adequate, provided the USB
port is 2.0. If you get a balloon next to the clock (bottom right corner of screen)
“This device can perform faster” the USB port is NOT suitable – this is unlikely.
The Raspberry Pi 2 and 3 are affordable (~$35 - $50) microcomputer running
a Linux-derivative operating system, used for signal processing and for electrical
noise reduction as a server. Even if you have an RPi, the most comfortable option
is to use a Windows-based personal computer.
Windows 7 is the most popular operating system (over 50% market share) so
used here, 64 or 32 bit flavours makes no difference.
Tablets or smartphones running iOS or Android are limited functionality.
In the text, the word “laptop” is interchangeably used to mean a personal
computer.
USB Extension cable

Please use an USB extension cable, as the RTL dongle can be placed further
away from electrical interference coming from your computer. Plug in USB
extension cord to computer and mark correct orientation with tape, nail varnish,
permanent marker – and use that port for the RTL stick only.
Repeat: Always use the same USB port for the RTL stick – you can plug in
other devices e.g. external drives between removals, but ALWAYS same port /
place for the stick. If other ports are used, drivers will have to be installed for
that port as well.
A 3-metre / 10 foot extension cable is ideal – length is required for noise
suppression mods. Maximum length of USB extension cable is 15 foot / 5 meters
for reliable functioning.
Daisy-chaining powered USB hubs is possible, but not recommended for
ultimate performance.
RTL dongles

RTL sticks can be small or large, RTL2832U designates the Analogue-to-

Digital converter part and will be the same across all models (please do not buy
anything else), and the rest is the radio tuner model e.g. R820T, R820T2, E4000
etc.
 TCXO in the product name means a Temperature Compensated Oscillator,
the tuned frequency will not change (called frequency drift as the RTL stick heats
up, once warm, drift remains the same). TCXO costs an extra $5: enter a
frequency and the tuning is spot-on. Ppm means parts per million and refers to
received frequency, e.g. 1 MHz is one million Hertz, so a 1ppm TCXO will drift 1
Hertz.
The smallest models are colloquially called Nano, are incredibly small and
contain R820T or R820T2 chipsets with or without TCXO. Nano models are
great for embedded installations where space is at a premium, e.g. creating a
Raspberry Pi-based ADS-B flight tracker in an outside metal case. For general
use and performance mods, use full size dongles.
Full-sized models will be approximately the size of four cigarettes together or
an USB memory stick. Most tuners available on the market fall into this size
category.
 Reception range differs between radio tuners, and also slightly varies between
chipsets, so the following is just a rough guide:
 R820T and R820T2: From 24 MHz to 1766 MHz.
E4000: From 52 MHz to 2200 MHz, gap between 1100 MHz to 1250 MHz.
FC 0012: From 22 MHz to 949 MHz.
FC 0012: From 22 MHz to 1100 MHz.
R820T and R820T2 chips are the most common and least expensive, offered
for less than 10 dollars on Ebay. The R820T2 chipset is markedly better.
E4000 chips offer extended reception range out to 2200 MHz, but extremely
rare and therefore quite expensive: Nooelec sells a stick featuring an E4000
(link) for around 50 dollars.
If just starting out with Software Defined Radio, best value for money is
buying a generic R820T2 version for less than $10 off ebay or any other online
marketplace. Learn the ropes first, spend savings on antennas and noise
reduction – and modifying a cheap dongle hurts less if the plan doesn’t work out.
Brand-name sticks are from either Nooelec or RTL-SDR.com; Nooelec
provides better warranty, and RTL-SDR.com offers a metal-cased R820T2
chipset with TCXO and good features & accessories.
The highest spec you can buy is an R820T2 chipset with TCXO ($25) or an
E4000 with TCXO ($50).
Ebay sellers may advertise common R820T chipsets with E4000 in the
description, such as “E4000 RTL-SDR TV Tuner RTL 2832U R820””. This is a
rip-off, avoid like the plague, you pay double for no reason. For examples, please
see my separate article with examples (link).
Shipping times greatly vary: for USA customers, Nooelec and RTL-SDR.com
both have US warehouses. Purchases from China / Shenzen / Hongkong might
take up to three weeks.
Connector can be large hole (PAL), small hole (MCX) or small screw-type
(SMA) – will be noted in advertisement, most sticks use MCX, avoid PAL unless
it’s absolutely necessary.
 Search around and get a collapsible antenna (better performance and
flexibility). Beware: sellers might show an extendable antenna in Ebay search
results and ship the short antenna – confirm before purchase.
 In the package you get the dongle, installation CD (throw it out), antenna and
a remote. Remote only needed for TV reception.
Alternatives
Some of the options listed here might seem unjustifiably costly, until you
factor in component prices for an RTL dongle-based setup and compare
technical details. For example, a Nooelec R820T2 with TCXO dongle in a metal
case costs $35, add upconverter for $50, two pigtails for $10 - and you’re near
the $100 dollar mark. For your Franklin bill, you get 8-bit ADC, 2.4 MHz
bandwidth, frequency coverage from 0.15 MHz to 1.766 MHz and a temperature
controlled oscillator.
All prices listed are ex-shipping and in US dollars, “~” sign means
approximate value due to possible fluctuations in exchange rates.
SDRPlay (~ $150): 12-bit, 8 MHz bandwidth, frequency coverage from 0.1
MHz to 2000 MHz. More info on the manufacturer’s website (link).
Funcube Dongle Pro+ (~ $210): 16-bit, 192 kHz bandwidth / sampling
rate, frequency coverage from 0.150 MHz to 240 MHz and 420 MHz to 1.9 GHZ.
Temperature controlled oscillator. No driver required, small package. Read full
specs on the manufacturers website (link).
Airspy & SpyVerter Combo (~250): 12-bit, 10 MSPS bandwidth, receive
only from DC to 1.8 GHz. Requires a top-notch powerful computer. Full specs on
the manufacturer’s website (link).
HackRF (from $315): 8 Bit, 20 MSPS bandwidth, receive and transmit
from 1MHz to 6GHz. Primarily aimed at hardware hackers, read specs and order
from the manufacturer (link).
Others (bladeRF, USRP, variations on RTL dongles in a different disguise)
can cost up to the retail price of a new family sedan, incomparable in frequency
coverage or a plain R820T/R820T2 chipset in a different packaging.
Coax Cable

Technically called a transmission line, coax cable is the de facto standard with
RTL dongles, carries the signal from the antenna to the receiver.
75 Ohm version is also called TV cable, aerial cable, or satellite cable: same
stuff. Costs 30c to over 10 dollars per 3 feet / 1 meter. Retail outlets can be really
expensive, electrical wholesalers and Ebay are cheapest. 500 feet on Ebay can
cost as much as 30 feet at a local store, so shop around.
50 Ohm version is also referred to as radio coax, only required if you’re
connecting 50 Ohm components to 50 Ohm components, such as upconverters,
LNAs and filters.
The outer plastic is called an outer jacket, right beneath small wires are called
braid, mesh or braided shield. An aluminium foil-like shield is next,
unsurprisingly called foil shield. The soft, white material – feels like a coffee cup
– is called dielectric, and at the core, the center conductor / center wire is found.
Not all coax has a foil shield, and the foam dielectric can be replaced by plastic in
cheaper versions.
Numbers on coax like RG 59U, RG6 and / or 75 Ohm is coax type – so you
can google individual characteristics for a particular cable. Radio equipment
such as scanner antennas, marine and walkie-talkie gear is 50 Ohm. RG6 is used
for satellite installation, extremely widespread and easy to use.
Thicker coax cable, such as LMR-400 or LMR-600 will offer better shielding
and overall performance, but will be more expensive and require larger adapters,
as originally designed for high-power RF transmission.
Coax cable materials can be foam or plastic: material around center wire.
Easy to tell apart: with plastic you see the wire, foam is harder to bend, material
will feel the same as a coffee cup. Domestic TV / satellite installations normally
use foam coax.
Every cable loses some of the received signal: this depends on length, type
and signal frequency. Technically called attenuation, commonly called coax loss,
measured in dB over 100 feet lengths.
Coax loss is only an issue for higher frequencies, or with longer coax lengths.
As the ideal placement for an antenna is as high and as unobstructed as possible,
this normally means the top of your dwelling. Coax loss at higher frequencies,
such as on 1090 MHz for tracking airplanes can be horrendous – keep cable run
short, utilize a LNA to combat signal loss, or use a dedicated Raspberry Pi as a
radio signal server.
Besides carrying a signal, antennas and filters can be built from coax.
Connectors and adapters

Connectors and adapters in this context are Radio-Frequency connectors, as

they carry a radio signal: connect and disconnect coax cable to/from antennas,
RTL dongle or anything in-between, such as pre-amplifiers or upconverters.
Thought not absolutely necessary, having proper connectors makes your life
easier.
Technical terms you might not be familiar with:
Male (plug): you see wire in the middle inside.
Female (socket or jack): wire from male goes into the socket.
Coupler: Connects two male or two female adapters.
Close bayoner or screw adapters by turning it to the right (clockwise), open by
turning to left (counter-clockwise). Remember the mnemonic: “lefty-loosey,
righty-tighty“.
Adapter availability will be the key factor, PAL and F-Type can be bought all
around the world, as used for TV and Satellite installations. Angle of connectors
will not influence performance, 90 degree / elbow connectors may place less
strain on the socket.
PAL Connector

Officially called Belling-Lee connector after the inventors, Used for nearly a
century, common names are PAL / aerial / TV / axial connector. It’s widely used
around the world except the USA for TV cabling, so nearly every electronics shop
(and even supermarkets) stock them.
Fewer and fewer dongles use PAL connectors, and the type is to be avoided:
higher frequency signals, such as ADS-B at 1090 MHz, will be received weaker.
However, a dongle with PAL connectors will pass scrutiny as a TV tuner –
everyone has met this plug at least once during his/her life.
F Connector
Used for over 60 years, screw-type thread, the standard for domestic TV in
the USA and as satellite or Internet cable modem connection elsewhere. Cheap
and reliable, coax center conductor is the actual pin carrying signal.
Two main forms: screw-on type, installation is literally seconds with bare
hands. Compression fitting type requires crimping tools.
MCX connector
 Short for Micro CoAxial, small push-type used on majority of RTL dongles.
Needs further adapters or pigtails to work with preamps and upconverters, no
restrictions on maximum frequencies, good for up to 6 GHz.
SMA connector

Abbreviation of SubMiniature Type A, small screw-type, commonly used on

handheld radios, WiFi modems, pre-amplifiers and upconverters. SMA used on
Wifi Modems is called Reverse Polarity – originally conceived to prevent users
using larger antennas (workaround hack only needs a short length of wire,
details and image in WiFi antennas (internal link).

BNC connector
Abbreviation made up from the type (Bayonet, which means push then turn)
and names of developers (Bayonet Neill–Concelman).
Hobbyist radio scanners and some antennas, plus CCTV systems use this, if
you have a wholesale / electrical shop in town you might get them cheap in bulk.
BNC type adapters cover the entire frequency range of the RTL dongle.
BNC connectors are available in 75 Ohm and 50-Ohm versions depending on
the intended purpose - 75 Ohm version is more common. Suitable for all
frequencies RTL dongles can receive.
SO239-PL239 connectors
Also referred to as UHF jack and plug, common on shortwave equipment, CB
radios and antennas, and a few amateur radio tabletop receivers, design predates
the Second World War.
Rarely using with RTL dongles in view of terrible losses above 100 MHz.
N-type connector
Named after the inventor, Paul Neill, predominantly used on professional and
amateur radio transmitters and receivers.
Seldom encountered in the RTL-SDR world due to cost and size – technical
characteristics do not preclude its use, if the antenna comes with it, use a
suitable adapter.
Recommendation
Use whatever is available locally and cheaply. Satellite TV is everywhere, and
F-type connectors are kid’s play to wire - peel back plastic to expose braid and
fold it bac onto the cable, peel back braid, leave a few mm center conductor, and
push on connector – done.
BNC connectors are harder to wire onto coax than F-connectors, will come off
if not tightly crimped – which requires $$$ specialist tool or brute force with
pliers.

Adapters add versatility and might increase electrical noise pickup, for a
flexible setup choose the following:
MCX Male - SMA Female: Dongle direct connection to walkie-talkie
(a.k.a. rubber duckies) and WiFi antennas.
BNC Female – SMA Male: for scanner and pro radio antennas. BNC
female also enables direct connection of random wire antennas for shortwave.
F-type female – MCX male: for regular coax connection.
“Pigtails” are a short coax with different adapters on each end.
“Barrel connectors” are two adapters back-to-back, convenient for tight
spaces.
Ferrites and Toroids

Technically, the word “Ferrite” refers to the chemical composition of rings or

beads used for a multitude of applications in electronics. Ordinarily anything
made of the material will be called a ferrite; but tubular - or ring-shaped ferrites
will be labelled “toroids”, especially is a wire is wound around it .
In real life, both are used to reduce electrical noise with cables. Snap-on
ferrites are easier to use; toroids are more effective. Check the lump at the end of
a monitor, computer power supply or printer cable – that’s a ferrite.
In the comparison image below, local FM interference without any antenna,
noise pickup via coax cable only. Seven snap-on ferrites versus a 1:1 balun made
from a toroid.

Toroid terminology will follow “letter designation - overall diameter in 100th

of inches – material” such as FT-240-43. Higher overall diameter is desirable:
easier to work with, plus performance is relative to the square of number of
turns, e.g. 6 windings=36, 7 windings=49.
Different ferrite materials have distinct applications; recommendations and
opinions disagree to such an extent that suggesting “A” over “B” is not possible
due to individual circumstances. Amidon (link) and Fair-Rite (link) are the two
major players in the field; for the best outcome, order same-size toroids of
different materials, wrap the supplied antenna coax around 4-5 times, then see
which material works for you.
 Alternatively, for a cheap and cheerful solution, search for “Snap-on ferrites”
or “EMI Noise Filter” on the online marketplace of your choice, prices start at
around 1-2 dollars each. 10 dollars will get you around 50 ferrites in two weeks
from China, ample for a regular household. Add two ferrites to each end of power
cables – if a limited supply is available, start with large household items such as
TV, electric cooker etc.
Upconverters

The RTL stick can only receive signals from about 24 MHz and up (55 MHz
and up for the E4000 chipset), so shortwave broadcast programming, Morse
codes and a whole lot of exciting stuff is missing.
An upconverter commonly adds 125 MHz to the received signal, so tuning to
128MHz will be actually 3 MHz. Some older upconverters used 100 MHz
oscillators, which park received frequencies right on top of broadcast FM
stations.
Three popular upconverter choices: Ham-It-Up v1.3 (link) at $45, Spyverter
(link) at $60 and SV1AFN (link) at $69. Add a metal enclosure to the Ham-It-Up
(abbreviated as HIU in this text), and it’s the same price as the Spyverter, which
in reviews offered better performance – but the HIU has a pass-through switch,
so a large discone antenna can be used for all frequencies.
Ham-It-Up v 1.3 guide
Available from Nooelec (link), also on Ebay and Amazon, costs ~ 50 USD. At
the same time order an SMA female – MCX male adapter to connect upconverter
to dongle, plus an SMA socket for the noise source.
USB printer cable needed for power ($1-2 on Ebay, max 5 dollars in any
computer shop, $8 from Nooelec with dual ferrites), one end is regular USB,
other end is large square (officially USB-A male to USB-B male).
Power is supplied by an USB port, or with 5V from a smartphone/tablet
charger. Yellow light indicates power ON, red light signals low voltage, green
light indicates upconverter mode enabled. Rechargeables, normal batteries in a
holder and battery banks work just as well and recommended over USB chargers.
 Receiving antenna connects to Antenna Input, side with no switch. A random
wire can be plugged into the center of the SMA connector, or a coax cable can be
used with a suitable adapter.
Shortwave-only preamplifiers are available from the internet, thought I’d
rather $30 on the LNA4HF (link) from Adam. Place any preamp after the
antenna and before the upconverter.
Normal or Up-converted Signal Output is next to the switch, connect with
SMA Male – MCX Male adapter to most RTL dongles. Switch turns upconverter
on and off, so a physically longer / larger antenna can be used for shortwave.
This is handy if you have only one antenna e.g. a sizable discone, but yearning to
listen to strong AM broadcast stations, such as Voice of America/Russia/China
without additional hassle.
Proper shielding is important with Ham-It-Up, manufacturer sells an
extruded aluminium enclosure for about $25 – this, in addition to making the
package extremely sturdy, provides RFI shielding.
Preamplifiers

If you think a preamp will solve your reception issues, please read Path of the
beginner and the Noise reduction chapter before ordering one.
Also called Low Noise Amplifier, LNA for short. Helps with weak signals and
aids in overcoming coax losses. Apartment dwellers with limited opportunities
for placing the antenna outside might benefit from a preamp, as really low
signals might be amplified to acceptable levels. Noise reduction steps will be
invaluable in this scenario, as the antenna will pick up electrical noise as well –
any unwanted signal extra entering the transmission line between antenna and
computer should be minimised as much as possible.
For maximum effectiveness, preamps should be always placed as close to the
antenna as possible. If the preamp is placed after a 10m coax cable, it will
increase signal from the antenna AND all the noise the coax picked up on its way
to the preamp.
The staple of the RTL-SDR community is the LNA4All (link), a good preamp
for 30 dollars assembled and shipped, but without shipment tracking. It’s well
documented and the manufacturer is available for questions.
Various kits for LNAs are available on Ebay and will be possibly cheaper, but
you might get a bag of components requiring Jedi-level soldering skills.
Headphones

Using headphones is entirely circumstantial and a personal choice. When

hunting for really weak audio signals – shortwave listening for instance – you
require comfort and isolation from the environment to be able to concentrate.
Cosiness comes from generous padding, and closed-ear designs offer the best
external noise reduction.
Tools of the trade

Antenna materials can be solid metal such as metal coat hangers, bicycle
spokes, even a car dipstick or reinforcement from a wiper blade. As long as the
particular alloy conducts electricity, it will be suitable.
If buying wire specifically for antennas, AWG 12-14 / 1.5mm thick (or thicker)
solid copper wire is flexible, yet strong enough for antennas requiring a specific
shape. Anything lower than AWG 8 / over 3mm in diameter will be a pain to
transport, or bend by hand without support tools.
Copper pipes – as large diameter as practicable – make excellent antennas.
If you’re handy with brazing and soldering, complicated shapes and curvatures,
such as a QFH can be built in a few hours. Upper limit without superhuman
strength and lacking specialist tools is around quarter inch / 6-8 mm copper
pipe.
Shortwave wire antennas tend to be small diameter, multi-stranded wire,
1-2mm diameter is thick enough. Thicker wire is better if available, but will
require stronger supports, heavier counterweights and sag more.
Support: Material must not be metal or electrically conductive. Straws,
chopsticks, BBQ skewers, tree branches, PVC pipes, and broom or hoover
handles are likely candidates. Most fishing rods are made of fiberglass, exactly
identical material as professional antenna covers, so cut off the loops and paint
the rod black to have an aesthetic antenna (large-diameter shrink wrap is
quicker, less messy and weatherproofs).
Wood is cheap, easy to work with and can be fixed to any shape with screws.
Self-tapping screws are ideal as no pre-drilling or pilot hole needed.
Wire cutters (diagonal pliers): get one with handles covered in soft
foam, anything larger than your palm will be difficult to handle.
Electric screwdriver: 12V units are cheap and work off car batteries,
professional ones (14.4V and above, over 30-40 dollars) are excessively heavy
and can be overkill for the job. Always use proper head attachments, screw
should fit bit with no movement.
Tape: trade suppliers sell best quality, test stickiness: tape to your hand,
should be sticky after 3-4 tries. Check combined length for multipacks, initially
might seem better value, but the overall length will be often less than a single
roll. Thrift store / Pound shop / 2 Euro shop tape is frustrating, peels off.
Colours help with identification, use white for labelling with permanent
marker, red is signal / center wire, black is braid.
Organise your working area, lengths of electrical tape cut and ready to peel
saves time. Antenna dimensions written out on paper is good reference (hence
provided with antennas in this text), place said paper under cable you’re working
on, catches small copper wires / braid filaments, easier to clean up. Take extra
care with kids or pets,, cut-offs will be eaten. Measure required lengths first, then
mark with tape: keeps the coax together and provides a reference point.
No tape measure? A standard sizes page is 8 by 12 inch, 210x297mm.
Multimeter: will be required sooner or later, essential for ambitious
projects. Get one which also tests for short-circuiting: touching two ends
together makes a beeping sound. This will be useful for a plethora of tasks,
especially for coax collinear antennas, eliminating the “Did I do it properly?”
question.
Soldering: Workaround solutions offered in this book whenever possible,
unfortunately, beyond a threshold level soldering is unavoidable. A good
soldering station can be had for 20-30 dollars if you’re interested, desoldering
small surface-mount components is easier with a solder sucker.
Weather-proofing: two-component putty, hot glue, or filler materials
combined with a case, such as candle wax into a can will provide good weather
protection. Chewing gum is hardly a specialist material, but works really well as a
sealant, chew for a while, aply, then leave to dry for at least a day.
Part III - Software
Software Defined Radio is cheaper than a conventional receiver, because the
computer is doing the heavy lifting. Setup steps are centred on Windows,
because 9 out of 10 readers enjoy a flavour of Microsoft’s operating system:
installation steps and commands do not differ between Windows 7, 8 or 10, or a
touchscreen Windows.
Linux installation steps and software for Linux environment is covered
separately under Raspberry Pi setup.
A particular signal, and hence required software for decoding, can be
identified from the Signal Wiki (link). Besides getting you started and assisting
with first steps, intricate details of each and every available program is not
covered. Reasons are: 1) user guide or manual is almost always available from
the developer, 2) your preferences for a particular software solution might differ
from mine, e.g. ADS-B reception is possible with a multitude of programs. As a
general rule, the easiest-to-use free / open source software is featured.
Digital modes normally require a second application running concurrently
with a general receiver – audio piping is a must and described below.
Please follow the steps below for a problem-free installation experience:
Use 7zip: Free archive manipulating (link) software, install this first - even if
you have appropriate software such as WinZip or Winrar.
Github: online storage site, compressed utilities can be downloaded by
clicking on the “Download ZIP” button in the top right corner.
 Speed and efficiency: Create a folder on your desktop for all installation
files – you won’t have to roam around the Downloads folder, plus everything will
be stored in one location for further reference.
Windows Explorer: use keyboard shortcut “Windows + E”. The Windows
button is located in the bottom left corner of the keyboard, in-between CTRL and
ALT. Some keyboards might have a “My PC” or similar writing under the letter E.
Download Banzai

Refer to this section later for full address hyperlinks, or save time and
download everything in one go.
Drivers
SDRSharp, after installation is complete, can be run from a folder: possible to
create different versions for various purposes, e.g. one folder named SDR#
Normal, next is SDR# HF with Oliver Jowett’s drivers, next is SDR# Keenerds
and so on.
Zadig – general driver for all RTL-SDR dongles
RTL-SDR dongle will not work without this, download and install this first.
http://zadig.akeo.ie
HDSDR ExtIO for RTL USB dongles – use ZIP in top right corner. This is
required for HDSDR.
https://github.com/josemariaaraujo/ExtIO_RTL
Oliver Jowett’s experimental HF Driver – Windows zip file, copy-paste
uncompressed files into SDR# folder.
https://db.tt/0JuVpWBL
RTL-SDR.com’s modded CP code for better heat-related
performance in the L-band (around 1.5 GHz). Copy-paste the downloaded
rtlsdr.dll file into SDR# directory.
https://github.com/rtlsdrblog/rtl-sdr/releases
Keenerds RTL-SDR Drivers and utilities
Copy all downloaded files with the exception of exe files (Type: Application in
Windows Explorer), then rename librtlsdr.dll to rtlsdr.dll (librtlsdr.dll Type:
application extension, 182 kB).
http://igg.kmkeen.com/builds
DVB-T Driver for watching TV
Installation package, driver only from:
http://www.station-drivers.com/index.php?
option=com_remository&Itemid=352&func=fileinfo&id=1109&lang=en
Installation package including software, download then extract, in DVB-T
Folder find “Drivers” directory, run setup.exe. Leave the rest alone, asks for
licence key.
https://mega.nz/#!zgplmLyR!NvpfJVO8KakkDBpXmVPfWCTkml4VKMk7T6MRptTF6dg
SDRSharp

Microsoft .Net Framework 4.6

https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/download/details.aspx?id=48130
Microsoft Visual C++ 2010 SP1 Redistributable Package (x86)
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/download/details.aspx?id=8328
SDR# rev 1443 & ADSBSpy & Spectrum Spy
http://airspy.com/download/

HDSDR
Download using the blue “Download” button at bottom of page.
http://www.hdsdr.de/index.html
ExtIO for RTL USB dongles – use ZIP in top right corner.
https://github.com/josemariaaraujo/ExtIO_RTL
Current EiBi shortwave schedules – download CSV database from
middle of page, or use second link to download file directly.
http://www.eibi.de.vu
http://www.eibispace.de/dx/sked-b15.csv

SDR Radio v2.3

Developer’s website:
http://v2.sdr-radio.com/Software/Download/Download-Kits
Required dll can be downloaded from aa5sh’s webpage at the bottom:
http://www.aa5sh.com/?page_id=65

CubicSDR
Developer’s website:
http://cubicsdr.com/?cat=4
Virtual Audio Cable
Developer’s website, orange download button middle of page:
 http://vb-audio.pagesperso-orange.fr/Cable/index.htm
Or use direct download link:
http://vbaudio.jcedeveloppement.com/Download_CABLE/VBCABLE_Driver_Pack43.zip

RTL power and heatmap tools

RTL_power is part of Keenerd’s files, download from
http://igg.kmkeen.com/builds
Heatmap png file generator
Select gopow_win64.zip from Downloads:
https://github.com/dhogborg/rtl-gopow/releases

Shortwave software

MultiPSK
Download from developer:
http://f6cte.free.fr/index_anglais.htm

Weather Satellites

WXtoIMG, developer’s website:

http://www.wxtoimg.com/downloads

ADS-B

PiAware
General information for Raspberry Pi from developer:
http://flightaware.com/adsb/piaware/build
Direct link to compressed (ZIP) image:
http://piaware.flightcdn.com/piaware-sd-card-2.1-5.img.zip
RTL1090
Download from developer:
http://rtl1090.web99.de
ADSBScope
Information and download from developer:
http://www.sprut.de/electronic/pic/projekte/adsb/adsb_en.html#downloads
Direct link to compressed zip file:
http://www.sprut.de/electronic/pic/projekte/adsb/adsb_all.zip
SDRSharp

SDRSharp (abbreviated SDR#, used interchangeably) is the most widely used

Software Defined Radio software, with highest number of supporters on online
forums, in enthusiast groups and articles.
Microsoft .Net Framework: needed like a foundation to a house.
Normally comes with Windows, chances are it’s already on your computer.
Microsoft Visual C++: probably already installed, won’t hurt to check.
SDRSharp: The general receiver software.
VB Cable (optional, but recommended): routes the received audio
signal to other software for further processing. You may install it later.
Microsoft .Net Framework 4.6

Open a web browser and navigate to Microsoft’s download page (link), click
on the chunky red “Download” button, then save the file. Note the download
directory.
Run the saved file, accept terms and conditions. The installer package might
stop system processes such as antivirus or firewalls, accept it.
Installation should complete in a few minutes. You’re done.
Microsoft Visual C++ 2010 SP1 Redistributable Package

Download from the Microsoft Download Centre (link), a repair option will be
available if already installed, run it anyway for peace of mind.
SDRSharp rev 1430 (a.k.a. SDR#)

General purpose radio software, download from developer (link) click on

Download tab (4th from left), the first item on the list will be SDR# rev 1430 &
ADSBSpy, click on the blue “Download” link on the right to download a
compressed archive.
Older versions are also available online, interface will be similar, will work just as
 well.
The downloaded file will need to be decompressed, use your existing software
or 7zip, and ensure using “Extract to” option – simply extracting the file into
your Downloads will result in a mess, SDR #files all over the place.
Open the SDR# folder and run install-rtlsdr.bat, this is the only file with the
letter ‘I’. This will download required files, black window comes up, let it work,
closes itself.
Next step: still in this folder, you find a file called SDRSharp.exe, type of file
“CONFIG” or “XML Configuration File”.
Open this (Right click, “Open with”), use Notepad or WordPad.
Lots of numbers and code appear on the screen, the sixty-fourth (64th) line
from the top will be:
<add key="minOutputSampleRate" value="32000" />
Change 32000 to 48000, exit (top right, red cross) – when asked, save
changes.

Zadig
Zadig is a utility replacing the Windows driver. Required for correct RTL
dongle functioning.
Still in the same Sdrsharp folder, last file is Zadig, icon is a blue screen with
the letter “Z”. This will install drivers so Windows will use the RTL stick
properly, not as a TV tuner. Right-click once, “Run as administrator” (blue shield
icon). Press yes if asked.
The Zadig window appears, top row second from left is “Options”, top item
“List all devices”. Place a tick / checkmark next to this, in the Drop-down list
Bulk-In, Interface (Interface 0) should appear.
Your current driver can be None, RTL2832UUSB (v64.1.617.201) or similar,
the important part is the window next to the green arrow, this should be
WinUSB. (v6.1.7600.16385 as of writing, this may change with further updates)
Click on Replace driver, then press Install if Windows wants confirmation.
Now the RTL stick will be recognised by SDRSharp, but you can run Zadig again
to check the current driver – this should be WinUSB, confirming a successful
RTL stick driver installation.
You can start the main software by clicking on the SDRSharp executable, icon
is blue waves / DNA molecule.
If the user interface is not displaying properly (the modes section under
settings can be a bit squeezed at first), restart the computer. It is better to restart
after VB Cable installation, as a reboot will be required anyway.
Alternatively, if you plan to receive and decode digital modes, install VB
Cable.
Using SDR Sharp
SDR# requires a connected RTL stick to work. Older versions work as long as
the necessary drivers are installed using Zadig. The software uses its folder
contents to run, so you may simultaneously have an older version, the latest
version or a version with audio routing set up in different folders.
Unless you like browsing for the file, create a shortcut in the SDRSharp folder
(Right-click, Create shortcut), then Cut-Paste (Ctrl-X, Ctrl-V) the shortcut to
Desktop.
Due to the sheer number of variations in SDR#, use the following as a starting
point, then spend time playing with different settings. Other receiving software
uses the same elements and principles.
What’s what on the screen
Starting from the top right corner, all buttons show description if you hover
over them with the mouse pointer.
 Three vertical lines: turns menu panel below on or off.
Play button: starts/stop reception.
Cogwheel: Settings. Select Input source: RTL USB for USB connection, RTL
TCP for network/Raspberry connections. Gain and Sample Rate detailed below.
Long number: tuned frequency. You can click, or use the mouse wheel to
change the frequency of interest.
When you move your mouse, the number under the pointer will turn either
blue (down) or red (up) - click on the bottom and top part of the numbers to
change.
Black area below long numbers: top is called Spectrum Analyser, bottom
part is called Waterfall. We’ll discuss both in more detail later.
 Zoom (top right corner): zooms in and out of Spectrum Analyser. Used
for finding an elusive signal at higher zoom settings.
Contrast (below Zoom): changes the colour scheme of the waterfall.
Signals will be visible with a proper contrast settings.
Range: Range of the Spectrum Analyser.
Offset: Offset for Spectrum Analyser.
On the left hand side, Menu contains several items, most important are:
Source: Select RTL-SDR (USB) from here if the stick is connected to
computer, or RTL TCP if using a network connection.
Radio: used most frequently, set modes according to signal source. Most
communications use NFM, anything flying uses AM, shortwave voice will be
either LSB or USB, croadcast FM radio is WFM,
Shift is used for shortwave with an upconverter. Enter -125,000,000 (there’s
a minus sign before 125 MHz) for the Ham It Up, or the appropriate value if
using other upconverters. Further adjustment, called ppn correction might be
necessary to pinpoint the exact frequency – wait until both RTL stick and
upconverter warmed up, find a strong signal, check the exact frequency on short-
wave.info (link), then adjust as necessary.
Bandwidth: how much signal is received either side of the tuned frequency,
can be also adjusted with mouse by going to the side of the grey area in the
Spectrum Analyser – mouse turns to two-sided arrow, left-click to adjust.
Dragging the grey area left and right will tune the center frequency.
Squelch: turn on, no hissing noise, only voice. Slowly increase with up and
down arrows until hissing stops. Great for action-packed conversations, such as
Tower – Landing aircraft. With audio on external speakers, silence-voice-silence
is better than hissing-voice-hissing, plus your significant other will not hate you.
In the Audio Panel, the most important is the Output drop-down list, select
MME Cable Input if you’ll be using data modes.
AGC is automatic gain control, manual is better.
FFT display changes the behaviour or the Waterfall and Spectrum Analyser,
adjust values to your heart’s content. Unless you want eye-candy, scaling down
resolution to a lower value reduces computer workload.
Audio Noise Reduction can be a blessing with weak audio stations, like
during shortwave listening.
Settings – Sample Rate
The cogwheels brings up an RTL-SDR Controller window, ensure that offset
tuning and RTL AGC (Automatic Gain Control) are turned OFF (no check mark
in square). Leave Sampling Mode alone unless the RTL dongle has been modded
for direct conversion.
The Sample Rate is how much frequency visible in the top window (Spectrum
Analyser), 1.024 MSPS will give you 1MHz worth of signals: for example, signals
from 97 MHz to 98 MHz occupy the screen. Similarly, 2.048 MSPS enables you
to view (guess what…) 2MHZ worth of signals, e.g. from 97MHz to 99 MHz.
The maximum sample rate is around 2.8 MSPS, anything above will cause the
RTL stick to freeze. Higher sample rates 1) increase dongle and host computer
workload, 2) generate heat thus increasing internal noise.
In practice, 1.024 – 1.4 MSPS is still more than enough to view a sizeable
chunk of frequencies, 0.25 MSPS generates minimum noise and the right setting
for tuning only one particular frequency for data modes.
RF Gain
Proper Gain is the single most important skill, so please refer back to the
decibel vs power increase chart in the Theory section first.
RF gain increases or decreases the amplification of the signal reaching the
RTL dongle. Keyword is “reaching” –coax cable, amplifiers, upconverters,
antenna, atmospheric conditions etc. will play a part how much gain will be
needed.
Setting up a good contrast scheme – small speckles in the waterfall, blue-ish
background, signals appear red – and using headphones help a lot determining
the perfect gain value.
Always start with zero gain, then slowly increase one step at a time - try to use
as little gain as possible, too much gain will also amplify noise, lowering your
signal-to-noise radio. Values around the middle of the slider work in most
scenarios.
If you’re constantly using more than 36.4 dB gain, consider investing in a
LNA. An LNA provides 20-30 dB pre-amplification at the antenna, therefore the
dongle gain can be reduced to between 0-10 dB.
Red spike in middle of screen: remove by clicking on the square next to
“Correct IQ” (top left of screen, in the Radio panel). Spike disappears.
Tune around 100 MHz and hear broadcast radio, screen shows a red
mountain or spike and the waterfall below changes to red – that is your received
signal. The small, spiky grey waves at the bottom of window represent electrical
noise.
From top left to top right, buttons and setting to play with:
Window with red line, surrounded by grey area - red line is center of the
frequency, adjust with numbers. Received signal is always under the red line,
grey area left and right from red line is how much you receive, called filter
bandwidth in the radio panel. Move cursor over line edge, left click and hold will
adjust the bandwidth.
Window below red line - signals over time, called waterfall. Change colour
with Contrast on right edge of screen. Small amount of speckles is perfect, too
much colour and received signal will be swamped in red.
Speed: how fast the waterfall moves. Too fast and your eyes start to water,
too slow and short transmissions, such as AIS or airplane-to-airplane chatter will
be harder to spot. Best compromise: slider slightly below middle.
Slider next to long numbers is the same as system volume control (speaker
icon next to clock): makes audio sound louder or quieter.
Output: for audio, select Speakers. For audio piping (using the received
signal in secondary software) - select CABLE Input.
Tips and tricks
The Spectrum Analyser display range should be set up with a maximum of
60dB visible above the noise floor – if the received signal is touching the top of
the window, you have too much gain and the RTL stick is overloaded.
Roll mouse middle wheel up and down in the Spectrum Analyser toquickly go
up and down in frequency. How much you move up and down can be set in the
Radio panel, under Step.
Frequency / PPM correction: Primarily applies to non-TCXO dongles,
the numbers on screen (tuned frequency) are not the actual frequency due to
oscillator error.
Solution: find a constant, steady signal (google nearest airport and ATIS, find
speech on landing, runway and weather information if you have an airport
nearby, use a commercial FM radio station else), tune to that frequency with the
numbers on the screen. The spike / top of the received signal will not be under
the red line – move the line left or right with the small arrows next to frequency
correction, until the peak of the received frequency is under the red line.
This frequency correction value is prone to change over time as the stick
warms up, variations can be reduced with better ventilation and cooling, or by
letting the stick reach thermal equilibrium e.g. using it for half an hour.
If tuning to an exact frequency is paramount, leave the stick on for half an
hour or so, then apply the frequency correction. Alternatively, Temperature
Controlled Oscillators (TCXO in the name plus 0.5 ppm or 1.0 ppm indicating
maximum drift) are available, but cost double of a bog-standard R820T2 tuner.
FFT Display Panel: Top of panel under Resolution, eye candy setting wave
top detail, select 512 from drop-down menu, reduces processor load. Bottom of
panel under “Spectrum”, move “Range” slider left to increase visibility of
received signal.
 Digital Noise Reduction: Useful for weak signals, reduces the hissing
noise to a level set by the slider. Shortwave stations can be enjoyed like local FM
broadcasts; use in conjunction with Gain settings for best results.
HDSDR

Last update in Nov 2013, HDSDR is aimed at the amateur radio operator both
in looks (S-meter) and capabilities (interfacing with transmitters and older
Software Defined Radios).
HDSDR truly excels at user control after the initial learning curve – it takes
more time to get used to it, especially if migrating from SDR#. However,
keyboard shortcuts enable faster operation once the commands become muscle
memory.
1) Download from http://www.hdsdr.de/index.html, then run the installation
application.
Note installation folder, usually software will be installed to C:\Program Files
(x86)\HDSDR unless a different directory is specified.
2) Download a required driver called ExtIO for RTL USB dongles from the
following link, use ZIP in top right corner.
https://github.com/josemariaaraujo/ExtIO_RTL
3) Extract the downloaded file, than find Release folder in the unzipped
folder. Copy-paste ExtIO_RTL.dll (236 kB) into HDSDR folder.
Done, plug in RTL dongle and fire up HDSDR.
How to use
HDSDR uses a graphical interface (mouse is enough) but also provides
keyboard shortcuts for quick operation. A comprehensive FAQ is available on the
internet. In HDSDR, links are provided in the Help section, or by pressing the F1
button. The how-to link is “under construction”, fortunately detailed usage
guides are available here (link) and here (link).
In the main window, Left-click activates a function, and Right-click brings up
configure settings. Most buttons have a mouseover description of what they do.
The top window is the waterfall, signals are visible over time. Left click on a
signal for instant tuning.
Frequency range is visible below on a slider scale, red arrows left and right of
the screen move frequency display by visible area. Dragging this area also
changes the waterfall and spectrum analyser below.
The Bandwidth button (or pressing F6) sets received audio quality, select
48,000 for general use, or use 192,000 for commercial FM radio.
Rev counter looking needle is actually a signal meter, used on traditional
radio sets and included for familiarity for amateur radio operators.
 Entering a frequency is accomplished by changing the LO frequency (Local
Oscillator): Left-click LO for a manual entry, or press “L” or “CRTL+O” on
keyboard.
Tuning a signal within the displayed spectrum is with Tune above, or with
keyboard shortcuts “T” or “CRTL+T”.
Left-click on FreqMgr, or use keyboard shortcut “CTRL+B” to quickly access
stored frequencies. Shortwave broadcast frequencies can be downloaded from
the internet, then imported and sorted in this window under EiBi.
ExtIO is similar to the Cogwheel in SDRSharp, brings up RTL dongle settings.
Gain, the most frequently used setting is available separately by clocing the
window and clicking on RT below, adjusting the slider to your liking.
Sliders to the right adjust Waterfall and Spectrum display behaviour.
Two windows below are audio waterfall and spectrum display.
Blue button in the bottom left corner adjust audio, dongle tuning and Morse
code (CW) behaviour. An extremely useful feature, especially for shortwave
listening, is AFC, Automatic Frequency control, which moves the tuned area to
the signal for best reception.
Pressing F7 bring or the Options menu allows adjustments for total
customization.
For handy keyboard shortcuts, read the full list available in the HDSDR folder
called hdsdr_keyboard_shortcuts.html.
SDRConsole / SDR-Radio v2.3

Also called SDRConsole, aimed at users with expensive SDRs and fast
computers. General purpose receiver software similar to HDSDR: audio waterfall
and frequency display with noise reduction features.
Download from the developer (link), then install. Does not support RTL-
dongles out of the box, therefore download required dll files from here (link).
Uncompress, then copy files into SDR-RADIO-PRO.com folder under
C:\Program Files. 32-bit Windows users will find the directory under
C:\Program Files (x86).
Connect RTL dongle, start SDRConsole with blue radio mast icon, click “Yes”
to question, in the new window “Radio definitions” click “Search” and select RTL
SDR (USB).
New window pops up, press “Yes” to update list. Press OK.
In Select Radio window, left-click the dongle to highlight it, change sample
rate if desired, then press “Start” in bottom left corner.
Explore different tabs on top, note that windows can be rescaled to your
liking.
The included Guide (64 pages) under the Help tab on the far right provides
extensive description of all settings.
CubicSDR

Open-source and free from the developer (link), reduced in functionality

compared to alternatives already discussed. Easy to use and has native RTL-SDR
support, no downloads or copying files necessary.
Less powerful computers might struggle running CubicSDR due to high
processor usage. After downloading and installation, from Devices => Local
select Generic RTL2832U and click on Use selected.
Virtual Audio Cable

The default output from SDRSharp is audio; but additional software will
require this audio for further processing to receive data modes, such as AIS,
Weather Sondes, or Weather Satellites.
The easiest way is installing a recording and playback device, called VB Cable
driver (link) from VB Audio Software.
Uncompress the zip file into its own folder, then “Right Click – Run as
administrator” the file called VBCABLE_Setup_x64 (icon is yellow in front of
blue).
Press Install driver, confirm if required, wait a bit – program might show as
unresponsive – then get “Successful Installation” screen.
Restart your computer.
Setting up VB Cable
Right-click the speaker icon next to the clock (Sound settings in Start =>
Control Panel yields the same result), select Playback Devices.
Right-click CABLE Input, select Properties (bottom of list).
Select Advanced tab (to the right), from the drop-down list select 16 bit,
48000 Hz (DVD Quality).
Press OK, then do the same for Recording devices – this tab will be on top
right next to Playback devices, or you can access directly with Right-click onto
the speaker icon.
Congratulations, VB Cable is set up for data modes.
Note that if you listen to music or try to watch a movie, and no sound is
coming out of the speakers, VB Cable settings might be the culprit: adjust back as
necessary.
Heat map

A heat-map uses the command-line utility rtl_power to examine a predefined

spectrum for active frequencies, then uses a second software to create a visual
representation.
For using rtl_power, please read the relevant section in this book first. Before
setting up a band scan, fire up your favourite SDR general receiver and find the
best signal-to-ratio on a known frequency in the band to get best gain value.
For example, surveying the airband uses the following command for an 1-
hour scan with a gain of 29.7 db.
rtl_power -f 118M:137M:8k -g 30 -i 10 -e 1h airband.csv
 The resulting file will contain active frequencies a red dots or lines; constant-
on voices such as ATIS will be represented as a vertical line.
To create and image like the one above, download gopow from the developer
(link), extract then move to rtl-power’s directory. If you followed instructions in
this book, the folder will be under will be c:\noise.
Start a command-line utility (Start => cmd => black icon) and navigate to
c:\noise, (cd \, then cd noise).
List available options with “gopow – h”.
Using the example above, a heatmap for airband.csv can be generated with
the following command:
gopow –i airband.csv
Shortwave Software

Small MHz numbers, between 1.8 and 30 MHz are called shortwave: RTL
stick does not work down here, a shortwave adapter is required besides a suitable
antenna to receive signals.
Dozens of books (and helpful software) have been written on shortwave
reception, antennas, and so on, bottom line is: buy an upconverter and make a
9:1 unun for $60, string a wire out as long as possible, fire up SDR# and start
listening.
If it’s bright outside you’ll find signals above 10 MHz, if it’s dark, tune below
10 Mhz. Dusk and down and the boundaries are muddled, start tuning and see
what you can pick up.
Antenna recommendations, from acceptable to best:
- Larger ground-plane antennas / large discone
- Random wire
- Random wire with 9:1 Unun
- Dipole – no balun
- T2FD with 4:1 balun
Urban and suburban readers please note that whereas size does matter with
shortwave antennas, larger might not be always better. Size, even if space is
available, should be determined by electrical noise pickup from the environment
– a shorter antenna, quite possibly, will have a better signal-to noise ratio, hence
better audio or signal strength for data modes than an excessively long
substitute. Start with the longest wire possible, use it for a couple of weeks to
discover its strengths and weaknesses, then cut it shorter and shorter.
If that sounds too much time and effort, the best receiving antenna for a
limited space is a Terminated Tilted Folded Dipole (T2FD) – build details and
tips in the antenna section.

General Receiver Software

General SDR reception software works for shortwave reception; additionally,
HDSDR and SDRConsole features built-in programme guides. Using the EiBi
database and Automatic Frequency Control in HDSDR make AM broadcast
listening a joy.
In all receiver software, try different settings, experiment with noise
reduction and gain sliders, see what happens with different levels. When
comfortable using SDRSharp, or the choice of your radio software with strong
signals and start looking at more equipment, get a headphone and do the
exercise again.
Shortwave listening (SWLing) contains a lot of noise and static;
maximising noise reduction and RFI pickup helps, but ultimately; the key is
between your ears. Tune to a frequency without a signal close to the desired
station, and listen to static. Do it for at least 15 minutes, know that initially static
will sound very, very annoying. After a few minutes, indescribable nuances will
start to appear, such as tikk-takk noises, pitching howls fading in and out, harsh
“pop” when the neighbour turns on the garage light – listening to static is part of
the learning process.
The motherlode for SWLing is www.short-wave.info (link), which lists
broadcasting stations in a searchable format. Set up your location on the map,
and either find a program broadcasting, or identify an unknown station. Voice of
America / Russia / China are international broadcasters with round-the-clock
coverage on multiple bands, frequently used to check whether is reception on a
For frequencies, check out the American Radio Relay League’s Band Plan
(link). For available software to decode a particular mode, google “mode name
free software”.
CW: continuous wave, Morse code. Used by radio amateurs to contact each
other with sending and interrupting a very narrow-band signal, “key down” is
sometimes called “dit”, represented as a dot ( ● ) in writing. “Dah” is three times
a dit / represented as a dash ( - ). Each letter has a corresponding combination;
for example, the most commonly known Morse code is the SOS signal - which
was not used for the first time from the Titanic (distinction goes to SS Slavonia in
1909), and was not the main radio distress signal used at the time. It was CQD,
CQ – general call, D – Distress. CQ is short for “secu” from French “securite”,
which is used to this day before maritime general calls.
Amateur Morse code operators are harder to understand even with decoding
software than a teenager’s texting: hams use Q signals and abbreviations (link),
CW abbreviations (link), and follow specific operating procedures (link). For
example, “73”, often seen in writing at the end of user’s posts in forums, is short
for Kind regards.
Digital data modes: wide number of varieties, a well-maintained list is
available from G4UCJ’s website (link). MultiPSK is the best all-round free
decoder, handling the majority of popular modes.
Commercial FM radio

Commonly found between 88 MHz and 108 MHz, all general SDR receivers
will be able to decode it.
Airband

Airplanes communicate with each other and talk to airports in AM mode

(amplitude modulation, select this in SDR receiver software).
Airport frequencies – being a public service provider – are freely available,
often listed on the airport’s website. With busy airports, multiple frequencies
might be listed, and regional one-runway hubs might lack a dedicated frequency
for clearance. Running a heatmap scan with rtl-power will help you visualise
frequencies.
A plane is first heard on an Approach frequency, checking in with the airport.
As it gets closer, pilot switches over to Tower, who issues commands before
landing. Ground directs the arriving plane to a slot.
ATIS is short for Automatic Terminal Information Service, a constant loop of
weather, wind and runway information – great to check for weather in the
morning, as data will be spot-on.
High-level frequencies mean plane-to-plane channels, and as the signal can
be weak, a dedicated ground plane antenna as high as possible, preferably with a
preamp is required. In return for your roof climbing efforts, you’ll be rewarded
with chatter often hundreds of miles away.
Listening to airband can be supplemented with a second RTL stick running
ADS-B decoding software, so you can actually see the real-time location of planes
using one stick and listen to voice transmissions using the other one.
A 4-radial ground plane, element lengths 2 foot / 60cm / two A4 pages longer
side together will make an excellent airband antenna. Local signals can be also
received by virtually any other antenna, but for high-level weak signals, an
antenna cut for ~ 125 MHz is a must.
Weather Satellites

Around 800 km / 500 miles above your head, weather satellites circle Earth,
continuously sending back what they see. The American version is called NOAA
and the Russian version is called Meteor-M No.2. All are essentially oversized
digital cameras on a polar orbit (pass over the North and South Pole).
Weather satellites can be received in real time with the RTL stick, no internet
connection required, laptop – RTL stick – antenna does the job: view weather
systems real-time in a 1000 km / 600 mile radius. Check NOAA’s website (link)
to see a sample image. NOAA stands for National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration – these guys are the top-level meteorologists in the USA.
As of February 2016, three satellites are available: NOAA 15 at 137.620 MHz,
NOAA 18 at 137.9125, and NOAA 19 at 137.100 MHz. Russia also launched
weather satellites, but due to reliability issues, images are either useless or non-
existent.
Special software is required to decode received digital signal. Before you even
continue reading, for top results order a preamp, and really sort out electrical
noise suppression – but these are only required for stunning images.
For effective filtering, combine stubs and bandpass filters, stub for 90 MHz
(coax cable ends not connected, plastic core: 22” / 55 cm, foam core: 27” / 68cm)
and bandpass filter for 137MHz (coax cable ends connected, plastic core: 14 3/8”
/ 36 cm, foam core: 17 11/16” / 45 cm).
A clear view of the horizon, or minimising obstructions is essential for signal
reception, even your body between the antenna and the satellite will cause visible
image degradation. Running non-essential software on the computer will also
cause lines in the final image.
Antennas must be circularly polarised, popular choices are a ground plane, a
turnstile, or the antenna type used on the satellite, a QFH.
The digital signal must be processed by software called WXtoImg (other
solutions exist, WXtoIMG easiest to use). VB Cable / Audio piping required to
pass signal from receiver software.
Software setup: Set Mode to WFM, Bandwidth to 40000, Audio output to
MME Cable Input. In Configure, set Sample Rate to 0.25 MSPS, RF Gain to
around two-thirds to right, 29.7-32.8 works ok (depends on location,
experiment). FFT Panel: Resolution to 512. No digital noise reduction or squelch.
WXtoIMG: download (link) and install appropriate version for your
operating system. Update satellite list at File => Update Keplers (requires
internet connection).
1) After installation, set up your home location on the welcome screen, or use
Options => Ground station location. Search for city and country, if unsuccessful,
google “name of city lat long”.
2) Audio setup: Under Options => Recording Options, select Cable Output.
Leave maximum elevation setting alone, do a few successful passes first, then
lower values if the antenna is really high up with a good view of the horizon.
 Check next satellite pass time under File => Satellite Pass list, then click on
File => Record => Auto Record to start recording, WXtoIMG will wait for a
satellite, bottom left of screen says “waiting for NOAA 19 (or other number) on
137.100 MHz.
3) Trial run: Switch to SDRSharp / preferred SDR receiver software, tune to
frequency given by WXtoIMG, double-check settings are OK. Press play button
30 min before satellite pass to let the dongle warm up. As soon as the satellite
appears on horizon, satellite software will start recording received image. Adjust
volume in receiver software until volume bar in WXtoIMG is green / around 50
mark. Proper gain depends on operating location and noise suppression
measures, it takes at least 2-3 good passes (close to zenith, or elevation above 40
degrees) to determine proper gain and volume settings.
For enthusiast, several guides are available online to automate the process,
from controlling receiver software with a third software called Orbitron, to
creating automatic webpages.
Watching DVB-T Terrestrial television

The RTL dongle was originally intended as a cheap USB TV receiver. To use it
as such, google “realtek rtl2832u dvb-t tuner driver”, or download from station-
drivers.com (link).
Plug in the stick, then run the setup, which will overwrite the RTL-SDR driver
for the USB port.
Congratulations, now the RTL stick is a DVB-T dongle. Search for and use any
“free DVB-T software” – SichboPVR will be probably on top of results, it’s
extremely easy to use and set up.
If you wish to use the dongle in RTL-SDR mode, simply run Zadig and replace
the driver with WinUSB (v6.1.7600.16385). Updating drivers in Device Manager
is a different path leading to the same oasis – Zadig is simpler and faster, with
less chance of unintentionally overwriting something important.
Airplane position signals – ADS-B

Short for Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast, means that

airplanes broadcast info such as position, callsign, speed, altitude and a lot more
on 1090 MHz. Line-of-sight radio wave propagation, the antenna “sees” the
planes (and only planes wants to be seen, it’s not radar, planes playing hide and
seek remain hidden e.g. military aircraft), software visualises this information on
a map: play traffic controller.
There’s a slight obsession in the ADS-B community over maximum range: the
primary factors are elevation (height of antenna above sea level) and terrain
surrounding location. For example, a low performance antenna mounted on top
of a mountain will outperform the best ever antenna located 1500 ft / 500m
lower.
Antenna must be mounted with a clear view of the sky, any obstructions such
as bushes, trees, chimney, anything in the way means less signal and range.
Surface between the tracked plane and your antenna plays an important part –
water is a good conductor, so planes flying over lakes / sea can be tracked over
larger distances.
Full wavelength of 1090 MHz is 27.5 cm (9 inches). Antennas will be
variations of half- and quarter-wavelength ground planes, monopoles or dipoles,
and coax collinears. A cheap and great antenna is cutting the supplied non-
collapsible antenna to 6.9 cm and placing the metallic base on a pan or similar
object. Place that antenna in a window and airplanes will come in.
Commercial antennas start from the $30 mark, such as the collinear from
FlightAware.com (link) or Adam’s folded monopole (link). Flightaware.com
(link) and FlightRadar (link) are popular websites; check possible planes on your
horizon, or supply data for premium membership.
Software options normally use a standalone decoder (no general receiver such
as SDR# or HDSDR needed) for the signal and a separate software for
visualization. Due to the high number of ADSB-software available, only free, easy
installation / no command line options detailed here.
For the easiest all-in-one solution, use the PiAware image with a RasPi: no
installation required, flights available from any browser connected to your home
network, and at the same time you’ll contributing to the common good (and get
premium membership).
Calculating maximum range

An online tool (link) allows calculating a geographical location’s maximum

range assuming no obstructions for the antenna. In practice, actual range might
differ due to individual factors, such as atmospheric conditions, or whether
pigeons roost on the antenna.
1) Open http://www.heywhatsthat.com in a browser and click on New
Panorama in the middle.
2) Search for / enter your location coordinates. Google Maps is your friend if
unknown, Lat / Long will be in bottom left corner of map.
3) Enter antenna elevation.
4) Enter title, then press “submit request” button, wait a maximum of 1-2
minutes.
5) Scroll down on the page, in the map showing your location press “Up in the
air” (2nd from left). Zoom out of the map, Yellow and Blue circles represent
maximum range for 10,000 and 30,000 feet flight height as default – flight level
can be changed to your liking below the map.
PiAware
By far, the easiest method for ADS-B is using a Raspberry Pi 2 or Pi 3.
Download a bootable image from Flightaware (link) during registration.
Connect dongle and antenna, insert SD card into the Pi, power on, wait a few
minutes, then claim your PiAware client. Online tools and maps make
visualisation easier, ranking system for the competitive. Browser-based
visualisation of flights in your area, only problem: less manual control than a
standalone software.
Decoder software
Decoder software receives the ADS-B signal, decodes it, than makes it
available for other programs.
RTL1090 is recommende, which requires a working internet connection for
installation only. Creating a folder on the main c:\ drive called rtl1090 makes
installation easier.
Free from the developer (link), download and run rtl1090imu.exe, scroll
down Terms and Conditions to Accept.
Press New Install, check and confirm Windows version on the left, select
rtl1090 folder on c:\ when asked, press ok for installation to begin.
Zadig is provided for first-timers to install required drivers, ignore and press
Yes repeatedly if dongle is already working, if not, follow instructions on screen.
Green 1090.000 numbers on grey background appear at the end of
installation, this will be the main window. Feel free to close the installation
window, not required any more.
“Start” initiates decoding (Firewall might moan, allow it through). “Open” in
the top left corner opens up settings, “Tuner AGC” and “RTL AGC” refers to
signal amplification, try different settings, or adjust gain slider to right to a
medium-high value such as 36.4 dB.
Clicking on the config slider brings up options, take note of IP/URL (127.0.0.1
for a local computer) and port number (change to 31001, standard used by
adsbScope).
Graphical Radar Software
ADSBScope is a free standalone software, does not require a browser or
internet connection to run.
Create a folder called ADSBScope on the C:\ drive for easy installation, then
download compressed ZIP file from developer (link). Extract files, then go to
adsb_all => pc_software => adsbscope => 27. Software runs with
adsbscope27_16384, create a shortcut on Desktop for easy access.
Start the software, all icons show function with mouse-over. Top left arrows
and + / - sign zooms in and out on map below, or drag the map with left-click.
Position green crosshair on receiver physical location, then in Navigation tab
(3rd from right) => Set receiver location. After confirmation, red crosshair in
circle appears.
Under Other => Network => Network Setup, click on RTL1090 with binary
mode. Press close.
To start the client application, press on the “Start RAW Data client” icon.
Other Software
The combination above is free and works, alternatives are:
Decoders: Modesdeco, Dump1090
Graphical: Planeplotter, Virtual Radar Server
Part IV - Antennas
Theory and Jargon

“Spend 10 dollars on a receiver and 100 dollars on the antenna” – Old

amateur radio saying.
Antenna is what does it, the most important part of a radio system.
Antennas consist of receiving elements which must be made of electrically
conductive materials. Wavelength is the most important number for building
antennas, and likely the only value you’ll use. ¼ wave antennas are great for a
specific frequency, also called resonant on that frequency. Other common
element lengths are half-wave, full wave, 5/8th and 1 ½ wave.
To get a wavelength in meters, divide 300 with the Frequency. For example,
amateur radio 144-146 MHz is called the “2-meter band” because 300/144 is
roughly 2 meters wavelength.
In practice, Higher Frequency = Smaller Antenna.
A “quarter-wave” antenna element is the most commonly used, which
(surprise!) will be a quarter of a full wave. To calculate the length, select a
familiar measurement unit:
Result in inches: Divide 3000 by MHz number.
Result in meters: Divide 75 by MHz number.
Result in feet: Divide 250 by MHz number.
“Gain” is always in relation to an ideal antenna radiating/receiving from all
directions, called isotropic, measured in decibels and expressed as dBi. The other
reference is a dipole antenna, which is 2.15 dB better than an isotropic, so gain
will be expressed as 2.15 (dBi). “5 dBd gain” of an antenna is the same as 7.15
dBi. The latter, dBi, is frequently used in misleading advertising: higher number
looks better.
“Directionality” of an antenna refers to whether it receives signals from all
directions, called omnidirectional, or receives signals from a specific direction,
called directional or beam antenna. Higher directionality usually means higher
gain.
“Bandwidth” refers to the range of frequencies the antenna can receive
from the designed center frequency. Because the stick can receive from 24 MHz
to 1.8 GHz, wide-bandwidth antennas are preferable for RTL-SDR.
Gain, Directionality and Bandwidth are related; a high bandwidth
omnidirectional antenna, for example a discone, will have less gain than a low
bandwidth, highly directional antenna.
“Polarisation”, if you come across the term, refers to the radio wave
/antenna orientation in relation to Earth: vertical is 90 degrees/perpendicular,
horizontal is parallel to surface. A circularly polarised wave looks like a spiral,
can be left or right handed.
Antenna Types
The following is a non-exhaustive list: these are easy to construct, detailed
here, or available commercially.
Monopole: one receiving element, essentially a wire connected to the center
of the coax cable.
Dipole: two elements, one connected to center and one connected to braid.
Ground plane: one element connected to center wire, two or four elements
connected to braid and angled 45 degreed down from horizontal. The most
effective, easiest to make antenna for a given frequency.
Coax collinear: made of coax cable, 2, 4, or 8 elements, center is connected
to braid and braid connected to center.
Discone/bicone: wideband antenna, individual elements forming a cone at
the bottom, connected to braid, on top, varying lengths connected to center
conductor. A bicone, as the name says, will have two cones with apexes pointing
together. Increasing cone length results in greater frequency range.
Commercially available.
QFH: Quadrifilar Helix, circularly polarised antenna most often used for
satellite communications.
Turnstile: two dipoles at right angles forming an “X”, commonly with a
phasing harness for satellites.
Cloverleaf: circularly polarised wire antenna.
Planar disc: two circular metal objects placed side to side with braid and
center connected separately. Commonly made from pizza pans, lowest frequency
determined by diameter of circle.
Path of the beginner

Just starting? Spending on a new antenna is just silly. Unless you ever
casually asked the maid to light the fire with a 100-dollar bill, value for money,
how much you spend - compared to how much you hear – will be high on your
priorities.
$10: R820T2 dongle from China, stock antenna and magnetic mount. Learn
to use software, become familiar with gain settings, different modes, where to
find signals and how they sound like – and read up on antennas in the
meantime. The stock antenna can be either a really short one, or you may have
an additional telescopic one. Even the short one is suitable, do some
modifications and see for yourself that theory and physics work in practice. Add
wires to base and center to see what happens, experiment, play.
$20: Add 10 m / 30 feet coax cable, a USB extension cord and order snap-on
ferrites from the cheapest source you can find. Rip apart and recycle the stock
antenna connector adapter to connect to coax cable. Any coax cable will be
considerably better than the supplied coax, use snap-on ferrites on both ends of
coax cable and a dirty balun to significantly reduce noise pickup.
Place the antenna outside, and build ground plane antennas with two or four
radials. Start with 60 cm / 2 foot elements and explore airband, then cut
elements shorter and shorter to explore higher frequencies.
Wire for a ground plane costs next to nothing, and leftover coax cable can be
reused to make a coax collinear – try an 8-element for ADSB/airplane tracking.
$50: Add toroids and a preamp for VHF use if you’ve found your favourite
radio band (and built a suitable antenna for it), or buy a cheap discone if you
enjoy jumping around the spectrum.
A common beginner mistake is immediately buying a discone without any
clue how and why radio works, connecting dongle directly to a computer and
placing discone indoors, then wondering about all that noise in the waterfall.
If you want a discone, place it outside (or as close to a window as possible)
and use electrical noise suppression measures.
$100: for an extra 50 bucks you can 1) reduce noise even further or buy a
Raspberry Pi, 2) invest in a shortwave setup, or 3) buy a really good discone for
scanning.
Further noise reduction means installing metal boxes around electrical
appliances and extension leads, snap-on ferrites on every electrical cable,
generous use of toroids, and buying better quality coax cable.
At this stage, if the antenna has a permanent location, save money on
expensive coax and use a Raspberry Pi as a radio server: a RasPi allows placing
the RTL dongle right at the antenna.
For shortwave reception, a random wire and an upconverter will bring in
stronger signals in an urban environment, and enables great reception of far-
flung stations in an electrically quiet location e.g. in the countryside.
$200-$500: After a point you reach diminishing returns for invested energy
vs result – determining where is that point is entirely up to you.
For a shortwave setup, buy or build a 9:1 unun for your random wire and add
a HF preamp, costs $50. To improve the RTL stick, spend around $100 dollars
for a 4000 chipped tuner for shortwave ($45), and $30 for TCXO dongle. Buy
metal enclosures and connectors from the change.
A complete system based on two top-spec RTL sticks, VHF and HF preamps
costs approximately $200. Save $50 and use regular RTL sticks – for 150 dollars,
you can hear pretty much anything, location and antenna permitting.
Antenna placement

As stated earlier, performance of a radio system depends primarily on the

antenna used – assuming the same location. A great position for an antenna is as
high as possible, free of obstructions – no wonder TV antennas grace chimneys,
the roof is the best position. Unless you live in the attic, necessarily long coax
runs will weaken received signals, consequently use a LNA at the antenna, or
incorporate a RasPi and LNA for the best configuration.
Look around from the antenna’s perspective: if the antenna can’t see the sky,
signal reception from that direction is less than ideal. Metal objects, such as rain
gutters or a metal roof will shadow antenna real hard, trees, bushes and walls
will also weaken signals.
 Indoors/apartments: Place antenna as close to a window as possible. If
you really can’t place the antenna outside, use two-dimensional antennas such as
a ground plane with two elements, a planar disc antenna or a bow tie.
Outdoors: Antenna(s) in a garden should be at least 7 feet off the ground,
otherwise people might walk into it and damage the antenna. The higher, the
better, the further your antenna “sees” and receives signals.
Camouflage: Landlord, contractual agreement, owners’ association
restrictions or stealth might require hiding or modifying an antenna-looking
object, like a discone or a massive vertical. Flowering plants, bushes and the like
are good camouflage, tie bird food to radials and get brownie points from local
wildlife and neighbours.
You might come across the notion of treating antennas as delicate objects -
antennas are essentially wires with the addition of a feedline and some
electronics. Shortwave needs long wires, hide them in plain sight: a random wire,
or a T2FD will function as a clothes line in your garden. Coax collinears can be
hung from a window – place a dummy CCTV camera where it ends, will be
indistinguishable from a power line, nobody will tell the difference without close
inspection.
Commercial antennas

Stock antenna and improvements

The RTL stick is shipped with a short black or a collapsible silver antenna,
which screw onto a metallic base mount. Plastic cover on bottom comes off with
a knife, then a small magnet pops out. Do not remove this magnet if the antenna
will reside on a metal surface. Place mount on metal, such as a metal pan, or
connect one or two wires to base of antenna for a ground plane, works well next
to a window indoors for a basic setup and will receive strong local signals. Length
of wires maximum 12” / 30 cm / one feet, too much electrical noise pickup
otherwise.
Try wrapping some wire around the stock antenna – even indoors, the
improvement is substantial due to increased receiving element length.

The base, with the top small antenna unscrewed, can be used as a starting
point for DIY antennas, by touching the braid of coax to the bottom and
wrapping the center conductor around the threaded part, eliminating the need
for adapters. Similarly, the connecting coax cable is thin enough for wrapping
around a toroid, or for de-soldering antenna connector on PCB and soldering on
supplied coax.
Telescopic antennas
Used on old TVs and radios or supplied with the RTL stick. Buy a new one
with BNC connectors (Ebay “scanner telescopic antenna”, around 10 dollars
new). A 2-foot (extended) with angled joints is perfect, larger ones (4-5 foot / 1.2
- 1.5m), such as the second antenna delivered with RTL-SDR.com’s dongle are
even suitable to receive strong shortwave stations.
WiFi antennas
Used on WiFi routers, length around 4 inch / 10cm, usually SMA Reversed
polarity female connection – small screw, hole in the middle.
Direct connection: Stick small diameter wire in the middle, push other end
of wire into RTL dongle MCX connector hole. Connection will be fragile, but will
work.
 Using adapters: 1/16th inch / 3 mm wire between antenna and SMA female
– MCX male adapter provides an antenna suitable for travelling, without adapter
and wire antenna remain functional. No worries at public places such as in a
hotel lobby, dongle plus antenna looks like a WiFi range extender. Local signals,
especially above 400 MHz easily come in – for example, licence-free handheld
radios in hotels or mall security.
Rubber duckies
If the scenario calls for a larger then WiFi, but still inconspicuous antenna,
use a rubber ducky. Walkie-talkies, handheld transceivers and scanner radios
use these. Uniden, Icom and Baofeng antennas are the cheapest and most widely
available, require suitable adapters.
 Rubber duckies will be susceptible to noise pickup, an extendable antenna
might be a better alternative.
Discone
A discone is probably the weapon of choice for most beginners, as more
signals are coming in – noisy signals, still, you get the impression of hearing
more. Imposing looks, suitably expensive: an all-round performer for all
frequencies. If you can justify the expense (“I want one” works), buy a
commercial discone –they look like James Bond’s birthday present and quite
affordable at the same time, starting around 30 dollars. A good quality discone
(link) costs around 100 dollars, will last well into your next marriage and offers
wideband performance.
Homemade: same as the bottle antenna (see below), four more radials
connected to braid and more receiving elements on top. Use a bottle with a large
cap, then add receiving elements for frequencies of your interest.
Other designs (Spiral, Double Discone, Yagi, Horn, Reflectors, Log-Periodic)
Either expensive, extremely directional, complicated to build or require tools
not available outside of a machinist’s workshop. A ground plane with four 23
5/8” / 60 cm radials and two receiving elements on top (23 5/8” / 60 cm, and
12” / 30cm) will be just as good as exotic designs requiring lots of wire, sweat
and pain.
Homemade Antennas

Professional antennas cost thousands of dollars, and will operate on the same
principles as your 10 dollar wonder. If you mastered the skill of placing a spoon
into your mouth, you have the hand-to-eye coordination necessary to make a
great antenna.
Reception is 80% from the antenna system in use: “system” because RTL
stick, cables, noise suppression and all components work together. Please read
this section to gather time-saving ideas, then pay attention to noise reduction in
the next chapter.
Make antennas a bit longer than dimensions listed, you can’t take away
material that’s not there. An eighth of an inch or a few mm off from dimensions
won’t make a huge difference, still, strive for perfection.
Safety first: wear eye protection not only for cutting wire, but also during
handling antennas. Repeat: wear eye protection, costs 3-4 dollars, might prevent
a nasty poke in the eye – or worse.
Aesthetics: antennas described below work, but might not reach spouse or
neighbour acceptance levels. Use your imagination, camouflage, and electrical
junction boxes to solve household and appearance issues. As long as an antenna
cannot be seen, there’s nothing to complain about.
Simple antennas only need a knife and tape; permanent installations require
more attention. Time invested in sturdiness pays dividends on the long run.
Buy wire strippers to strip coax cable. If you can’t, multiple passes with a
blunt knife is better than a sharp knife and force; harder to cut into braid, when
you cut your finger wound won’t be that deep. When you cut yourself, put tissue
and pressure on the wound, then elevate hand above your head. Wait until
bleeding stops, then place tissue and tape on the cut.
Remember for bleeding: pressure, put hand above head, cover wound.
[Not to discourage you, it’s only a matter of time.]
Connecting two coax cables
If you have no adapters / do not wish to disconnect cables.
 1) Place paper under working area.
2) Cut outer plastic lengthwise / longitudinally. 2” / 5 cm gives you enough
material to work with. Gentle force, do not cut into the braid. Do this on a hard
or disposable surface, knife slips off - kitchen table not ruined. Repeat: GENTLE
force, multiple passes. No power please.
3) At the bottom of the cut, mark with electrical tape, keeps plastic sheath
together and good distance marker. Force plastic sheath outwards. Grab visible
wires inside, including small wires, and pull out of plastic sleeve.
4) Separate small wires, end up with clam-shaped small wires and the center
conductor. Pull small wires to one side, do not twist together.
5) If foil surrounds the center conductor, snip off with scissors, nail clippers
or knife.
6) Cut incision / small hole in electrical tape. Push center conductor through
small hole, pull tape to bottom and wrap around cable body.
7) Pull small wires gently away from cable, removes small filaments.
8) Cut off plastic or foam insulation at a distance from the small wires (eights
of an inch / 4 mm). Gentle force, multiple small cuts until you feel the center
insulator, cut all around, twist plastic surrounding center wire: less chance
cutting center wire. So twist, then pull off plastic cover. Note that with small
lengths / thin cables the whole center conductor, including plastic insulator pulls
out, grab other end if this happens.
9) Repeat steps above for other cable.
10) Now you have two cables, make sure lengths are same for braid and
insulator.
 11) Position two cables parallel, tape cables together. Use a minimum of three
complete turns around the cable.
12) Start with braid / small wires: mix small wires, then twist together.
13) Braid connected, wrap center wires. If one wire is thicker / stronger, wrap
weaker one around it. If both are strong, use pliers - too much power and center
wire will twist off. Do at least three wrist turns.
14) Cut off extra lengths, go for minimum connection / twist area.
15) If missed step above, about 2 inches / 5 cm from visible wire tape two
cables together. Minimum three wraps, the more the better. This will prevent
connections coming apart, tape takes the load.
Terminal connectors
Called wire connectors, insulated wire connectors, chocolate blocks, choc
terminals: same stuff.
Screw holds wire in place, internal diameter limits maximum wire size. Red
and black tape markings means no guessing which one is center and which one is
braid, especially in the dark in the garden.
Terminal connectors pick up electrical noise (broadcast FM radio, pagers, TV
and mobile phones), only a problem if you’re a perfectionist / go after very weak
signals, shield terminal connectors with cut up soda cans or aluminium foil.
Minimise noise by using only required length of wire:
- Screw down the other screw opposite from wire inserted,
- Push wire in as far as it can go,
- Braid or wire visible – cut down to size. Cut only small amounts, try
again.
- Only insulation visible - length is OK.
- Fix wire in place with screw.

Monopole
The simplest antenna to make, connect coax center conductor to a piece of
wire, length determined by frequency of interest.With the stock antenna, wrap a
wire around the supplied small stock antenna for increased reception.
Alternatively, cut braid off from the end of coax, leaving the center conductor
exposed – monopole in a minute. For instance, with only a knife in your hand,
measure three hand’s span from end of coax and cut off braid. Resulting wire will
be long enough to pull in enough strong local signals for a night’s scanning.
Dipole
The “standard” antenna others measured against (expressed in dBd), braid
and center wire connected to equal length elements.

With only coax cable available, remove outer plastic sheathing, then carefully
unravel the braid to the same length as the center conductor.
Ground Plane
Called ground plane as an artificial reflecting surface is connected to antenna
ground (braid). Common solutions are 2, 4, or 8 wires, chicken mesh wire, or a
metal plate such as the roof of a vehicle. A magnetic mount antenna, such as the
one supplied with the dongle, will act as a ground plane when placed on top of a
car or similar metal surface.
 The recommended antenna type for most frequencies and applications, will
be exceptional on the design frequency: elements lengths should be quarter- or
half-wave, ground plane must be at least equal or larger than receiving element.
In practice, 2, 4 or eight equal-length wires are connected to braid. Similarly
to a dipole, coax cable itself can be transformed into a ground plane – braid must
be separated into two or four parts, this works better with thickly-woven braid.
Chopsticks or straws can be used to beef up support and to maintain shape.
The “bottle antenna” described below will be waterproof, portable,
disposable: costs a few dollars and takes maybe half an hour to assemble.
Parts: five wires, each 23 5/8th inch / 60cm / two A4 pages longer side put
together, coax, chewing gum, empty plastic bottle, knife, electrical tape.
Substitute chewing gum with two-component putty if available.
Steps:
1) Remove insulation from one end of the four wires.
2) Do not remove braid from coax cable. The two coax cables must be of
equal length.
3) Four small, wire-diameter holes 90 degrees apart on side of bottle. Cut
with knife or melt with hot tip of knife.
4) Cut cable-sized hole for coax connections on the side of the bottle.
5) Turn the bottle upside down, neck of bottle pointing down.
6) Push four wires one by one through the small hole, so wires come out
through the neck of bottle. A small bend / curve in the wire before inserting
helps: wire finds the bottleneck easier. Equal lengths should stick out.
7) Push two coax cables through neck of the bottle – four wires, two coax
stick out now.
8) Electrical tape the four wires together just below the bare wire ends.
9) Mark coax cables with electrical tape 3” / 7.5 cm from end of coax. Use
different colours – no guess work later.
10) Remove braid from both coax cables 3” / 7.5 cm. Also remove insulation
from center wire.
11) Wrap one center wire two-three times around the four wire ends.
12) Push the four wires down, through the neck of the bottle as far as it goes.
Gently pulling on the coax cable helps.
13) Push receiving element through cap, connect other coax cable center wire
to bare end.
 14) Screw cap on bottle.
15) Using coax cable, connect center from four wires to braid and center from
single wire to conductor. This coax cable will bring the signal to the RTL stick.
16) Waterproof bottle openings with chewing gum.
Beginner should start with longer element lengths, then cut wire away in
small steps to effectively create the ideal antenna for higher frequencies with
each successive cut.
Coax collinear
Coax in the name means that the antenna is made from common coax cable,
so it will flexible, easy to transport in your pocket, yet offer good performance for
the design frequency.

Imagine connecting two sections of coax cable the wrong way: center
conductor to braid and braid to center. Use two, four or eight sections for better
performance.
To keep it simple, check whether the coax cable is plastic or foam, then:
Plastic surrounds the center wire (Velocity factor .66)
Result in meters: Divide 49.5 by MHz number.
Result in inches: Divide 1982 by MHz number.
Result in feet: Divide 165 by MHz number.
 Foam surrounds the center wire (Velocity factor .82)
Result in meters: Divide 61.5 by MHz number.
Result in inches: Divide 2460 by MHz number.
Result in feet: Divide 205 by MHz number.
As an example, an 8-section antenna for airplane position signals at 1090
MHz from foam coax will have 5.6cm long elements.
Steps:
1) Use electrical tape to mark length on coax, allow an extra 2”/5cm from the
end.
2) Cut required number of sections.
3) Remove braid and any insulator from end of coax, so only center
conductor remain.
4) Impale a small section of electrical tape on the center conductor, so no
short is possible.
5) Use a needle, skewers, or anything with the same diameter as the
conductor to create a pilot hole between plastic sheathing and braid, or between
braid and foil insulator. Thickly woven braid is an advantage for coax collinears.
6) Gently push center conductor into pilot hole: center will be connected to
braid.
7) Push the two parts together as tightly as possible.
8) Do the above for all element connections.
Joints should be weatherproofed; electrical tape might peel off in hot
weather, use heat-shrink tubing if available. Start applying heat from the middle
of the joint, working toward the ends, ensuring no trapped air remains.
Variations on the theme exist, note that in practical tests no performance
difference was observed compared to the vanilla-version above:
1) Using half-wavelength section lengths,
2) Finishing with a quarter-wave section on top and bottom,
3) Adding a quarter-wave metal tube at the bottom, connected to braid at the
feedpoint (where the antenna coax cable is connected),
4) Adding a toroid at a quarter-wave distance from the antenna feed point.
VHF antennas will be invariably large, but with excellent gain and capacity to
pick up signals from all directions. As an example, an 8 section collinear built for
125 MHz will be around 4 metres, which can be hung from a window or tree.
Bowtie / Butterfly antenna
Essentially a bicone in two-dimensional form, two triangles made of
electrically conductive materials, apexes pointing together, top section connected
to center and bottom connected to braid.
An ideal antenna for beginners or apartment dwellers, as materials are cheap,
the resulting antenna can be taped / hung in front of a window, and it provides
good wideband performance. The height of the antenna determines the lowest
radio wavelength it will receive, in practice, a 1m tall bowtie will be useable down
to 100 MHz.
The simplest version is made with aluminium foil (turkey foil is best, wide
and strong, easier to cut), a support (e.g. cardboard) and double sided glue. Do
not use staples, will wrinkle the foil.
Steps:
1) Decide how tall you want the antenna. Width of top element is determined
by foil width.
2) Pull down as much foil from the roll as required. Do this on a cardboard or
similar disposable surface – cardboard is ideal, provides support for the final
product.
2.5) Taping the alu foil to cardboard at the top and bottom makes cutting off
the shape easier.
3) Cut off top, take care to end up with 90 degree angles in all four corners.
4) Use a string and permanent marker to draw an “X” from top left to bottom
right corner, and top right to bottom left corner. Intersection of “X” – connect
braid and center from coax here.
5) Using a really sharp blade, cut along the marker lines. Hold the blade at a
really shallow angle – a long ruler helps, freehand is sufficient.
6) End up with two triangles, tips almost touching. Route coax cable with
braid and center exposed to center, connecting braid to bottom triangle and
center to top.
An alternative to placing the coax across the bottom triangle is to cut two
equal lengths of coax, stripping braid and insulation, then connecting to triangle
trips from the other side of cardboard. The two short lengths should be
connected to antenna coax as normal – top triangle to antenna coax center,
bottom triangle to antenna coax braid.
Turnstile
Officially called crossed dipole, basically, four horizontal wires with a phasing
harness. A turnstile is frequently used for weather satellite reception, therefore
the example below is for NOAA weather sats at 137MHz. For other uses, adjust
lengths as required, elements are quarter-wavelength or half-wavelenth of
frequency of interest.
Element wire lengths are either half-wave or 54.5 cm quarter wave - no visible
improvement was observed with half-wave elements. Wire diameter is
important, thicker gives better signal strength, but will droop more. Copper rods
can be used – this will require specialist tools for mounting, hence not discussed
here.
For 137MHz weather satellite frequencies, four 54.5 cm / 21 ½” long wires
needed, plus a phasing harness. The phasing harness is two coax cables, one is
electrically quarter wavelength (quarter wave times velocity factor, same
principle as with coax collinears) and the other is electrically half wavelength.
Plastic coax core (137MHz): Shorter cable 36 cm, Longer Cable 72 cm.
Foam core coax (137MHz): Shorter cable 45 cm, Longer Cable 90 cm.
Using four terminal blocks, 3 mm grounding wire and a wood support is a
quick, easy and portable solution - wires are removable with a screwdriver.
Mount the four terminals at 90 degrees to each other, like North, East, South
and West on a compass rose. Leave enough space in the middle for cables.
Opposing ends of the four terminals are connected to form a North-South and
East-West pair for each of the coax cables. Push the center of the braid into the
hole of the screw connector, then tighten the screw. I found it easier to do the
braid first, then the center.
Connect the shorter cable: center to West, braid to East. Insulate braid
and center as the other cable might come into contact with it.
Connect the longer cable: center to North, braid to South. By leaving
enough center and braid to work with assembly is much easier.
Connect the other end of the shorter and longer cable with the cable going to
the RTL stick - connect the three center to center and braid to braid. Insulate
braid and center separately.
Locate the four 54.5 cm wires, and one by one push into the terminals, fixing
them down with the screw.
Fix terminal blocks to a piece of wood, forming an “X” 90 degree angle
between them.
Connect coax lengths to wire using terminal connectors by the following:
 Shorter Cable Center: West or 9 o’ clock,
Shorter Cable Braid: East or 3 o’ clock,
Longer Cable Center: North or 12 o’ clock,
Longer Cable Braid: South or 6 o’ clock.
Shorter and Longer Coax cables coming from the antenna shall be connected
to antenna coax going to the RTL stick. Easiest are terminal connectors, if not
available, splice three center wires and three braids separately together.
QFH
The same antenna type used on satellites, needs a frame and two long semi-
rigid wire. Outstanding performance, distances and dimensions are critical for
construction.
Tutorials online might use copper pipe (expensive / needs tools), PVC tubing
(looks ok, still needs tools) or coax cable (hit-and-miss due to variations with
coax).
The following guide uses wood, house grounding wire and basic tools. If
unavailable, substitute screws with tape, pre-cut wood with branches / broom
handles, terminal connectors with wire wrapped around connections and you’re
there.
Parts required:
- Two (2) Six-feet / 2 m wood planks
- 15 feet / 5 meters two-stranded house grounding wire
- Four (4) terminal connectors
- Screws long enough to hold two wood pieces together
Steps
1) Cut six (6) 40 cm / 15 6/8” long pieces of wood. These will be the cross
arms.
2) Screw arms together with wood screws, end up with three (3) crosses and
some leftover wood. The leftover will be the main antenna body.
3) Screw on one (1) wood cross to the top of the antenna body.
4) Screw on four terminal connectors on the top of the cross, each pointing
90 degrees apart, as if facing 12-3-6-9 o’ clock on a dial.
5) Screw on bottom cross to antenna body, 28 3/8” / 721 mm from top
terminal connectors.
6) Congratulations! Antenna body done, have a break, or start wiring up.
 7) Remove wire from plastic sheathing.
8) Longer wire – length 93 ¾” / 2.382 m. Hold ends together, mark
midpoint with marker or tape.
9) Shorter wire – 89 1/8” / 2.263 m. Mark midpoint again.
10) Tape or fix shorter wire to arm pointing away from you / 12 o’clock /
North direction, then make a half turn counter clockwise as viewed from the top
– wire in hand points toward you / 6 o’clock / South position. Run the wire along
the bottom cross, fix midpoint with tape, then run wire up the other side.
Temporarily connect with electrical tape.
11) Tape or fix longer wire to arm pointing to left / 9 o’clock / West direction,
then make a half turn counter clockwise as viewed from the top – wire in hand
points right / 3 o’clock / East. Run the wire along the bottom cross, fix midpoint
with tape, then run wire up the other side.
12) Now the antenna starts to shape up, measure distances:
- Top: Center of connections to start of wire turn: 12” / 30 cm
- Longer wire from top to bottom arm: 28 3/8 / 72cm
- Shorter wire from top to bottom arm: 27” / 68.6 cm
- Bottom: From midpoint of wire to start of wire turn: 12” / 30 cm.
Note that the shorter wire will be physically above the longer one.
13) Double-check distances, then fix wires in place with cable ties or tape.
14) About halfway between top and bottom arm, fix third cross arm in place.
Fix wire to arm.
15) Antenna body done, do the top connections according to diagram.
Shortwave – Random Wire
With a short antenna, strong AM broadcast stations are possible, just don’t
expect to hear a mouse cough in the jungle, shortwave is all about finding the
sweet spot between 1) wire length 2) electrical noise pickup. In a city or suburban
environment, your options are limited for both.
A random wire is the easiest to use, throw wire out of a window and listen to
the world. Length depends on location – string out as much as possible. If using
trees for support, put the wire over a branch and use a weight at the end –
swaying will not strain wire.
Indoor solutions are far from ideal, if you must, tape wire to a window. Attic
space is ideal to create your own cobweb.
Wire can be connected to 1) receiving element of an existing antenna, 2)
directly to center of upconverter connector, or 3) center conductor of coax cable.
Random wires inside a modern home will pick up all sort of electrical noise, use
option 3 – coax cable routing.
1) With an existing antenna, connect wire to the receiving element, not to
radials or any element connected to braid.
2) Connect wire to center of the RF input socket, will be female on the dongle
and on the upconverter: separate one wire from antenna wire, then gently stick it
in. Solid or thicker wire needs a smaller diameter wire wrapped around, coax
center wire works.
3) Use coax cable to route antenna outdoors from the upconverter, then 6-10
feet / 2-3 meters from the wall, connect random wire to center conductor. Tape
coax and random wire together below connection – tape takes the load. Coax
prevents noise pickup.
A random wire can be horizontal, vertical, sloping, the higher off the ground,
the better. The other end of the wire, when affixed to a structure, must be
insulated from that structure, so do not tie it to a metal rain gutter. Plastic holder
keeping a 6-pack together, rope, plastic bag or any non-conducting material
works.
Add a 9:1 Unun to random wire to improve reception: audible difference,
unrecognisable voice fading in and out becomes comprehensible enough to guess
language spoken.
Shortwave - Terminated Tilted Folded Dipole
Best antenna for shortwave reception, ready-to-go package can be over $250
USD plus shipping, homemade version 5-6 dollars.
Total length dictated by available space, the longer, the better, unless terrible
RFI/EMI sources nearby.
 A 20 feet / 6 m total length T2FD fits most front or back yards. Distance
between parallel wires is 3.3 percent of total length / divide total length by 33.
Imagine two horseshoes, open ends facing each other – that’s the two wires.
In the top, electrical component between wires, in the bottom balun connects
antenna to coax.
 Electrical component is a metal film resistor, maximum of one dollar on
Ebay, or check local electrical component shops. For resistor value and Balun
required: divide resistor value with 4 (4:1 balun) or 9 (9:1 Balun) for a final
impedance of either 50 Ohm or 75 Ohm.
If you already bought a Balun One Nine with the upconverter, use a 510 Ohm
(radio coax – 50 Ohm - to upconverter) or 680 Ohm (TV coax - 75 OHM – to
upconverter or dongle) resistor.
If all this Ohm, math and impedance matching is too complicated, get a 680
Ohm resistor, a Balun One Nine and TV coax: build the antenna as described
below, run the coax into the house straight to upconverter, connect upconverter
to dongle with pigtails or barrel connectors and be content that you got the best.
Supports can be anything, plastic or wood, distance is 12 Inches / 30 cm
between wires: wood, plastic tubing, empty soda bottles work. Top and bottom
connections: tape ends of wire together, then insert resistor on top and balun /
coax connection at bottom.
Part V – Maximizing performance
Importance of Signal-to-Noise Ratio

Signal is information you wish to receive. A voice you want to hear in a crowd
is such an example. Noise is the chatter of the crowd around you: technically
called Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) or ElectroMagnetic Interferenc
(EMI), commonly called electrical noise, and comes from anything electrical
such as energy-saving bulbs, chargers, wireless internet, extension leads,
electrical wires, direct-current motors such as aquarium water pumps – and the
list goes on.
Electrical noise can heard as a buzzing or popping sound – often quite similar
to an electric shaver, or a blender operating in the background. Represented in
software by the sea of spikes in Spectrum Analyser, called the signal floor.
Signal is the spike / mountain emerging from this sea. The difference between
noise floor and signal is called Signal-to-Noise ratio, also displayed in SDRSharp
as a number on the right hand side of the screen and under the cursor.
Controlling and reducing noise can be achieved by minimising:
1) Thermal noise generated internally.
2) Conducted noise transferred from an electrically noisy source e.g.
laptop/computer via cables.
3) Radiated noise reaching cables, dongle and other components.
Maximizing performance by attempting some of the modifications in this
chapter might be beyond your personal comfort zone, invalidate your warranty
and/or seriously piss off your partner or family.
Dongle anatomy

Generic RTL dongle

Most of the dongles encountered, including Chinese $8 dongles, will look
similar to the image below. MCX socket on the side, IR Receiver and LED light,
either normal or temperature-controlled oscillator (both shown).
 RTL-SDR.com R820T2 TCXO
Recommended as a second dongle after a generic R820T2, less drift due to
TCXO. Direct sampling pins and Bias-Tee make modifications easy, the metal
housing cuts down on noise pickup and a good platform for oil cooling. Note the
absence of IR diode.
 Other dongles
Half and Nano size, e4000 tuners follow the same architecture as above:
R820T, R820T2 or E4000 tuner close to antenna input with ESD diode, LED
light and IR receiver crammed somewhere on the PCB. Soldering to smaller /
dual sided PCBs will be a challenge, surface-mount components will be really
close together.
Altering the Printed Circuit Board

Some of the mods detailed below require the use of soldering equipment and
a steady hand. RTL-SDR.com dongle has some of the mods done already. Note
that you lose warranty by physically altering the board, check gains on cheap
dongles first before experimenting on expensive dongles.
IR receiver
Because the RTL dongle was intended as an USB TV receiver, the remote
control needs a receiver. This is a large three-pronged component, carefully
move it back and forth and it will snap off eventually.
LED light
All dongles feature an LED light, indicating operation, this can be snapped off
as well. Some dongles will require de-soldering due to no distance between LED
and board.
Removing static protection diode
Possible, but not recommended. Static electricity build-up on large antennas
will fry board components without grounding the antenna first.
Replacing antenna connector with coax
Coax replacement is a viable alternative if possessing suitable skills, as even
standard RG6 coax is better than coax used in pigtails, plus any adapter used will
introduce unwanted RFI.
Center conductor comes to middle blob of solder and braid is soldered to
either connectors on the side. Only copper-braided coax (gold color) is suitable,
aluminium (silver color) braided coax will be hard to solder to.
Replacing USB connector

Useful if no frequent connection / disconnection is required, such as in a

dedicated RasPi based setup. Requires basic soldering.
USB cables use the following wire color coding:
Red: +5V
Black: Ground
Green: Digital signal negative (ground)
White: Digital signal positive (signal).

Adding Capacitor to power line

A 1uF (microfarad) tantalum capacitor can be added between dongle 5V
power rails to reduce electronic noise pickup up HF. Only tantalum capacitors
are suitable; ensure correct electrical connection – the positive (+) side will be
marked on the head of the capacitor.
Direct sampling

Makes HF reception between 0-14.4 MHz possible by wiring an antenna

directly into the brain of the dongle. This mod bypasses build-in safety features,
such as static protection, and will also necessitate changing setting in software.
Dongles sold by RTL-SDR.com have two breakout pads for easy access; all
other dongles require a wire to be connected to either Pin 1, Pin 2, Pin 4, or Pin 5
of the RTL2832U chipset. Wire is soldered to the capacitor of the chosen leg –
the operation requires surgeon-steady hands, components are the size of a
starved ant’s head.
The brave will be rewarded with the need to reconfigure SDR reception
software, selecting Direct sampling I (Pins 1 and 2) or Direct sampling Q (pins 4
or 5) – depends on which pin was used.
Some dongles sold on the market has this modification already done, and
may cost as much as a top dongle and an upconverter from Nooelec.
Bias-T

Means powering a device using the coax cable, this is very useful for LNA
power – preamps should be at the antenna, which should be as high as possible,
in practice on the roof. Running a separate power supply is eliminated with bias-
T. The LNA4ALL can be ordered with bias-T factory enabled.
As of now, the dongle sold by RTL-SDR.com is the only one on the market
which offers the possibility of bias-T with the following mod: connect two pads
on the PCB together with wire, fix in place by soldering or a dab of hot glue.
That’s it, bias-T will be enabled.
 Standard RTL dongles require removal of the electrostatic discharge
protection diode, then connecting the antenna center conductor solder blob to a
4.7 uF Surface mount capacitor (20c to $2 depending on supplier). In turn, the
capacitor must be connected to 5V In with a short piece of wire.
Images of this modification can be viewed online (link) – I do not recommend
this mod, as a bias-T modified dongle with the method above will have no static
discharge protection, and if accidentally connected to a DC grounded antenna
(like a QFH) will fry the board immediately.
For the easiest / best solution, buy a dongle from RTL-SDR.com and mod
that in conjunction with a factory-modded LNA from Adam for a bias-T solution.
Impedance mismatch

RTL dongles are 75 Ohm, upconverters, filters and LNAs are 50 Ohm. The
resulting 0.177 dB mismatch is negligible as long as it only occurs once.
Connecting an LNA and an upconverter with 75 Ohm cable to a 50 Ohm antenna
creates three mismatches, the resulting 0.531 dB means 11.5 % performance loss
from baseline.
In an integrated setup (Antenna – LNA – Upconverter – Dongle – RasPi) use
50 Ohm cable to connect components without using any connectors or adapters.
Avoid Adapters

Inferior adapters and connectors will decrease total performance due to

electrical noise pickup and manufacturing tolerances – that $1 MCX adapter
from China probably won’t be exactly 50 or 75 Ohm.
Quality pigtails are expensive (link), but use low-loss coax and will be 50
Ohm.
Alternatively, use the following trick with 50 Ohm radio coax:
1) Cut off outer plastic insulation to expose braid
2) Pull back braid until center conductor is visible, strip insulation around
center conductor.
3) Insert center conductor into SMA female socket, and fold braid over outer
screwed part of SMA female connector.
4) Fix in place by soldering, small diameter cable ties do the job unless the
connection is subjected to an excessive force or sudden jerking.
Verifying performance improvements – rtl_power
guide

Effects of any changes, such as modifying dongle architecture or impact of

cooling can be validated with rtl_power and a dummy load. RTL_power is also
great for heatmaps (discovering frequencies in use over time), difference is that
with heatmaps the output data is displayed as a nice image, steps and commands
will be the same.
RTL-Power is a spectrum analyser, part of the OsmoSDR package (download
link for zip file) and also available part of the modified driver package from
Keenerd (link). Keenerd’s build is faster, and the author offers overview of
different features on his site (link).
Linux commands are the same.
Dummy load
A dummy load imitates an antenna; commercially available options are
categorised by power handling in watts (such as “50 Ohm 10W dummy load”)
intended for transmitter testing and can cost a lot, smaller versions (such as
“QRP 2-Watt dummy load”) will be cheaper.
An old amateur radio trick, and the best value for money: dummy loads from
metal film resistors (RTL stick is reception only, no need for large power
handling). A big bag of metal film resistors (1000+ pieces for 64 different values)
costs $5, individual pieces cost a few cents.
As long as one leg is attached to signal / center pin and other to ground /
braid, and the same dummy load assembly is used between changes, resistor
Ohm value will not matter, with Ohm values in the neighbourhood between 45
and 80 Ohm. Orientation of resistor also makes no difference.
The stock antenna works great as a platform, unscrew antenna and wrap one
resistor leg around center pin and fix / tape other leg to bottom of metallic base.
Use a single 47, 56 or 75 Ohm resistor, but if only higher values are available - or
better heat dissipation is a concern - use same-value resistors in parallel. For
example, divide resistor value with number of resistors to get 50 Ohm, e.g. with
150 Ohm resistors use three resistors, 200 Ohm resistors use four.
RTL_Power
Steps will look somewhat complicated after first read, follow instructions to
the letter, by the third testing, where-to-click and what-to-do will come as second
nature.
1) Create a dummy load from metal film resistors, see above.
 2) Create a folder on the main drive (commonly C:\) called “noise”. Download
rtl_power into this folder. Unzip / uncompress files, then copy-paste all files
from “rtl-sdr” folder into the “noise” folder. All files should be in C:\noise after
this operation.
Click on Start, enter “cmd” into search box, then run cmd program from
results, black icon.
3) In the black terminal window, enter “cd c:\”, backslash is in-between left
Shift and letter “z”, or hold left ALT and press 92 on keypad. Cd :\ will bring you
up to main drive level. Enter “cd noise”, end up in Keenerd’s rtl_power directory
created earlier. Alternatively, use “cd ..” until you reach c:\, then “cd noise”.
4) Enter “rtl_power –h” to list available arguments (arguments are
controlling a command-line utility, tell it what to do and how to behave).
Underscore “_” and hyphen “-” are on the same key, 2nd to the left of backspace.
Start and end of frequency: scan starts and stops from values here.
Bin size: how much of the spectrum is examined in one go. For example, 1M
means signal power levers in a 1 MHz chunk of the specified range is examined.
For heatmaps, bins size will represent one pixel in the final image.
Gain: enter nearest value, for performance testing, must be the same
between comparisons. Approximate values will get you to nearest gain available,
e.g. 50 will result in 49.6 db, 25 in 25.4 dB.
Time: how long the testing runs. Longer time is better, 1.5 hours is defined as
1h30m. 30 minutes or one hour should be enough in most scenarios.
Output file name: must be .csv extension, Microsoft Excel or Excel-
compatible free software will be able to read the file.
Creating a graphical output for comparison
You’ll be creating a Scatter with Straight Lines chart, use your own workflow
if familiar with Excel, or follow steps below.
Start Excel (or compatible) software.
Open noise.csv from output folder, found in C:\noise in above example, icon
will be standard green Excel. Leave this window open.
Save file under a different file name, such as “Dongle comparison”.
Delete “noise.csv” in Windows Explorer, so you’ll know at next scan that
rtl_power is working.
In Excel, only the first (frequency) and last (measured values) column will be
required, delete the others.
Do any modifications to RTL dongle, then run rtl_power again. Pressing the
up arrow on keypad will bring up the last command in the terminal.
 Open new noise.csv file, click on top cell of rightmost column, hold
Shift+PgDn for a quick selection or use the mouse to highlight new data. After
last entry is reached, right-click into blue field and select “Copy”, or Ctrl+C on
keyboard.
Switch window to Dongle comparison, and paste new data in (right-click,
Paste, or Ctrl+V for keyboarders).
Three columns now, leftmost with frequencies, middle with original values,
last column will be new measurements after changes.
Highlight all data with mouse or keyboard, then click on “Insert” tab on top of
screen, find dots in 90 degree angle (mouseover says “Insert (X, Y) or Bubble
Chart), then select anorexic butterfly-looking option called Scatter with Straight
Lines.

Chart will be generated, save document (second purple floppy disk image
from top left of screen, or Ctrl+S). Resize chart to your liking, note that Excel
might freeze up and lose data – hence save recommendation.
When looking at the graph, lower value is better, e.g. if second measurement
called “Series 2” is below “Series 1”, you’re doing something right. Using labels
on top of columns will replace “Series 1”: looks neater, makes cluttered charts
with 4-5 observations easier to understand.
Comparison between mods should be made after establishing a baseline with
three 1-hour tests, then averaging results (which will differ). Do the same after
modifications, readily apparent performance e.g. effect of heatsinks will be easy
to spot.
The final test is always using the modded dongle for reception.
Housekeeping

Electrical wires will radiate electronic noise, so sorting out your environment
is the first step.
Start with the jungle of electrical cables behind the TV. After suffocating from
dust bunnies, coil and fix them into a hand-sized nice circle. Painter’s masking
tape is cheap, leaves no mark and easy to tear – use it liberally.
Metal tins, cases or tubs with lids are perfect for organising and storing cables
and extension leads, examples are discarded PC cases, metal food or biscuit tins.
As long as it’s made of metal, it should do the job.
Switchable wall sockets are preferred, if you can’t or won’t change them,
unplug unused chargers, phones, and any electrical device not currently in use. A
lamp, for example, will have AC power until the switch, which is just one more
unnecessary electrical circuit.
Fuse boxes should be metal, with the door closed. If the existing one is plastic,
with unrestricted access to it, alu foil / cut up cans will make a huge difference
(don’t even attempt replacing a fuse box!). Avoid running coax cable with power
cords – best practice is no cables or electric items near the antenna cable or the
RTL dongle.
Fluorescent and LED lightbulbs use a switching power supply to regulate
voltage, might emit a horrible and significant interference audible on shortwave
frequencies. Battery-powered LED strip lights are cheap, effective and long-
lasting, but can also emit lots of noise.
Turning off AC power altogether and running radio gear off batteries is the
best solution, but the concept might meet some resistance from your partner /
family.
Cleaning desktop PCs
The most common problem with any computer is dirtiness: this manifests in
constant fan noise, and can severely reduce performance, because the system
throttles back to save itself. With compromised cooling due to dust build-up,
components are overheating, so the poor PC is only defending itself.
A general rule: always elevate desktop PCs from the floor, ideally to at least a
hand’s span height – this minimizes dirt build-up.
Fortunately, desktop PCs are the easiest to clean: shutdown operating system
safely, unplug computer power supply, check PC is quiet, no lights on, then
double-check the power cord is unplugged. Wait a few minutes (capacitors need
time to discharge). Unplug all cables from the back, then place case on an easily
accessible location – you’ll be working on it for a while.
 Remove the side cover: screwdrivers might be required, depends on case
design, your warranty might be also void if you take apart the case.
Welcoming dust bunnies require a vacuum cleaner. Main processor (on top of
circuit board) and case fans (attached to side blowing in / out) can be cleaned
with earbuds, DO NOT use moist rags, solvents, flask from the kitchen
cleanliness cupboard, or any water-based liquid inside the case.
Compressed-air, either in bottles (link) or from a dedicated compressor look
like a good solution, but expensive, and lubricating oil might damage
components. Rubber air pump blowers, such as citron-shaped dust-cleaners are
cheaper, and do an equivalent or better job.
Cleaning laptops
Laptops, normally sitting on a surface, will collect particles over time.
Minimal clearance between bottom of laptop and surface results in dust blown
back inside the case and / or accumulating in tiny case ventilation holes.
Start with shutting down the laptop, removing the battery and placing the
laptop on a soft surface e.g. towel or T-shirt. Thought it differs from model to
model, one section will be usually entirely removable with small screws –
appropriate section identifiable from vent holes in the plastic.
Unscrew screws and keep them safe (coffee cup will also store screwdriver),
inside of laptop will feature one or more ventilation fan(s). Blow off surface dust,
then slowly, gently and carefully clean blades of fan with earbuds, toothpick or
similar fitting tool. As you’re essentially doing brain surgery, take your time.
Reassemble laptop, double-check all screws are place before inserting battery
and turning laptop on.
Power

Computers work off the electric grid, using mains power at either 120V or
240V. Problem is, neighbours also use mains power and run electrical
appliances.
A simple solution for laptop users is to run the system off batteries; desktop
people can purchase Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) of adequate capacity,
but an UPS capable of running a desktop PC will be heavy, large and cost a pretty
penny.
Upconverters and LNAs require Direct Current, most commonly 5V DC. This
can be provided from a:
Laptop (will be noisy),
Switched-mode power supply like a phone charger (can be even noisier, but
cheap),
Linear power supply – good but expensive,
Batteries or battery banks. Will require charging or replacing batteries.
USB extension / connector mod

Use a long USB extender cable to place the RTL stick far away from the
computer, 3 meter / 15 feet is ideal. Powered USB hubs can introduce noise from
the hub power supply, try not to use them.
On one end, where you plug in the RTL stick, remove USB metal: can be a
solid piece, usually a small cut is visible. Using pliers, gently pull this metal bit
out, so only plastic part with four metal connectors remain. Connect this plastic
bit into the RTL stick with no problem, will not fall apart, ensure contacts are
facing each other.
Do not remove the other end of the USB extension lead, the one going into
the computer USB port: the extension cable will easily come out.
Air choke / Dirty balun

All the technical terms above mean the same thing: cable/wire wound in a
spiral, usually around a round object, then fixed in place with cable ties. Creating
a dirty balun is exactly what you did sorting out cables around the house.
In practice, allow an extra of two-three foot / half to one metre coax cable,
then wind it in a tight spiral at the antenna.
Enclosures

A metal enclosure keeps interference out by providing shielding (essentially a

Faraday cage), so buying an add-on metal case (link) for the RTL stick is a good
idea. The Ham-It-Up upconverter also has a dedicated case (link), bringing the
price to the same level as the alternative Spyverter upconverter (link). The
dongle available on RTL-SDR.com (link) also feature a metal case.
Metal case choice will be determined by the antenna location:
Side-facing MCX antenna socket: majority of dongles on the market due
to architecture used on cheap Chinese RTL-SDR dongles. Choose Nooelec's
Metal Case. This is recommended for suitable dongles as the very first upgrade:
provides physical protection, and a great platform for further modifications such
as heatsinks, oil or Peltier cooling.
Inline socket: antenna connector plugs in on the other side of the USB port.
RTL-SDR.com dongle, Nano and E4000-based dongles from Nooelec. Choose
RTL-SDR.com's Silver Case. Wrap the USB connector in a layer of plastic tape if
it rattles, and use the supplied thermal pad to improve heat transfer.
PAL connectors e.g. Nooelec's Nano-P or similar half-size dongles with
inline PAL connector just about fit the Silver Case.
Nooelec’s metal case for side-facing MCX connectors is bulletproof, comes in
two halves with 8+1 screws and two plates. One side has a small hole, that’s
where the antenna connector goes, PCB board sliding neatly into grooves inside
the case. Snap other half on, then attach bottom and top plates with countersunk
screw holes (reverse volcano shape) visible. It’s easier not to tighten screws
during initial assembly, only tighten when screws are flush.
Replacing a side-facing antenna connector with coax and using the cheaper
Silver Case is an option, but requires soldering.
If spending extra 5/10/20 dollars is not on your wish list, use metal cookie
cans, tins or similar household objects. Double-walled aluminium coffee mugs
happily accommodate the dongle; cast iron cookware can picked up at yard sales
for next to nothing.
The best common material for radiation absorption is lead (good for nuclear
reactor core protection), available as fishing weights or found in shot shells.
Wrapping the stick in alu foil is a quicker alternative and works, turkey foil is
better: less prone to tear. Make sure that ventilation holes are punched, stick will
get hot after prolonged use and needs to breathe.
With a full-on Raspberry based setup at the antenna (preamp-upconverter-
RTL stick-Raspberry – DC 5V downconverter for PoE) all elements should be
shielded separately. Throwing everything into one enclosure results in the dongle
picking up noise from the rest; as a minimum, shield the Raspberry.
Ventilation and cooling

This section applies to any electronics: Raspberry, Upconverters or Preamps,

but focuses on the dongle.
Electricity heats up the RTL stick, just like a smartphone/tablet gets hot after
a while Higher internal temperature leads to higher internal noise generated,
which degrades performance. The effect is worsened if high sample rates with
high RF gain used.
To combat thermal noise, you may:
1) improve hot air exchange by drilling or enlarging holes with a plastic case,
2) add heatsinks or thermal pads to metal cases,
3) set up forced air cooling, or
4) provide liquid cooling, and as the maximalist option,
5) go dep below ambient with Peltier cooling.
Water cooling the chips directly is extremely problematic and expensive,
liquid nitrogen is out of the equation due to cost, availability and associated
hazards like freezing your hands off.
Air Cooling
Place stick on table, antenna input facing you. Gently pry apart exterior
plastic case with knife or small screwdriver, start at the antenna input, diagonal
direction = no components behind. Study dongle anatomy if worried.
With plastic case off, cut or drill holes in plastic, especially directly above
black chips. No drill? – heat, then move tip of knife left and right, gentle force,
push against disposable surface.
Most sticks will already have holes in the plastic case, enlarge them and/or
add more holes.
Cooling Fans
An electric fan moves air by using an electric motor attached to blades. The
electric motor can be either brushed or brushless; for RTL dongles, the latter is
preferred as brushless generates less electrical noise.
PC fans used for case cooling are the most suitable and also the cheapest. Fan
performance is measured in CFM, cubic feet per minute. Larger fans move more
air, and quieter in general – buy the largest fan you can afford or available.
Ball bearing or sleeve bearing refers to how the fan is held in place: go for ball
bearings, they last longer. Really large fans will have two ball bearings.
 Placing a fan in close proximity to the dongle will actually worsen
performance due to electrical noise pickup from the motor; ducting helps
locating the fan further away. Heat-insulated ducting, such as flexible aluminium
hose-like tubes used for cars and trucks might be required for Peltier cooling.
Heatsinks
Installing a heatsink on either the tuner or R8232U chips will help with heat
dissipation, but also places a conductive material right on top of the chip –
proper shielding is advised, otherwise electrical noise goes right into the brain of
the dongle. Chipset-size heatsinks costs 2-3 dollars online, Raspberry Pi
heatsinks are perfectly suitable. New heatsinks come with a layer on the bottom
similar to double-sided tape, simply peel off and stick on top of black chip.
The direct chipset heatsink mod might also require a plastic case
modification. Plastic case can be easily cut, double-check location of chips and
mark location on plastic case by scratching the surface. Use a heated knife or
heated needles (grab needles with pliers).
The second options is to cool a metal case: larger heatsinks intended for PC
processor cooling will dissipate more heat. A thermal paste is required between
surface and heatsink. Regular thermal paste might come in a tin or in a syringe,
apply a thin and uniform smear of paste, finger just about touching the surface.
Additional support to ensure a tight connection between surface and heatsink
bottom might be required with larger heatsinks.
Thermal pads
Thermal pads transfer heat from a heat source. Though more expensive and
less effective than oil cooling, pads are less messy and quicker to apply.
RTL-SDR.com’s metal dongle already feature a thermal pad and work
extremely well. Retrofit cases will come with a thermal pad.
 Thermal pads are also available separately to transform other metal cases and
cost a few dollars. Blu-tack, thought looks and feels similar, is not the same
material and should not be substituted.
Ensure the thermal pad is attached to the bottom (unpopulated part of the
PCB, no things sticking out, flat for better contact) with no air gaps – if
necessary, use two or more heat pads.
Liquid / Water cooling
Water cooling is possible by covering the stick and all connectors with a hot
glue gun (about $10 on amazon.com (link). USB extension cable and antenna
connector must be permanently connected and waterproofed as well.
Hot glue is allowed to dry (minimum half an hour), then the contraption is
immersed in cold water. Further cooling is possible with regular or dry ice (wear
gloves, causes serious burns).
On a day-to-day basis, using ice is a hassle - constant fresh supply is needed.
If a water reservoir – think aquarium or water barrel – is nearby, place the
waterproofed stick into the water, maximum temperature of stick will be either
ambient temperature or temperature of aquarium water.
Watching fish swim around a working stick is a good conversation starter, or
bury dongle under gravel if it spoils your view.
Liquid / Oil Cooling
Oil cooling is cheap and extremely effective, uses readily available sunflower
oil. Sunflower / cooking / vegetable oil (other oils will have a higher freezing
point, mineral oils might be corrosive, use sunflower oil for best results) will not
conduct electricity, completely surrounds components and removes heat build-
up.
Either a plastic-cased dongle can be submerged in oil, or a metal case sealed
then filled with sunflower oil.
Plastic case in oil
Oil keeps condensation away from the circuit – condensation is cooled water
vapour, which will sink to bottom of container: use taller, cylinder-like metal tins
such as resalable coffee jars.
With a freezing point of well below -10 degrees Celsius, the case with oil can
be pre-cooled in a fridge – a household pour jug with lid fitting the fridge door
only requires some metal shielding for a convenient grab-n-go pack. Add metal
to the container to increase shielding and cooled thermal mass – used batteries
can be recycled by taping end terminals, then placed around the dongle.
Disadvantage: stick, USB cable and antenna connectors will remain sticky
for ages if you remove them from oil, no matter how hard you clean them. As
with water cooling, antenna and USB extension cable must be permanently
connected.
 External or internal temperature swings will less affect the stick, because
surrounding oil will act as a buffer. Eventually, the oil will reach ambient / room
temperature – with sufficient thermal mass, this will take longer than you can
stay awake.
Connect antenna cable and USB connector, place stick with connectors in
metal tin with lid: the larger, the better, holds more oil. RTL stick should be
hanging somewhere in the middle. Route two cables (antenna and USB
connector) through the lid. Seal lid openings well, it’s only a matter of time until
can tips over.
Place dongle in coffee cup with some oil, then place coffee cup and remaining
sunflower into freezer for at least 24 hours. Cool dongle in oil at the same time as
cooling main oil charge, pouring super cooled oil onto a warm dongle is a no-no.
Sunflower oil will reach the consistency of maple syrup and becomes cloudy
in the freezer. Place dongle in can, optionally wedge it in with batteries or other
metal, then pour oil on top.
Fill can to the brim, as condensation is water vapour, any water will migrate
to bottom - this is unlikely with a fully filled can, oil will displace air in the
container.
Seal lid carefully, connect antenna to antenna cable and USB connector to
computer.
Oil filled metal case
A watertight metal case will readily hold oil, and provide a more portable
solution than a large jug. Whilst the latter is good for a few hours’ worth of
evening use, a small metal enclosure is a great platform for heatsinks, forced air
or Peltier cooling.
RTL-SDR.com’s metal case or Nooelec’s extruded aluminium enclosure has
low enough tolerances; unless thoroughly sealed, seepage may occur at antenna
and USB connectors, side joints and screws.
 Leak-proof method of filling Nooelec metal cases
Used as most dongles will fit these, steps are simpler with RTL-SDR.com’s
metal case owing to different case design. Steps will be similar.
1) Cover antenna and USB connector with one layer of plastic insulating tape.
Exact length of tape required, do not overlap tape, and do not leave a gap.
2) Place dongle into case, push antenna connector through its hole.
3) Mate the other half of the enclosure.
4) Screw on bottom plate. Screws should be countersunk / not protruding. If
they are not flush, the bottom plate is reversed.
5) Connect antenna cable / pigtail to antenna connector, then waterproof all
possible openings, joints and screws with hot glue or similar agent. Essentially,
everything below USB connector must be thoroughly sealed.
6) Wait to cure, then fill up metal case with ambient temperature (NOT
cooled) oil. Use a large syringe, case takes 21-23 cc oil.
7) Gently place on top cover, screw in screws, then seal with hot glue.
Peltier cooling
Also called ThermoElectric Cooling, current flowing through conductors will
create a heat difference.
Commercial versions can be found in mobile beer or wine coolers; TEC units
available for modders will look like a small square plate, with red and black wire
coming out at the two corners. Don’t worry about connections, as the warm and
cold sides can be reversed with connecting terminals “the wrong way”.
Cheap as chips (max $5) choices are TEC 12706 (max current 4.6A), TEC
12709 (max current 9A), 12715 (max current 15A). More current means better
cooling, but requires better heat removal (= bigger heatsink) and stronger power
supply.
With suitable voltage applied (commonly 12V), one side will get hot and the
other side cold. For cooling, a heatsink is required on the hot side – the better
heat removal, the colder the cold side gets.
Power supply must provide minimum Amperage specified for the peltier, at
least 50 % overhead is preferred. Computer power supplies are commonly used –
their total performance is measured in Watts, as in “300W computer PSU”. This
applies to total supplied power – check specifications and look for the 12V figure,
which for the 300W example above will be around 20 Amperes.
Computer PSUs will not provide power (evidenced by fan not turning / no air
felt on your hands) without a signal from the motherboard: fortunately, this can
be overridden easily:
With PSU disconnected, at the back of the power supply, find a green wire
and follow it to a 20 or 24 pin connector.
Find two or three black wires right next to the green wire.
Push a wire into the female socket of the green wire, then connect the other
end to one of the three black wire sockets right next to the green wire. Usually it’s
the one right next to the green termination, but this varies with manufacturers.
Tip: use center conductor from antenna cable with foam dielectric left on, just
the right thickness.
On the same 24 pin connector, 12V positive is provided by yellow wires; 12V
negative is any black wire – check with multimeter for safety.
Do not, repeat do not connect a Peltier to a power supply without a heatsink
on the warm side – this will be the side with no writing with black to black and
red to red wire connections, immediately evident as cold side will get really cold
when connected to 12V. A quick test by briefly powering up the TEC won’t hurt,
just don’t leave it on, TEC will melt without heat removal.
A working Peltier may be used as a mini Air Conditioner blowing cool air onto
the RTL dongle, or placed directly onto a metal case.
Peltier dongle Air Conditioner
Hot air rises and cold air sinks; with TEC horizontal, connect two heatsinks,
one on each side. Hot side on top, cold on bottom, primary fan cooling hot side,
secondary fan blowing cool air onto metal cased dongle.
Efficiency can be improved by increasing airflow over heatsinks by using
larger / multiple fans – remember, temperature of cold side is proportional to
hot air removal from the warm side.
Peltier ACs are useful if low-quality / small / insufficient number of fans are
available; electrical noise pickup from DC motors used in the fans and electrical
circuitry in the PSU might negatively influence reception if placed too close to
the dongle.
Peltier direct metal case cooling
Works extremely well with well-insulated oil-filled metal cases and a large
heatsink for the hot side.
Common insulation materials are neoprene and plain cardboard – raid your
local builder’s supply for more insulator options.
The cold side of a Peltier is directly connected to a metal case, which contains
the RTL dongle swimming in sunflower oil. The Peltier cools the metal case,
which cools the oil, which cools the dongle.
Use a small metal enclosure with a small quantity of oil, reduced thermal
mass (gets cold quicker) and good insulation are the key words.
Ferrites and toroids

Electricity loves to escape at cable ends, ferrites keep it inside. Check

cylindrical object at end of laptop charger or monitor cable – that is a ferrite.
Use ferrites at the terminations of your
- USB cable between computer and stick,
- On the cable between stick and antenna.
Clamp-on ferrites cost 2-3 dollars from Ebay, large (30+) quantities 1 dollar
each. Ferrite tubes can be salvaged from discarded mains cables for free.
Use ferrites at both ends of power cables. If you have a limited supply, use
primarily at extension cord plug ends, secondarily at TVs / large kitchen
appliances / washing machines. Salvaged ferrites are harder to use, as you’ll need
to remove the plug – use snap-on ferrites instead.
Spikes

On 28.8, 57.6, 86.4, 115.2, 144, 172.8 and so on.

Always multiples of 28.8 MHz – generated by the dongle’s internal clock.
Nothing to worry about, harmless and you can’t do anything about it.
Preamps

Technically called noise preamplifiers, not to be confused with power

amplifiers.
Used to overcome coax loss, to increase weak signal strength or as a
replacement/addition to the dongle’s built-in preamplifier. Some upconverters
already contain a preamp e.g. SV1AFN (link), otherwise a preamp will be a
separate electrical circuit. Frequency range is indicated in MHz, so a 1-500 MHz
unit will only work within the stated values. Select a preamp according to
intended frequencies.
Low noise, the first letter in Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) means that a small
amount of additional noise is generated when the source signal is amplified.
Online marketplaces and Ebay are full of noise amplifiers, costing from $10
and up. No comments as not tested personally, the staple de-facto standard LNA
for the RTL stick is the LNA4ALL (link) for frequencies above 28MHz, and the
LNA4HF (link) for shortwave listening. Adam, the manufacturer provides
additional - very technical and detailed - instructions for each LNA on the
websites above if you need further information.
5V power mods
Both a Raspberry and the Ham-It-Up upconverter uses 5V, and both LNAs
are happy with 5V, if you fix a wire across the two squares as in the image below.
Officially soldering is required, unofficially a small piece of center conductor
from coax fixed in place with hot glue does the job well.
Filters

Filters block or allow a frequency.

The simplest to make and use are coax filters, other versions such as
mechanical or electrical filters are available commercially, or require soldering
and electronics knowledge.
Coax filters, as the name implies, are made from coax cable for a specific
frequency: connect length of coax to antenna cable coming from the antenna:
braid to braid, center to center. Using T adapters (BNC T-adapters for CCTV are
cheap and F-type for satellite) allows quick changes.
 Two types: either reduces the effect of the design frequency, called a stub
(open at the bottom), or allows the design frequency through, called a bandpass
(center and braid shorted). Material surrounding center wire is important, foam
core has stronger effect.
In the image below, reduction in strong local FM station with different core
materials; less signal is better:
 Simplified math:
Plastic surrounds the center wire (Velocity factor .66)
Result in inches: Divide 1982 by MHz number.
Result in meters: Divide 49.5 by MHz number.
Result in feet: Divide 165 by MHz number.

Foam surrounds the center wire (Velocity factor .82)

Result in inches: Divide 2460 by MHz number.
Result in meters: Divide 61.5 by MHz number.
Result in feet: Divide 205 by MHz number.
Building through experimentation:
Exact values for that piece of coax in your hand might not be available / will
be unreliable.
To find out exact properties, prepare an 80 cm long coax cable. Leave one end
ready for connection, other end as it is e.g. do not short center to braid. Mark
cable in short increments.
Fire up SDRSharp and tune to strong local FM station - e.g. strongest radio
station between 88-108 MHz.
Connect stub into coax cable and start cutting away stub in small increments,
noting strongest signal reduction = minimum height of mountain, or smallest
SNR ratio on the right in SDR#.
Compare test results with theoretical length – actual velocity factor will be
different, write down adjustment factor and use your own values for calculations.
Software
Filter effectiveness can be measured with a free software called Spektrum,
available from the developer (link).

Stubs
Attenuates design frequency plus-minus few MHz worth of frequencies.
Broadcast radio interference? Use a stub, as in the example above. Stubs also has
some effect on higher frequencies, but only on frequencies 3, 5, 7 times the
design frequency (odd numbers). So a 100 MHz stub will also have an effect on
300, 500, 700 MHz, and so on. Watch out: airplane position signals will be
significantly reduced at 1090 MHz with a stub designed for 100 MHz.
Bandpass
Receive designed frequency, but kills signals plus/minus few MHz away.
Useful if you know the source and want to get rid of nearby interference, e.g.
weather satellites: a foam bandpass filter will clean up received satellite image,
less horizontal speckles and dots.
Design frequency multiples of 2, 4, 6 etc will be also affected.
Feel free to combine stubs and bandpass filters. Combining the two examples
above, a setup for weather satellite reception would be: stub for 90 MHz (coax
cable ends not connected, plastic core: 22” / 55 cm, foam core: 27” / 68cm) and
bandpass filter for 137MHz (coax cable ends connected, plastic core: 14 3/8” / 36
cm, foam core: 17 11/16” / 45 cm).
Baluns and Ununs

Baluns and ununs can transform a higher impedance (e.g. 450 Ohm) antenna
into a lesser impedance (e.g. into 50 Ohm). Balun means Balanced to
Unbalanced, UnUn means unbalanced to unbalanced, as both sides, the
antenna and coax cable, are not balanced.
Technical names for an iron ring with wire wrapped around it, Ebay prices:
30 dollars and up, homemade 6-7 dollars. Order T200-2 toroids and you’re there
in a few minutes, really easy to make. Pay for workmanship with professional
solutions, www.balundesigns.com universally acclaimed and recommended:
expensive and excellent.
Aesthetically pleasing homemade solutions can be achieved with electrical
junction boxes, speaker terminals and cable ties.
Insulated wire from household extension cable or power cord is perfect,
diagrams here use brown, blue and green colours found in power cords for easy
identification.
1:1 Balun / Antenna isolator
Like a wall to electrical interference, best noise reduction from methods
tested, easy to make: grab one end of coax cable, push through hole and wrap
around as many times as you can. Cross over after two-three turns, tighter turns
possible, and looks better.
Use stock antenna cable (or thin coax), so one end will connect to RTL
dongle, and other end to main coax cable leading to antenna – keep distance
minimum after toroid.
 Placement: after dongle and at antenna connection.
4:1 Balun
Useful for T2FD antenna and folded dipoles: two wires wrapped around a
toroid, parallel winding. Use terminal connectors to quickly connect wires from
toroid to coax, indicated by orange squares in the diagram.
Using two wires, blue and brown, connections:
Top brown: to antenna terminal
Top blue: to antenna terminal
Bottom blue: to coax braid
Bottom brown: to coax center AND to antenna connection one.
 Note: Similar 4:1 Baluns may be found at the end of oldschool circle TV
antennas.
9:1 Unun
9:1 Ununs are primarily used for random wire shortwave antennas.
 Parts needed: 3 feet / 1 meter of insulated wire, toroid ring (T200-2, smaller
diameters cheaper, but harder to wind), electrical tape.
Wind three cables around the ring nine (9) times, keep wires parallel to each
other. Start by placing four turns in one direction, then five in the other direction
– less cable to work with and faster. Pulling wires gently before and during
turning helps a tight fit on the metal ring.

Three wires, green, blue and brown, connections after winding:

Top brown: connect to antenna
Top blue: connect to bottom brown.
Top green: connect to coax center wire and to bottom blue.
Bottom green: connect to coax braid
Bottom blue: connect to top green and coax center wire
Bottom brown: connect to top blue
Splice wires together (insulate with tape), or use terminal connectors.
9:1 Balun

A commercially available version from Nooelec is called Balun One Nine

(link), which can be used instead of the 9:1 Unun described above, by connecting
a random wire into one terminal only, leaving the other terminal open.
The Balun One Nine is ideal for Terminated Tilted Folded Dipoles (T2FD)
antennas.
Part VI - Raspberry Pi
The Raspberry Pi 2 Model B is a small computer costing 35 dollars. About the
same performance as a computer 10 years ago, or a smartphone a few years back,
it’s powerful and small enough (pack of cards) for easy integration into an
antenna system.
The newly released Raspberry Pi 3 is identical in function, operation and
programming commands – the difference is a faster processor and memory
architecture, and the addition of Bluetooth and WiFi. “Raspberry Pi”, “RasPi” or
“RPi” in this text refers to either the Raspberry Pi 2 Model B or Raspberry Pi 3
Model B, and used interchangeably.
The RPi can be used as a standalone computer, or as a dedicated server at the
antenna. The latter option means cutting down on coax cable (=money),
electrical noise (=frustration) and allows freedom of antenna placement (=better
reception).
A whole book could be written the Raspberry Pi, so I did publish a separate
eBook (link), recommended if you’re unfamiliar with installation, Linux, or want
hardware or installation steps below explained in further detail.
The Raspberry uses a Linux-based operating system called Raspbian, hence it
is possible to run some radio software and use it as a replacement for a personal
computer. This will not be as easy as using SDR# on a Windows-based operating
system: there’s a reason only 1% of computer users run Linux.
Best use for a Raspberry and RTL-SDR is as a radio signal processor / server
by installing an operating system, typing in some code and placing the unit close
to the antenna.
Required hardware

Raspberry Pi 2 Model B: 1GB RAM, quad-core processor for ~ $35. The

new Pi 3 is significantly faster for ~$50 and recommended over the Pi 2. Note
that some operating system images might not work on the Pi 3.
Power supply: 5V, minimum 1A, optimal is 2A/2000mA. Mobile phone
chargers work, see powering options below for alternatives.
microSD card: minimum 8GB, higher speed class 10 quality cards
preferred e.g. Sandisk Extreme, less staring at screen. Cheap and slow cards
work, SD card adapter is a must for backup / ease of use.
Ethernet cable / WiFi adapter: for accessing the Pi, Ethernet cable is best
and can be utilised for Power over Ethernet. Even if you’ll be using WiFi on the
long run, for a no-hassle initial setup you’ll need an Ethernet Cable.
Keyboard, mouse and a display: for easier installation or using as a
standalone computer.
Raspberry Pi kits from reputable manufacturers contain everything you
might need and more, costing 50-60 dollars for a basic setup. Modmypi in the
UK, and Adafruit in the USA are dependable, for rest of the world: order a Vilros
or Canakit Raspberry Pi kit from Ebay or Amazon and worry no more.
Instructions here assume using SSH for remote control with command line.
Software Installation

A working Internet connection and/or a Windows-based computer with SD

card reader / USB memory card reader is required.
Option “Easy” is buying a card online with preloaded operation system
installer called NOOBS, then following steps on the screen.
Option “Manual” is installing software on a Windows PC, then downloading
and writing the operating system for the Raspberry on a microSD card.
Required software and steps
7-Zip: to unzip files, available from the developer’s website.
SD Card Formatter: to erase contents of memory card, download from
developer.
Raspbian Jessie image: latest version from the Raspberry Pi foundation,
select the full desktop image, 1GB file. Needs uncompressing with 7-zip.
Win32 Disk Imager: to write the image to the SD card and backing up a
working system. Available from Sourceforge, click on the green Download button
middle of page.
Putty: for command-line access using SSH. Use alternative apps if using a
smartphone or tablet for access on Android (JuiceSSH) or iOs: search the app
store for options.
With all software are Raspberry image downloaded are placed in the same
folder for ease of access, follow the steps below to have a working Raspberry
microcomputer in less than 30 minutes.
1) Install 7-zip to uncompress files safely.
2) Install SD Card Formatter to erase contents of SD card. Insert microSD
card in SD card adapter, select Full erase under options, and make sure the Drive
letter corresponds to the microSD card drive letter. Don’t erase a connected drive
without double-checking drive letters.
3) Uncompress Raspbian image with 7-Zip, result in a 4 GB-ish file.
4) Install and run Win32 Disk Imager, click on the blue icon to open the
Raspbian image. Click on Write, takes 10-15 minutes depending on memory card
speed.
Finally, with Raspberry powered off, remove microSD card from adapter and
insert card into Raspberry slot located on the back of Raspberry.
 Connect WiFi adapter or Ethernet cable, keyboard, mouse and display if
available, then finally plug in power adapter.
Green and red light will flicker, if a display is connected, scrolling white text
on black screen will appear.
Wait 2-3 minutes if no screen is connected, Raspberry will be good to go by
then.
Standard login name is “pi”, password is “raspberry”.
Connection options

The Pi can access or be accessed by a remote computer using a network cable

(also called Ethernet cable), or wirelessly via WiFi.
With a wired Ethernet connection, the same cable can be used to provide
power to the Raspberry using a setup called Power over Ethernet (PoE) – details
and construction guide below. An Ethernet connection is easier and less finicky
than a WiFi connection, plug-and-play.
A Wireless connection uses a WiFi adapter to connect to your home network
via a router, or to your laptop directly if you created a wireless access point. The
Pi 3 already has an internet adapter, the Pi 2 requires a separate USB WiFi
adapter.
Connection – Router available
Computer and all devices are connected to the same router, all on the same
home network. This is the most common case.
With WiFi adapter, display, keyboard and mouse connected, power
on the Raspberry; the router will automatically assign an IP address. In the top
left corner, click on the network adapter icon, identify network name, then enter
password. That’s it, Raspberry is connected.
Headless and Ethernet cable: Connect Pi to router via Ethernet cable,
Router will assign an IP address to Raspberry.
Find the IP of the raspberry with Advanced IP scanner (Windows), or with
the app of your choice (easiest).
Alternatively, connected devices will be listed in your router’s settings – check
the router manufacturer’s instructions how to access the control panel, or try the
following in your browser: 192.168.0.1. or 192.168.1.1. Usually user name is blank
and password is admin or administrator, your router might be different.
Write down IP address of Raspberry, then start putty on Windows and enter
IP address of Raspberry under host name.
Click open. Window with black background comes up, enter pi as login name
and raspberry as password. Be happy when green colors show up, you’re in
command line.
If you don’t want to use WiFi stop here, if you do, WiFi connection needs to
be set up. Check the router for network name and passkey, network name is also
called SSID – this information is frequently found on the bottom of the router.
In the command line, enter
“sudo iwlist wlan0 scan”
 to see available networks. Information screen of available networks comes up,
look for ESSID:”YourNetworkName”, this will be the second line after Cell 1, Cell
2… Write this down, then enter
“sudo nano /etc/wpa_supplicant/wpa_supplicant.conf”
to open up a file, type in the following at the end:
network={
ssid="YourNetworkName"
psk="YourNetworkPasskey"
}
Press Ctrl+X, then Y, then Enter. Type in sudo reboot to reboot the raspberry.
Connection will be lost in putty, wait a minute, after rebooting, type “ifconfig”
to see the new IP address for the WiFi adaper, will be next to wlan0 in the second
row.
Congratulations, Ethernet cable won’t be needed anymore, take note of
Raspberry’s IP address.
Connection – No router
No router? No problem.
Use an Ethernet cable for direct access, or continue on and create a WiFi
hotspot. As with above, an Ethernet cable is required for initial settings.
For a WiFi hotspot, I use OSToto on Windows, available from the developer
(link). Installation is a breeze, then set up Network name and Password.
The option of creating a WiFi hotspot is now common on smartphones and
tablets – the following is a general guide as exact steps might differ from device
to device.
Under Android, from the Home screen select Settings (looks like a
cogwheel), then select Wireless and Networks, then Tethering and portable
hotspot. Note that on some devices a mobile hotspot feature is provided by
pulling down the screen.
With Apple products Interet sharing is called Personal Hotspot: tap
Setting => Cellular, then tap Personal Hotspot.
Direct Ethernet cable connection
Requires altering the initial settings to access the Pi via Ethernet cable.
Writing the operating system onto microSD card with Win32DiskImager,
open Windows Explorer and locate cmdline.txt file in the root menu.
Open cmdline.txt with Wordpad or Notepad, the last word will be rootwait.
 Add ip=169.254.0.10 after rootwait, so it reads
rootwait ip=169.254.0.10
This number will be the Pi’s IP address in the format 169.254.xxx.xxx.
Remove and slot the card into the Raspberry, power it up, then access using
putty and 169.254.0.10.
If WiFi is desired, the above address need to be removed from the cmdline.txt
file. Can be done using Wordpad in Windows, but since a command line is
already running simply enter
sudo nano /boot/cmdline.txt
and delete the last part entered, so the last word is rootwait.
Ctrl+x, then Y, then Enter.
Same steps as above for setting up a WiFi, so enter
sudo nano /etc/wpa_supplicant/wpa_supplicant.conf
to open up a file, type in the following at the end:
network={
ssid="YourNetworkName"
psk="YourNetworkPasskey"
}
Press Ctrl+X, then Y, then Enter.
Type in sudo reboot to reboot the Raspberry.
Remote Access

Used to control the Pi “headless”, no input peripherals connected. Remote

access work in a client-server relationship: the server part runs a software, so
clients can connect and access the server’s resources.
With server software running on the Raspberry, different devices can connect
to it – the client can be running a different operating system. For instance,
smartphones and tablets can also display the screen of the Raspberry.
Command Line Interface only – no display
Occasionally you wish to access the Raspberry from another device, to do this,
you’ll need SSH. SSH is short for Single Secure Shell, provides command line
only access to the RasPi. In recent Raspbian releases SSH is enabled by default.
With SSH enabled, you’ll need to know the IP address of the Raspberry to
connect to it. If the Raspberry is running, you can type “ifconfig” into the
terminal. The Raspberry’s ip address on a home network will be in the format of
192.168.0.xxx, where xxx is the actual last numbers of the IP address. If using a
Wi-Fi adapter, the number will be in the second row, next to wlan0.
An easier way is to install an IP scanner onto your smartphone, tablet or
Windows computer, and make a search of your home network. Fing on Android
and Advanced IP scanner on Windows are two such examples.
Alternatively, if you use a wired Ethernet connection, hover the mouse over
the small icon next to the clock, IP address will be listed there. The command
“ifconfig” also lists the same number under eth0.
To connect using Windows, download and install PuTTY, then enter the IP
address of the Raspberry.
To connect using an app, download and install a suitable app (options are
discussed in the Raspberry apps for tablets and smartphones section). JuiceSSH
works smoothly on Android.
In all cases, your username will be pi, password is raspberry – unless you’ve
changed them earlier.
Graphical User Interface – Windows Only
If you’re using Microsoft Windows, a built-in software is already on your
computer, called Remote Desktop Connection. No need to install anything on the
computer you want to use to view the Raspberry’s screen.
Easiest is to enter “remote desktop connection” into search, the software will
come up in search results – icon is a computer screen with a blueish tint.
 On the Raspberry, open the Terminal and enter
sudo apt-get install xrdp.
If the Raspberry is running headless, use an SSH client of your choice for
access.
With installation finished, reboot the Raspberry with “sudo reboot”.
On the Windows computer, start Remote Desktop Connection, enter the Pi’s
IP address, login name and password, and connect.
This is the quickest way of displaying the screen, buy you need a Windows-
based computer for it.
If you want the convenience of using other operation systems for access
things get a bit more complicated.
Graphical User Interface – Multi-platform

Use a free software package called tightVNC, available for Windows and for
platforms where Java is supported. Installing the 2 MB package is
straightforward on Windows, but some typing is required on the Raspberry.
Open up the Terminal, and enter
sudo apt-get update && sudo apt-get install tightvncserver.
This will install the required software, takes a while, get a cup of coffee, you’ll
need it.
With installation completed, enter
sudo tightvncserver, this will start the server and ask for a password.
Password must be a maximum of 8 letters, I use raspberr as it’s easy to
remember.
The tightVNC server will start, and you get a message of
New 'X' desktop is raspberrypi:1
The last number, 1 can be different, make a note of it.
With tightvncserver up and running on the Raspberry, start the client
software on the device you want to use for remote access.
The only thing you need to type in is the remote host name, this will be in the
form of:
192.168.0.101:5901.
192.168.0.101 is the Raspberry’s IP address, the last four digits after the colon
is the port for the tightVNCserver.
The last digit, 1, will be the number of the desktop, in our case 5901.
 For other devices such as smartphones and tablets, search your respective
app store for “VNC client” software. Multitude of options available for all
platforms, in all cases, a VNC server must be running on the Pi.
Raspberry apps for tablets and smartphones

An “app” is a standalone software you install on your smartphone or tablet.

Android, iOS or Windows are the name of the operation system your device.
Apple uses iOs, other manufacturers such as Samsung, HTC or Nexus use
Android. Windows is an upcoming player, but its market share is nowhere
compared to iOS or Android.
The following is – by far – not a complete list, check your respective app store
for the latest and greatest.
The following apps are all free to use and download.
AndroidVNC (Free, Android): Alternative VNC access utility. Display the
Raspberry’s screen on an Android device.
ConnectBot (Free, Android): much like Putty, enables SSH connection to
the Raspberry.
Fing – Network Scanner (Free, iOS and Android): scans the local
network and shows connected devices. Used for figuring out the Raspberry’s IP
address. Advanced IP Scanner can be used on a Windows-based computer.
GPIO tool for Raspberry Pi (Free, Android): shows the GPIO pin allocation
Hackers Keyboard (Free, Android): Not an app in its own; it changes
keyboard settings; replacing the built-in version to a full keyboard. Makes
command line access easier.
Official XBMC Remote (Free, iOS and Android): Used with the XBMC
Media Server, smartphone or tablet acts as a remote control.
Pi HealthCheck (Free, Android): Monitoring utility checking
temperature, CPU load and Memory usage.
RPiREF (Free, Android): GPIO allocation guide.
VNC viewer (Free, iOS and Android): Requires a VNC server installed
on the Raspberry Pi, then shows the desktop on a smartphone or tablet.
Powering options

The Raspberry needs 5V, exactly as mobile phones and tablets, so same
chargers can be used. A 1A/1000mA charger will be OK, as running a rtl_tcp
server over WiFi plus Raspberry draws around 600mA. For added safety, use a
2A/2000mA charger to allow overhead.
Battery banks
Battery banks provide power on the go, essentially a large battery with 5V
output. Capacity is measured in mA, indicated in the advertisement such as
7,000mA, 20,000 mA, or 50,000 mA, more is better.
A large car battery and 12V-5V downconverter might cost the same as a high-
end battery bank, expect to pay a maximum of $20 for a good solution.
Power over Ethernet (PoE)
The same cable used for data transmission can be used to power the
Raspberry Pi. An Ethernet cable has 8 wires inside, but only four cables are used
for data (green and orange), leaving the remaining brown and blue pairs to carry
current and ground.
Ready-made PoE add-on HAT costs 20-30 dollars or more. The smallest size
terminal connectors available will make this mod a doodle. Ethernet cables
contain really thin wires, and whereas the following hack is doable without
soldering, the end result will be better with it.
A homemade solution inject a higher voltage on one end, extract it on the
other end, convert the voltage down to 5V and use that to power the
Raspberry/peripherals. You need a suitable charger or power source, a voltage
converter, knife, tape and 15 minutes.
Charger/power source: due to resistance of wires 12V injected will be less
at the other end, loss depends on length and composition of Ethernet cable.
Chargers for 18V or 24V tools, such as electric drills are suitable.
Batteries are even better, as the Raspberry/RTL stick is completely isolated
from mains electricity. Security/home alarm batteries usually come in 12V, 5 or 7
Ah flavours for 15 dollars, buy two for a 24V input. A Raspberry+RTL
stick+upconverter+preamp combo draws around 2 Watts when running, so even
an all-night shortwave session will not deplete batteries. Battery chargers can top
up while you sleep.
Step-down converter: converts a higher voltage to 5V. Car USB adapters,
mobile phone adapters, SatNav car chargers usually accept input voltage
between 12V and 24V. Check output amperage, 1A is enough, 2A is better.
 Car step-down converters: center pin is positive (current), outside is
negative.
Red and black insulation tape helps a lot, marking ground (black) and current
(red) wires.
Connect
Ethernet cable Brown to Ground (Black),
Ethernet cable Blue to Current (Red).
Voltage meters are not strictly necessary, use it if you have one.
Steps:
1) Carefully open the Ethernet cable on both ends, about 8”/20 cm from plug
locate brown and blue wires. Do NOT touch green and orange.
2) Cut brown and blue wires, strip insulation from all four cables. Connect
blue and brown pairs to end up with two cables.
3) Connect input voltage on one end, connect corresponding wires to ground
and current on the step-down converter. Consistently using Brown to Ground,
Blue to Current helps.
4) Use standard USB cable to power the Rasberry. Do not power via the GPIO
pins, use the standard Micro-USB power in.
Radio server

Using a RasPi 2 or Pi 3 as a radio server enables really short antenna

connections, and removes the sensitive RTL dongle from the vicinity of
performance-degrading interference.
Disadvantage is lower bandwidth due to USB controller on RasPi, 1MSPS is
the practical maximum without compromised audio.
The following is easiest to do on a Windows computer with this ebook open in
Kindle for PC. Please note that 192.168.0.18 is used as the Pi’s local IP address –
to find the address of your Pi, use a network scanner.
Open an SSH connection to a RasPi, then copy-paste (paste is Right-Click in a
terminal window) the commands here:
Sudo apt-get install git cmake libusb-1.0-0-dev build-essential
This line installs required dependencies, follow with:
git clone git://git.osmocom.org/rtl-sdr.git
This will download required files.
cd rtl-sdr
mkdir build
cd build
cmake ../
There’s a space after cmake!
make
Screen changes to nice colors.
sudo make install
sudo ldconfig
sudo cp /home/pi/rtl-sdr/rtl-sdr.rules /etc/udev/rules.d
sudo reboot
You’ll lose SSH connection to the RasPi, re-login to the the Pi.
cd /etc/modprobe.d
sudo nano raspi-blacklist.conf
this will open up a word editor, copy-paste the following lines:
blacklist dvb_usb_rtl28xxu
 blacklist rtl2832
blacklist dvb_usb_v2
blacklist dvb_core
There’s an underscore between dvd_usb_rtl28xxu, hard to see if you’re
typing this – hence the recommendation of copy-paste via SSH and Kindle for
PC.
CTRL+x, then Y, then Enter
sudo reboot
This will terminate the SSH connection, re-login into the Pi, then start rtl_tcp
server with the following command. Note that 192.168.0.18 is used as the Pi’s
local IP address – to find the address of your Pi, use a network scanner.

rtl_tcp -a 192.168.0.18
Part VII – Notes for the reader and Legal
Bottom line is: this book is about making cheap equipment and radio
reception work – if you disagree or agree with anything written here, you’re more
than welcome at rtlsdr4everyone@gmail.com, or in the comment section on my
blog at rtlsdr4everyone.blogspot.com.
Particular emphasis has been placed on hardware setup and antennas in this
book – guides for software installation are plentiful on the web, walkthroughs for
fringe activities such as radio sonde reception, listening in to Inmarsat
transmissions etc are just a few clicks away. Google is your friend.
Receiving radio transmission might be illegal where you live, laws governing
monitoring and enthusiast use are often muddled. If in doubt, check local laws
and regulations – if you’re thinking you’re crossing a line, you probably already
did.
As an example, I deliberately did not include (or will) a guide on decoding
certain digital modes, as the same principles used for listening to police can be
used to listen to baby monitors.
Aviation-related radio activities are quite popular all around the world. In
most civilised countries, plane spotting falls under the same "harmless idiots"
category as train spotting enthusiasts, with authorities tolerating plane lovers at
airports clinging to the fence at the end of runways, as long as they do not pose a
threat to aviation security and do not endanger other people's lives.
Similarly, radio reception for fun and entertainment is viewed as a hobby;
enthusiasts with handheld scanners are a common sight at many airports around
the world. On the other hand, decoding digital government voice and data
communications such as Tetra / P25 may be viewed as a criminal act.
Never use the RTL stick within an airport, especially not on airplanes:
bystanders do not know what you’re doing and assume the worst. Theory says
that reception is not interfering with anything, practice says that using even a
small stubby, a laptop and SDR# at the departure gates will draw unwanted
attention.
The author, publisher and anyone connected with this publication in any
capacity is not responsible to any damage, loss, injury, lawsuit, prosecution or
any consequence arising from the use or misuse of information contained herein.
The author receives no monetary compensation from companies,
manufacturers or suppliers of any equipment mentioned here. As a reviewer,
manufacturers send me free samples, to be evaluated without any strings
attached.
Images, text, diagrams and contents of this publication are protected under
copyright laws – so please respect the author’s efforts and do not copy or
distribute this document. Thank you.
 All images used are either the author’s work, or from the manufacturer.
Images of Nooelec products are used with written permission from Nooelec,
please visit their website at www.nooelec.com.
Images of the LNA4ALL and LNA4HF are used with written permission from
Adam, please visit his website for further information.
Thanks for reading and have fun,
Akos Czermann