Power System Analysis and Design Using P

Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Department of Electrical Engineering
Power System Analysis and Design

using PowerWorld Simulator
First Edition
Student Manual
Prepared by:
Eng. TareQ FoQha
Revised by:
Prof. Samer Alsadi
2022
Palestine Technical University-Kadoorie
Faculty of Engineering and Technology | Electrical Engineering Department
Prof. Samer Alsadi & Eng. TareQ FoQha
Course Description
Development of Power World Simulator Cases, Bus voltage regulation, Power

Transformers, Transmission Lines: Steady-State Operation, Power Flows, Symmetrical
Faults, Unsymmetrical Faults, Power System Controls, and Transient Stability using
Simulator, Interconnected System Operation, Difference Flows, Contouring, Equivalents,
Contingency Analysis.
Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILOs)
Knowledge and understanding

1. Model major components of power systems: three-phase power transformers, short,
medium and long-transmission lines, loads, generators.
2. Calculate the steady-state power flow in a power system.
3. Explain and implement different means for voltage control and reactive power
compensation in a power system;
4. Analyse different types of short-circuit faults.
5. Calculate the power system dynamics and its stability.
6. Determine the economic dispatch in a power system.
7. Determine the optimal dispatch of generation in a power system.
8. Understand the basic concept of power system control.
Intellectual/Cognitive skills
1. Ability to understand of how to use PowerWorld Simulator for power system
analysis and visualization.
2. Ability to understand of how to use PowerWorld Simulator for regulating a bus
voltage.
3. Ability to understand of how to use PowerWorld Simulator for solving transmission
line performances;
4. Ability to understand of how to use PowerWorld Simulator for solving power flow
analysis using Gauss-Siedel and Newton-Raphson methods.
5. Ability to understand of how to use PowerWorld Simulator for computing fault
currents for various types of faults.
6. Ability to understand of how to use PowerWorld Simulator for solving optimal
dispatch of generation.
7. Ability to understand of how to use PowerWorld Simulator for solving power system
dynamics and its stability.
1 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

Subject specialization and practical skills

1. Understand the computer techniques and algorithms used to obtain the transmission
line parameters, line performance, compensation , solution of the load flow problem
optimal dispatch of generation, and power system stability;
2. Identify and formulate engineering problems to solve problems in the field of electrical
power engineering;
3. Specify and evaluate manufacturing of components and equipment related to
electrical power and machines.
General and transferable skills

1. Work in a group and evaluate the results to prepare the report.
2. Find information independently.
References
1- "Power System Analysis and Design", J.D. Glover, and M.S Sarma, T.J. Overbye, 5th
Edition (SI), Cengage Learning, 2012. (Main reference)
2- "Power system analysis", Grainger, John J., William D. Stevenson, and William D.
Stevenson.
3- "Electrical power transmission system engineering: analysis and design". Gonen,
Turan. CRC press, 2019.
4- "Power system analysis and design", Gupta, B. R., and S. Chand.
5- "Power system analysis", Hadi Saadat, 1999.
Some Electronic resources, Websites related to the course:

1. https://www.powerworld.com/
2. https://youtu.be/ySVCYl2N7SA?list=PL0B37D8DFCE4A53A
Evaluation schemes
Assessment Type Weight Date(s)
First Exam 20 Week 6 – 7

Second Exam 20 Week 10 – 11
Coursework 20 During Semester
Final Exam 40 Announced by Registrar
Total 100%

List of Content
Introduction: Power System Planning and Design
Computers in Power System Engineering
Introduction to PowerWorld Simulator
Experiment (1): 07-10
Distribution Networks
Fundamentals
Power Factor Correction
Power Transformers
Tap-Changing Three-Phase Transformer
Power Transformers
Voltage-regulating and phase-shifting 3-Ф transformers
Transmission Line Modeling
Performance of the Transmission Lines
Transmission Line Modeling
Reactive Power Compensation in Transmission Lines
Power Flow Analysis
Gauss-Seidel Power Flow Solution
Power Flow Analysis
Newton-Raphson Power Flow Solution
Power Flow Analysis
Control of Power Flow
Power System Security
N-1 Criterion Contingency Analysis
Contouring
Contouring Bus and Line Data
Fault Analysis
Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Faults
Optimal Power Flow
Economic Dispatch and Optimal Power Flow
Transient Stability
Equal-Area Criterion and Multimachine Stability
The Impact of PV Generation on Power System Voltage
Effect of the location of PV generation on voltage profile
Projects 72-83

Introduction:
Power System Planning and Design

An electrical power system can be considered to consist of a generation system, a transmission
system, a subtransmission system, and a distribution system. In general, the generation and
transmission systems are referred to as the bulk power supply, and the subtransmission and
distribution systems are considered to be the final means to transfer the electric power to the
ultimate customer
In order to perform power systems studies, design engineers and power systems engineers are
required who must have a high degree of understanding on proper application as well as a depth
of understanding on power systems.
The goals of power system analysis are the following:
 To model or to execute per phase analysis of power system components.
 To monitor the voltage at different buses, real and reactive power flow between buses.
 To plan future expansion of the current system.
 To analyze the system under different fault conditions and based on different Scenarios
 To design the Protective Devices, as well as to investigate the ability of the system to
handle small and large disturbances or faults of any kind.
Transmission System Planning

In general, transmission lines have two primary objectives: (1) to transmit electrical energy from
the generators to the load centers and (2) to provide paths for electrical energy to flow between
utilities.
The purpose of transmission system planning is to determine the timing and type of new
transmission facilities required in order to provide adequate transmission network capability to
cope with the future generating capacity additions and load-flow requirements.
The logic diagram for transmission expansion study is shown in the following Figure. The main
objective is to identify the potential problems, in terms of unacceptable voltage conditions,
overloading of facilities, decreasing reliability, or any failure of the transmission system to meet
performance criteria. After this analysis stage, the planner develops alternative plans or scenarios
that not only will prevent the foreseen problems but also will best meet the long-term objectives
of system reliability and economy.
The effectiveness of the alternative plans is determined by load-flow, or power-flow, studies
under both normal and emergency operations. The load-flow programs now in use by the utilities
allow the calculation of currents, voltages, and real and reactive power flows, taking into account
the voltage-regulating capability of generators, transformers, synchronous condensers, specified
generation schedules, as well as net interchange among interconnected systems, automatically.

By changing the location, size, and number of transmission lines, the planner can achieve to
design an economical system that meets the operating and design criteria.
After determining the best system
configuration from load-flow studies, the
planner studies the system behavior under fault
conditions. The main objectives of short-
circuit studies can be expressed as follows:
(1) To determine the current-interrupting
capacity of the circuit breaker so that the
faulted equipment can be disconnected
successfully, therefore clearing the fault
from the system,
(2) To establish the relay requirements and
settings to detect the fault and cause the
circuit breaker to operate when the current
flowing through it exceeds the maximum
allowable current.
The short-circuit studies can also be used to:
(1) Calculate voltages during faulted
conditions that affect insulation
coordination and lightning arrester
applications,
(2) Design the grounding systems, and
(3) Determine the electromechanical forces
affecting the facilities of the system.
Finally, the planner performs stability studies in order to be sure that the system will remain
stable following a severe fault or disturbance. Here, the stability analysis is defined as the
transient behavior of the power system following a disturbance. It can be classified as transient
stability analysis. The transient stability is defined as the ability of the system to maintain
synchronous operation following a disturbance, usually a fault condition.
Unless the fault condition is cleared rapidly by circuit breakers, the generators, which are
connected to each other through a transmission network, will get out with respect to one another,
that is, they will not run in synchronism. This situation, in turn, will cause large currents to flow
through the network, transferring power from one generator to another in an oscillating way and
causing the power system to become unstable. Consequently, the protective relays will detect
these excessive amounts of currents and activate circuit breakers all over the network to open,
causing a complete loss of power supply.

Computers in Power System Engineering

Normal and abnormal operating conditions, peak and off-peak loadings, and present and future
years of operation. A large volume of network data must also be collected and accurately
handled. To assist the engineer in this power system planning, digital computers and highly
developed computer programs are used. Such programs include power-flow, stability, short-
circuit, and transients programs.
Power-flow programs compute the voltage magnitudes, phase angles, and transmission-line
power flows for a network under steady-state operating conditions. Other results, including
transformer tap settings and generator reactive power outputs, are also computed.
Stability programs are used to study power systems under disturbance conditions to determine
whether synchronous generators and motors remain in synchronism. System disturbances can be
caused by the sudden loss of a generator or transmission line, by sudden load increases or
decreases, and by short circuits and switching operations. The stability program combines
power-flow equations and machine-dynamic equations to compute the angular swings of
machines during disturbances. The program also computes critical clearing times for network
faults, and allows the engineer to investigate the effects of various machine parameters, network
modifications, disturbance types, and control schemes.
Short-circuits programs are used to compute three-phase and line-to ground faults in power
system networks in order to select circuit breakers for fault interruption, select relays that detect
faults and control circuit breakers, and determine relay settings. Short-circuit currents are
computed for each relay and circuit-breaker location, and for various system-operating
conditions such as lines or generating units out of service, in order to determine minimum and
maximum fault currents.
Transients programs compute the magnitudes and shapes of transient overvoltages and currents
that result from lightning strikes and line-switching operations. The planning engineer uses the
results of a transients program to determine insulation requirements for lines, transformers, and
other equipment, and to select surge arresters that protect equipment against transient
overvoltages.
Power World Simulator

PowerWorld Simulator is a comprehensive software package for power system analysis and
simulation which is now widely used throughout the electricity industry. It was originally
developed at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1994, and was commercially
released by PowerWorld Corporation since 1996. This simulator is interactive and graphical
designed with friendly interface to simulate the operation of power system networks.

Experiment (1) Introduction to PowerWorld Simulator
Objectives:
1. To be familiarized with the use of PowerWorld Simulator (PWS) program.

2. Learn the basics of using PowerWorld Simulator to model balanced 3-phase systems.
3. To understand the difference between distribution network architectures (radial, ring
and mesh) networks.
4. Construct a few very simple power system network models using PWS program.
Theory and concepts:
Radial Networks
Radial network is the most commonly used system for power distribution grids. The radial grid
is topology tree shape, where close loops does not exist. Since there are no closed loops in radial
network power can be delivered from one bus to another bus without tracking down the original
bus. However, there will be a need to find the original bus while turning backwards. This kind of
topology is the simplest and cheapest topology for an electrical grid but, with this topology, if a
line is disconnected for some reason, all the lines downstream will also lose power. A sample
radial distribution network is shown in the Fig.1. This type of network is preferred when the
station is located at the center of the load as it brings the simplicity to analyze and operate the
system.
Fig.1 Example of Radial Distribution Network.
Ring/Loop Networks
Ring distribution network follows a loop structure that loops the service from a source through a
collection of loads and back to the source. In other words, all the nodes in the ring network are
connected to each other in such a way that they make a close loop structure making runs through
or around an area serving one or more distribution transformers or load centre and returns to the

same substation. Fig. 2 shows a diagram of a ring power distribution architecture in which, as the
utility can provide power in any direction of the ring, a fault can be isolated without disturbing
the service to many loads. A ring network is commonly used in residential areas where the
current flows in more than one direction. Although it offers better voltage stability and
lower power losses than other networks, protecting it against faults is difficult.
Fig.2 Example of Ring Distribution Network.
Mesh Networks
A mesh network structure is similar to a ring one but includes redundant lines which are
organized as backups for the purpose of rerouting power in the event of a failure in the
main line. Fig. 3 shows the configuration of a mesh distribution network. A mesh network
structure is efficient for short-distance transmissions and a radial or ring one can be effectively
upgraded to a mesh one by adding appropriate connections between buses. Using the mesh
distribution network, accurate power sharing of loads can be achieved.
Fig.3 Example of Mesh Distribution Network.

Simulation Experiment:
Part I: Radial Networks

Figure 1 represents a simple power system in which a generator is supplying power to a load
through a 16 kV distribution system feeder.
1. Build the two–bus power system using power world simulator.
2. Vary the load by one MW per click.
3. Determine the total power generation and losses of transmission when the load equal to
5MW.
4. Increase the load to 15-MW, Explain the changes happen on the system.
5. Change the loading limit of the transmission line to 10MVA. Explain the changes
happen?
6. Open the CB at the receving end of the transmission line. Explain the changes happen?
7. Save the project.
Information of the system:

Generator:
• Available for AGC and AVR
Load:
• 5 MW with 1 MW steps.
Bus 1 is the slack bus.
Transmission Line:
 R= 0.3 pu.
 X= 0.6 pu
 MVA limit = 20
Hints:
 Generators are shown as a circle with a ‘‘dog-bone’’ rotor, large arrows represent loads,
and transmission lines are simply drawn as lines. In power system terminology, the
nodes at which two or more devices join are called buses.
 power flows can be visualized with arrows superimposed on the generators, loads, and
transmission lines. The size and speed of the arrows indicates the direction of flow.
 The solid red blocks on the line and load represent circuit breakers.
 The pie charts are used to show the percentage loading of the line.

Part II: Ring Networks

Convert the previous system to a networked system (add bus 3, transmission lines between bus
1-2 and 2-3 (has same parameters of TL 1-2) and load with 10 MW.
Open any single line, Explain the changes happen?
Questions:
1. Briefly, explain the difference between distribution networks architectures (radial, ring
and mesh).
2. What is the aim of the pie chart?
3. When the load increased to 15MW in the radial network system (Part I) the voltage
decreased, Discuss Why.
4. Explain how to convert the ring network system in part II to mesh network system.

Experiment (2) Power Factor Correction
Objectives:
1. To determine the impact of adding capacitor bank on a power system.

2. Correct the power factor of three-phase load by proper placement of shunt capacitors.

The apparent power will be larger than P if the power factor is less than 1. Thus the current I that
must be supplied will be larger for PF < 1 than it would be for PF = 1, even though the average
power P supplied is the same in either case. A larger current cannot be supplied without
additional cost to the utility company. Thus, it is in the power company's (and its customer's)
best interest that major loads on the system have power factors as close to 1 as possible. In order
to maintain the power factor close to unity, power companies install banks of capacitors
throughout the network as needed. They also impose an additional charge to industrial
consumers who operate at low power factors. Since industrial loads are inductive and have low
lagging power factors, it is beneficial to install capacitors to improve the power factor. This
consideration is not important for residential and small commercial customers because their
power factors are close to unity.
If a triad of star or delta connected (three-phase load) capacitors with the right capacity are
connected in parallel to the terminals of the resistive-inductive load, the capacitive current Ic
they absorbs, resulting in advance quadrature in respect to the voltage Vf, will oppose the
component in delay quadrature Ig reducing it to I1 or resetting it, with consequent drop of the
current across the line which will take the value Ir; the best situation is obtained when Ic = Ig
and so I reduces to the single component in phase If ; see Fig 1.
Fig.1

In terms of power (triangle of the powers –see Fig. 2–) we get:
Fig.2 Power triangle without PF correction.
It follows that to obtain a total power factor correction, the inductive reactive power Q
absorbed by the users should be removed with the same capacitive reactive power Qc; actually
it is very difficult to achieve this objective, except in particular cases of constant loads with
constant cos ϕ, most of the users have active-inductive currents and powers variable in time.
So it is considered satisfactory to correct the power

factor of an installation that is at cosϕ 0.95 in
average considering the manufacturing costs and
the advantages the power factor correction brings,
see Fig. 3.
Fig.3 Power triangle with PF correction.
The load reactive power after power factor correction is: Qr = P tgϕr
where ϕr is the angle, chosen by the user of the power corrected current.
The reactive power of the set of capacitors will be:
The power of the set of capacitors will:
(In case of delta connected capacitors)
Changing the voltage, the capacitors power changes proportionally to the square voltage.


A 20+j10 kVA load is supplied at 20kV through a feeder as shown in the following Figure. The
load is compensated with a capacitor whose output, can be varied in 1 kvar steps between 0 and
20.0 kvars.
1. Build the two–bus power system using power world simulator.
2. Before adding the capacitor bank record the value of the following electrical quantities:
a. Load Bus voltage
b. Line current
c. Power generated
d. PF
3. After adding the capacitor bank with nominal reactive power of 5 kvar, record the value
of the following electrical quantities:
a. Load Bus voltage
b. Line current
c. Power generated
d. PF
4. Increase the nominal reactive power of the capacitor bank to 10 kvar and then record the
value of the following electrical quantities:
a. Load Bus voltage
b. Line current
c. Power generated
d. PF
5. Save the project.
Information of the system:

Generator:
 Max MW output = 100
 Min MW output = 0
 Max Var output = 50
 Min Var output = -30
Bus 1 is the slack bus.
Transmission Line:
 R= 0.1 pu.
 X= 0.45 pu
 MVA limit = 20

Questions:
1. What are the causes of low Power Factor.
2. Why should the power factor be improved?
3. Discuss why a capacitor bank is usually connected to a three-phase network in a delta

connection.
4. Three loads are connected to a 3-phase, 390-Vrms, 50-Hz source:

Load 1: 300 W at 0.77 PF lagging.
Load 2: 400 W at 0.94 PF lagging.
Load 3: 428VA at 0.6 PF lagging.
Find:
(a) The total real and reactive power , the PF at the source and the total current.
(b) The capacitance of the capacitor connected across the loads to improve the over all
PF to 0.98 lagging (Δ-connected).
(c) Line current supplied by the source to feed these loads after connecting the capacitor
bank.
5. After setting the nominal reactive power to 5-kvar in the simulation section, the output
from the capacitor is less than the nominal value, discuss why.
6. Explain in detail the effect of adding capacitor bank on the power system, use the values
recorded in the simulation section?
7. Draw the power triangle for the source and the load before and after adding the capacitor
bank (use 5-kvar case).

Experiment (3) Tap-Changing Three-Phase Transformer
Objectives:
1. To investigate voltage regulation via transformer tap changer in PowerWorld Simulator.
Voltage Control of Transformers

Voltage control in transformers are required to compensate for varying voltage drops in the
system and to control reactive power flow over transmission lines. Transformers may also be
used to control phase angle and, therefore, active power flow. The two commonly used methods
are tap changing transformers and regulating transformers.
Practically all power transformers and many distribution transformers have taps in one or more
windings for changing the turns ratio. This method is the most popular since it can be used for
controlling voltages at all levels. Tap changing, by altering the voltage magnitude, affects the
distribution of vars and may therefore be used to control the flow of reactive power.
There are two types of tap changing transformers
1. Off-load tap changing transformers.
2. Tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers.
The off-load tap changing transformer requires the disconnection of the transformer when the tap
setting is to be changed. Off-load tap changers are used when it is expected that the ratio will
need to be changed only infrequently, because of load growth or some seasonal change. A
typical transformer might have four taps in addition to the nominal setting, with spacing of 2.5
percent of full-load voltage between them. Such an arrangement provides for adjustments of up
to 5 percent above or below the nominal voltage rating of the transformer.
Tap changing under load (TCUL) is used when changes in ratio may be frequent or when it is
undesirable to de-energize the transformer to change a tap. A large number of units are now
being built with load tap changing equipment. It is used on transformers and autotransformers for
transmission tie, for bulk distribution units, and at other points of load service. Basically, a
TCUL transformer is a transformer with the ability to change taps while power is connected. A
TCUL transformer may have built-in voltage sensing circuitry that automatically changes taps to
keep the system voltage constant. Such special transformers are very common in modem power
systems. Special tap changing gear are required for TCUL transformers, and the position of taps
depends on a number of factors and requires special consideration to arrive at an optimum
location for the TCUL equipment.

Step-down units usually have TCUL in the low voltage winding and de-energized taps in the
high voltage winding. For example, the high voltage winding might be equipped with a nominal
voltage turns ratio plus four 2.5 percent fixed tap settings to yield 45 percent buck or boost
voltage as shown in fig 1. In addition to this, there could be provision, on the low voltage
windings, for 32 incremental steps of 5/8 each, giving an automatic range of ± 10 percent.
Fig.1 TCUL transformer.
The per-unit model shown in Fig 2 is perfectly valid, but it is not suitable for some of the
computer programs because these programs do not accommodate ideal transformer windings. An
alternative representation can be developed, however, by writing nodal equations for this figure
as follows:
Fig.2 Per-unit equivalent circuit of Transformer with off-nominal turns ratio.

Recalling two-port network theory, the admittance parameters of the above equations are
These Equations with real or complex c are convenient for representing transformers with off-
nominal turns ratios in the computer programs. Note that when c is complex, Y12 is not equal to
Y21, and the preceding admittance parameters cannot be synthesized with a passive RLC circuit.
However, the п network shown in Fig 3, which has the same admittance parameters as the aboce
equations, can be synthesized for real c. Note also that when c=1, the shunt branches in this
figure become open circuits (zero per unit mhos), and the series branch becomes Yeq per unit
mhos (or Zeq per unit ohms)
Fig.3 п-circuit representation for real c.

Tap Changing Transformers

A three-phase generator step-up transformer is rated 1000 MVA, 13.8 kV Δ/345 kV Y with Zeq=
j0.10 per unit. The transformer high-voltage winding has +10% taps.
The system base quantities are Sbase3Ф= 500 MVA VbaseXLL= 13.8 kV; VbaseHLL= 345 kV
1. Change the transformer’s taps in discrete steps, with each step change the tap ratio by
0.625%.
2. Manually adjust the tap by one step; What changes happen, Discuss?
3. Set the transformer control mode to automatic.
4. Vary the Mvar load, What changes happen, Discuss?
5.
Questions:
For the power system shown in figure 1. Generator/Transmission line/step-down transformer

feeds a 100 MW/25 Mvar load.
Parameters of Transformer:
Transformer Control
Automatic Control Type AVR
Min Tap Ratio 0.900000
Automatic Control
Max Tap Ratio 1.100000
Options
Regulation Min. Voltage 0.995000
Regulation Max. Voltage 1.000000

Part 1: Off load Tap Changing Transformer:

1. Build the power system shown in figure 1 using PowerWorld Simulator.
2. Set the transformer as an off-load tap changer transformer.
3. Record the Load bus voltage as the off nominal tap ratio changes.
4. Tabulate your results in the following table.
5. Explain the changes happen on the voltage of the load bus with changing the tap ratio.
Off Nominal Tap Ratio Load Bus Voltage

0.99750
0.99850
0.99950
1.00000
1.00312
1.01248
1.02496
1.03750
Part 2: Under load Tap Changing Transformer (LTC):
Section 1: Manual Mode
1. Change the transformer’s taps in discrete steps, with each step changing the tap ratio by
0.625%.
2. Adjust the tap under load in steps as shown in table 2.
3. Record the Load bus voltage as the tap ratio changes.

0.98750
0.99375
1.00000
1.00625
1.01250
1.01875
1.02500

Section 2: Automatic Mode

2. What value of Tap Ratio that makes the bus voltage equal to nominal value.
3. Vary the Mvar load, Observe the changes happen, Discuss?

Voltage-Regulating and Phase-Shifting

Experiment (4)
Three-Phase Transformers
Objectives:
1. To investigate voltage regulation via voltage regulating transformers in a power

system using PowerWorld Simulator.
2. To investigate active power flow control via phase-shifting transformers in a power
system using PowerWorld Simulator.
Regulating Transformers or Boosters

Regulating transformers, also known as boosters, are used to change the voltage magnitude and
phase angle at a certain point in the system by a small amount. A booster consists of an exciting
transformer and a series transformer.
Voltage Magnitude Control

Figure 1 shows the connection of a regulating transformer for phase a of a three phase system for
voltage magnitude control. Other phases have identical arrangement. The secondary of the
exciting transformer is tapped, and the voltage obtained from it is applied to the primary of the
series transformer. The corresponding voltage on the secondary of the series transformer is
added to the input voltage. Thus, the output voltage is
Fig.1 Regulating Transformer for Voltage Magnitude Control.
Since the voltages are in phase, a booster of this type is called an in-phase booster. The output
voltage can be adjusted by changing the excitation transformer taps. By changing the switch
from position 1 to 2, the polarity of the voltage across the series transformer is reversed, so that
the output voltage is now less than the input voltage.

Phase Magnitude Control

Regulating transformers are also used to control the voltage phase angle. If the injected voltage
is out of phase with the input voltage, the resultant voltage will have a phase shift with respect to
the input voltage. Phase shifting is used to control active power flow at major intertie buses. A
typical arrangement for phase a of a three-phase system is shown in Figure 2.
.
Fig.2 Regulating Transformer for Voltage Angle Control.
The series transformer of phase a is supplied from the secondary of the exciting transformer bc.
The injected voltage ΔVbc is in quadrature with the voltage Van thus the resultant voltage V'an
goes through a phase shift α, as shown in Figure 3. The output voltage is
Fig.3 Voltage Phasor diagram.
Similar connections are made for the remaining phases, resulting in a balanced three phase
output voltage. The amount of phase shift can be adjusted by changing the excitation transformer
taps. By changing the switch from position 1 to 2, the output voltage can be made to lag or lead
the input voltage.

Voltage-regulating and phase-shifting three-phase transformers

Two buses are connected by two parallel lines L1 and L2 with positive-sequence series
reactances XL1 = 0.25 and XL2 = 0.20 per unit. A regulating transformer is placed in series
with line L1 at load bus. the transformer and a parallel transmission line are assumed to be
supplying power from a 345-kV generator to a 345-kV load.
1. Initially, the off-nominal turns ratio is set to the value of 1.05; find the bus admittance
matrix in this case.
2. Change the LTC tap in 0.625% steps, explain how the system flows vary with changes
to the tap.
3. Change the tap field to 1.0 and the deg field to 3.0 degrees; find the admittance matrix.
4. Vary the phase shift angle in one-degree steps; Explain the changes happen.
5. Change the parameters of the transmission line 1 to be 0.06 + j0.2 pu, and transmission
line 2 to be 0.05 + j0.25 pu, add a filed to show the losses in power system. With the
LTC tap fixed at 1.05, plot the real power losses as the phase shift angle is varied from
-10 to +10 degrees. What value of phase shift minimizes the system losses?
6. Keep the phase-shift angle fixed at 3.0 degrees, while varying the LTC tap between 0.9
and 1.1. What tap value minimizes the real power losses?

Experiment (5) Performance of the Transmission Lines
Objectives:
1. To understand how to model a short, medium and long lines using PowerWorld Simulator.
2. To determine the various electrical quantities at sending and receiving end for a loaded line.
Transmission Line Performance

For the purpose of system analysis, a given transmission line can be represented by its resistance,
inductance or inductive reactance, capacitance or capacitive reactance, and leakage resistance.
The important considerations in the design and operation of a transmission line are the
determination of voltage drop, line losses and efficiency of transmission. These values are
greatly influenced by line constants R, L and C of the transmission line. For instance, the voltage
drop in the line depends upon the values of above three line constants. Similarly, the resistance
of transmission line conductors is the most importance cause of power loss in the line and
determines the transmission efficiency.
It is convenient to represent a transmission line by the two-port network shown in Fig 1, where
VS and IS are the sending-end voltage and current, and VR and IR are the receiving-end voltage
and current. The relation between the sending-end and receiving-end quantities can be written as
The modeling of a short transmission line (less than 80-km) is the most simplistic one. Its shunt
capacitance is so small that it can be omitted entirely with little loss of accuracy. The
transmission line can be treated as a simple, lumped, and constant impedance as shown in Fig 2.
The ABCD parameters for a short TL:

For medium-length lines, typically ranging from 80 to 250 km, it is common to lump the total
shunt capacitance and locate half at each end of the line. Such a circuit, called a nominal п
circuit, is shown in Fig 3. The ABCD parameters of the nominal п circuit,
For a long transmission line the line constants R, L, and C are derived as per-length values
having units of Ω/m, H/m, and F/m. They are not lumped, but rather are uniformly distributed
along the length of the line. The ABCD parameters of the nominal п circuit,
ABCD parameters can be used to describe the variation of line voltage with line loading. Voltage
regulation is the change in voltage at the receiving end of the line when the load varies from no-
load to a specified full load at a specified power factor, while the sending-end voltage is held
constant. Expressed in percent of full-load voltage,
Power
 Sending end active power: Ps= 3 *V S * IS * PFS

 Sending end reactive power: Qs= 3 *V S * IS * sin( )
 Receiving end active power: PR= 3 *V R * IR * PFR
 Receiving end reactive power: QR= 3 *V R * IR * sin( )
 2
Transmission losses: Ploss= 3I R = Ps - PR Qloss= 3I2X = Qs - QR
Efficiency of Transmission:

Part I: Short Transmission Line

A 40-km, 220-kV, 60-Hz three-phase overhead transmission line has a per-phase resistance of
0.15 Ω/km, a per-phase inductive reactance of 0.5 Ω/km, and negligible shunt capacitance. The
line is supplying a three-phase load of 381 MVA at 0.8 power factor lagging at 220 kV. Use
PowerWorld Simulator to find the following:
1. Sending-end voltage;
2. Load angle;
3. Voltage regulation;
4. Sending-end power;
5. Transmission Efficiency.
Part II: Medium Transmission Line

A 80-km, 230-kV, 60-Hz, three-phase overhead transmission line has the following ABCD
constants:
A B 0.9951 + j0.000544 4 + j36

[ ]= [ ]
C D j0.0002713 0.9951 + j0.000544
If the sending end line voltage is equal to 242.67kV and the line is supplying a three-phase load
of 200-MVA at 0.8-PF lagging. Use PowerWorld Simulator to find the following:
1. Receiving end Voltage;

2. Sending end and receiving end Line current;
3. Losses in Transmission;
4. Charging Current;
5. Percent Voltage Regulation;
6. Transmission Efficiency.

Questions:
1. Give reasons:
(a) Power can be transferred over ac lines even when the magnitudes of sending end
and receiving end voltages are equal.
(b) The real power transferred over a line depends on the power angle and not on the
difference between sending end and receiving end voltage.
2. What are the factors that limit the maximum power transfer capability in a
Transmission Line?
3. A 60-km, 220-kV, 60-Hz three-phase overhead transmission line has a per-phase

resistance of 0.15 Ω/km, a per-phase inductive reactance of 1.4 mH/km, and negligible
shunt capacitance. The line is supplying a three-phase load of 300 MVA at 0.8 power
factor lagging at 220 kV. Use PowerWorld Simulator to find the following:
(a) Sending-end voltage;
(b) Load angle;
(c) Voltage regulation;
(d) Line losses;
(e) Transmission Efficiency.
4. The ABCD constants of a three-phase transmission line are
When 50MW and 30Mvar are being transmitted at 250kV from the sending end, use
PowerWorld Simulator to determine the following:
(a) Receiving end voltage;
(b) Receiving end current;
(c) Receiving end PF;
(d) Power Loss in transmission;
(e) Percent voltage regulation;
(f) Efficiency of Transmission.

Reactive Power Compensation in

Experiment (6)
Transmission Lines
Objectives:
1. To simulate long length transmission line using PowerWorld Simulator under various
load conditions: No load, SIL load and Heavy load.
2. To compensate reactive power on the long length transmission line with the
appropriate compensation method for different operating conditions.
No-Load Transmission line

During light-load or no-load condition, receiving end voltage is greater than sending end voltage
in medium and long transmission line. This happens due to very high line charging current. This
phenomenon is known as Ferranti Effect. A charged open circuit line draws significant amount
of current due to capacitive effect of the line. This is more in HV long transmission line.
Sending end voltage of a transmission line is:
Under no-load condition; IR = 0, therefore: VR =VS/A;

Since A<1 so VR is greater than Vs.
The capacitance (and charging current) is negligible in short line but significant in medium line
and appreciable in long line. Therefore, this phenomenon occurs in medium and long lines.
Shunt reactors (inductors) are commonly installed at selected points along EHV lines from each
phase to neutral. The inductors absorb reactive power and reduce overvoltages during light load
conditions. They also reduce transient overvoltages due to switching and lightning surges.
However, shunt reactors can reduce line loadability if they are not removed under full-load
conditions.
Loaded Transmission line

If a transmission line loaded to its surge impedance loading has no net reactive power flow into
or out of the line and will have approximately a flat voltage profile along its length.
Heavy loaded transmission line will produce a large dip in voltage. The voltage profile of a long
line for various loading conditions is shown in the fig 1.
Shunt capacitors, static var control and synchronous condesers are used to improve voltage,
increase power transfer and improve the system stability.

Series compensation reduces the series impedance of the line, which is the principal cause of
voltage drop and the most important factor in determining the maximum power which the line
can transmit.
Fig.1 Voltage profiles of an uncompensated lossless line with fixed sendingend voltage.
The following Equation provides the value of the shunt reactor to be connected at the receiving
end to compensate the receiving end voltage:
𝑍𝑐 sin(𝛽l)
𝑋𝑙𝑠ℎ =
𝑉
( 𝑆 − cos(𝛽l))
𝑉𝑅
Long Transmission Line with Reactive Power Compensation

A 400-km, 765-kV, 60-Hz, three-phase overhead transmission line has a per-phase inductive reactance of
133.92 Ω, and inductive reactance of 523.25 Ω. Use PowerWorld Simulator to find the following:
1. If the transmission line is energized with 765 kV at the sending end when the load at the
receiving end is removed.
(a) The receiving end voltage?
(b) The charging current in TL?
(c) Determine the reactance and the Mvar of a three-phase shunt reactor to be installed at the
receiving end in order to limit the no-load receiving end voltage to 735 kV.
(d) Draw the voltage profile for uncompensated and compensated open line.
2. Determine the Surge Impedance Loading of the line, then terminate the line with this SIL, and
determine the following:
(a) Receiving endpoint voltage;
(b) Voltage regulation;
(c) Surge Impedance of the line;
(d) Reactive Power Losses;
(e) Draw and explain the voltage profile for this line;

Questions:
1. Discuss why the receiving end voltage of an unloaded long line may be more than the
sending end voltage.
2. Discuss why long lines usually need reactive power compensation equipment for
proper operation.
3. Discuss why the series compensation increases the power transmission capacity of a
line.
4. A 400-km, 765-kV, 60-Hz, three-phase overhead transmission line (lossless TL) has an
inductance of 0.88853mH/km, and capacitance of 0.01268µF/km, the ABCD constants
of the line are as follows:
Use PowerWorld Simulator to find:
1. If the line is terminated in a purely resistive load with 2211-MW, Determine the
following:
(a) Receiving end voltage;
(b) Voltage regulation;
(c) Surge impedance of the line;
(d) Reactive Power Losses;
(e) Draw and explain the voltage profile for this line;
(f) What is the max amount of real power can be transferred to the load at unity PF if
we require the load voltage always be greater than 0.9 pu;
2. The line delivers 2000 MVA at 0.8 lagging power factor and at a sending end voltage of
896.96kV,
(a) Determine the voltage regulation and power angle.
(b) If the line is compensated by series capacitor of 40% compensation. (20% at the
sending end and 20% at the receiving end) Determine the voltage regulation and the
power angle in this case and compare it with the previous case (without
compensation).

Experiment (7) Gauss-Seidel Power Flow Solution
Objectives:
1. To form the bus admittance matrix (Ybus) for a given power system using PowerWorld
Simulator.
2. To carry out load flow analysis of a given power system using Gauss-Seidel method in
PowerWorld Simulator.
Introduction
Successful power system operation under normal balanced three-phase steady-state conditions
requires the following:
1. Generation supplies the demand (load) plus losses.
2. Bus voltage magnitudes remain close to rated values.
3. Generators operate within specified real and reactive power limits.
4. Transmission lines and transformers are not overloaded.
The power-flow computer program (sometimes called load flow) is the basic tool for
investigating these requirements. This program computes the voltage magnitude and angle at
each bus in a power system under balanced three-phase steady-state conditions. It also computes
real and reactive power flows for all equipment interconnecting the buses, as well as equipment
losses.
Data for Load Flow Studies

1. Single-line diagram of the power system.
2. Values of series impedances and shunt admittances of transmission lines are necessary so
that the computer can determine all the Ybus and Zbus elements.
3. Other essential information includes transformer ratings and impedances, shunt capacitor
ratings, and transformer tap settings.
4. At each bus except one the net real power into the network must be specified.
5. The other power inputs are from generators and positive or negative power entering over
interconnections.

Buses types
Each bus is categorized into one of the following three bus types:
 Swing bus (or slack bus)—There is only one swing bus. The swing bus is a reference bus
for which V1 <δ1, typically 1<0 per unit, is input data, this bus makes up the difference
between the scheduled loads and generated power that are caused by the losses in the
network.
 Load (PQ) bus — P and Q are input data. Most buses in a typical power-flow program are
load buses.
 Voltage controlled (PV) bus — P and V are input data. Examples are buses to which
generators, switched shunt capacitors, or static var systems are connected. Maximum and
minimum var limits QGmax and QGmin that this equipment can supply are also input data.
Another example is a bus to which a tap-changing transformer is connected.
In digital computer programs provision is made for the calculation to consider voltage to be
maintained constant at a bus only so long as the reactive power generation remains within
designated limits.
The generators at the swing bus supply the difference between the specified real power into the
system at the other buses and the total system output plus losses.
Because of the non-linearity of the equations of real and complex power of different buses, the
solution is usually obtained by an iterative method. The most common two methods are:
 Gauss-Seidel Method
 Newton-Raphson Method
In this experiment, we will consider the Gauss-Seidel method for load flow study.
The Gauss-Seidel Method

Digital solutions of the power-flow problems follow an iterative process by assigning estimated
values to the unknown bus voltages and by calculating a new value for each bus voltage from the
estimated values at the other buses and the real and reactive power specified. A new set of values
for the voltage at each bus is thus obtained and used to calculate still another set of bus voltages.
Each calculation of a new set of voltages is called an iteration. The iterative process is repeated
until the changes at each bus are less than a specified minimum value.
The Gauss-Seidel(GS) method is an iterative method for solving a set of non-linear algebraic
equations. In starting, a solution vector is assumed. One of the equation is then used to obtain the
revised value of a particular variable by substituting in it the present value of remaining
variables. The same process is followed for all the variables completing one complete iteration.
The process is then repeated till the solution vector converges within defined accuracy. The
convergence is quite sensitive to the starting values that are assumed.

Power Flow analysis using PowerWorld Simulator (Methodology)

Simulator actually uses three nested loops to solve the power flow as shown in the figure 1.
Fig.1 Nested loops to solve the power flow in PWS.
Gauss-Siedel Power Flow Solution

In the power system network shown in Figure 2, bus 1 is a slack bus with V1 = 1.0<0 per unit and bus 2 is
a load bus with S2 = 280 MW + j60 Mvar. The line impedance on a base of 100 MVA is Z = 0.02 + j0.04
per unit, using PowerWorld Simulator.
1. Determine the Y-bus matrix of the power system.

2. Using Gauss-Seidel method, determine V2. Use an initial estimate of V2(0) = 1.0 + j0.0 and
perform four iterations.
3. After the solution is converged, determine S1 and the real and reactive power loss in the line.
MVA convergence tolerance = 0.001

Max number of iterations = 50

Questions:
1. The bus admittance matrix of a two-bus power system is given below:

2.5 − 𝑗6.25 −2.5 + 𝑗6.25
[ ]
−2.5 + 𝑗6.25 2.5 − 𝑗6.25
Information about the system:
Bus 1: Slack bus V1 = 1.0<0
Bus 2: Load bus S2 = 80+ j40
Use an initial estimate of V2(0) = 1.0 pu and δ2(0) = 0,
(a) Using Gauss-Seidel method, determine the electrical quantities obtained from the
load flow program for bus 2. Perform two iterations.
(b) After the solution is converged, determine the line flows and line losses and the
slack bus real and reactive power.
Accuracy = 0.01 MVA, max number of iterations = 25
2. Give a flow chart for load flow study on a power system having only PQ busses using
Gauss-Seidel method.
3. What is the role of swing bus in power flow study?
4. Why do Ybus used in load flow study instead of Zbus?

Experiment (8) Newton-Raphson Power Flow Solution
Objectives:
1. To carry out load flow analysis of a given power system contains voltage controlled bus
using Newton-Raphson method in PowerWorld Simulator.
The Newton-Raphson Method

Because of its quadratic convergence, Newton’s method is mathematically superior to the Gauss-
Seidel method and is less prone to divergence will ill-conditioned problems.
For large power systems, the Newton-Raphson method is found to be more efficient and
practical. The number of iterations required to obtain a solution is independent of the system
size, but more functional evaluations are required at each iteration.
For an N-bus power system there will be n equations for real power injection Pi and n-equations
for reactive power injection Qi. The number of equations to be solved depends upon the given. If
the total number of buses is n and number of generator buses is m then the number of equations
to be solved will be number of known Pi’s and number of known Qi’s. In the given conditions
number of known Pi’s are n-1 and the number of known Qi’s are (n-m), therefore the total
number of simultaneous equations will be 2*(n-m-1), and number of unknown quantities are also
2*(n-m-1). The unknowns to be calculated are power angles (δ) at all the buses except slack (i.e.
n-1) and bus voltages (V) at load bus (i.e. n-m).

PowerWorld Simulator actually includes rows in the Jacobian for voltage-controlled buses.
When a generator is regulating its terminal voltage, this row corresponds to the equation setting
the bus voltage magnitude equal to the generator voltage setpoint. However, if the generator hits
a reactive power limit, the bus type is switched to a load bus.
Newton-Raphson Power Flow Solution

Figure 1 shows the one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system with generation at
buses 1 and 2. The voltage at bus 1 is V = 1.0<0 per unit. Voltage magnitude at bus 2 is fixed at
1.05 pu with a real power generation of 400 MW. A load consisting of 500 MW and 400 Mvar is
taken from bus 3. Line admittances are marked in per unit on a 100 MVA base. For the purpose
of hand calculations, line resistances and line charging susceptances are neglected.
MVA convergence tolerance = 0.00001

Max number of iterations = 10
1. Determine the Y-bus matrix of the power system.

2. Write the expression for the real power at bus 2 and real and reactive power at bus 3.
3. Write the elements of the Jacobian matrix after one iteration.
4. Using Polar Newton-Raphson method, start with the initial estimates of V2(0) = 1.05 + j0
and V3(0) = 1 + j0, and keeping |V2| = 1.05 pu, determine the phasor values of V2 and V3.
Perform two iterations.
5. Determine the acceptable generation range at bus 2, keeping each line and transformer
loaded at or below 100% of its MVA limit.
6. After the solution is converged, determine the line flows and line losses and the slack bus
real and reactive power.
7. If the reactive power limits of the regulated bus changed to 0<Q<400. Using the Polar
Newton-Raphson method, explain the changes that occurred to the system?

Questions:
1. For the following two-bus system, bus 1 is a slack bus. Using Polar Newton-Raphson
method,
Accuracy = 0.001 MVA, max number of iterations = 40

(a) Write the expression for real and reactive power at bus 2?
(b) Write the elements of the Jacobian matrix after two iteration?
(c) Obtain the voltage magnitude and phase angle of bus 2 (after the solution is
converged), Start with an initial estimate of V2(0) = 1.0 pu and δ2(0) = 0?
2. Explain why the Newton-Raphson method is preferred to Gauss-Seidel method for load
flow studies in power systems.
3. Give a flow chart for a load flow study using Newton-Raphson method.
4. Compare between Newton-Raphson and Gauss-Seidel methods in term of:

(a) Algorithm for computer simulation (Simple/Complex)
(b) Memory requirement (Low/High)
(c) Accuracy (Low/High)
(d) Convergence rate (Slow/Fast)
(e) Number of iterations (More/Less)
(f) Time for solution (More/Less)
5. At what condition generator bus is treated as load bus?

Experiment (9) Control of Power Flow
Objectives:
1. To investigate control of power flow and voltage regulation for a power system via
Synchronous Generators, transformer tap changing and using shunt capacitance
compensation.

The following means are used to control system power flows:
1. Prime mover and excitation control of generators.
2. Switching of shunt capacitor banks, shunt reactors, and static var systems.
3. Control of tap-changing and regulating transformers.
Prime mover and excitation control of generators.

When the prime mover increases the power input to the generator while the excitation voltage is
held constant, the rotor speed increases. As the rotor speed increases, the power angle δ also
increases, causing an increase in generator real power output P. The power-flow program
computes the increase in δ along with the small change in Q.
An increase in generator excitation corresponds to an increase in voltage magnitude at the

constant voltage bus to which the generator is connected. The power-flow program computes the
increase in reactive power Q supplied by the generator along with the small change in δ.
The real and reactive powers delivered are:
Switching of shunt capacitor banks, shunt reactors

From the power-flow standpoint, the addition of a shunt capacitor bank to a load bus corresponds
to the addition of a negative reactive load, since a capacitor absorbs negative reactive power. The
power-flow program computes the increase in bus voltage magnitude along with the small
change in δ. Similarly, the addition of a shunt reactor corresponds to the addition of a positive
reactive load, wherein the power-flow program computes the decrease in voltage magnitude.

Tap-Changing and Regulating Transformers.

Tap-changing and voltage-magnitude-regulating transformers are used to control bus voltages as
well as reactive power flows on lines to which they are connected. Similarly, phase-angle
regulating transformers are used to control bus angles as well as real power flows on lines to
which they are connected. Both tap-changing and regulating transformers are modeled by a
transformer with an off nominal turns ratio c. From the power flow standpoint, a change in tap
setting or voltage regulation corresponds to a change in c. The power-flow program computes
the changes in Ybus, bus voltage magnitudes and angles, and branch flows.

The bus admittance matrix of a three-bus power system is shown below:
−10 5 5
𝑗[ 5 −10 5 ]
5 5 −10
Bus 1: Slack bus V1 = 1.05<0
Bus 2: Load bus S2 = 150+ j100 MVA
Bus 3: Regulated Bus |V2| = 1.0, P2 = 80 MW, Mvar limits 0<Q<60, with load of 20 + j15 MVA
Use an initial estimate of δ3(0) = 0, V2(0) = 1.0 pu and δ2(0) = 0;
1. Using Gauss-Seidel method, determine the electrical quantities obtained from the load
flow program for buses 2 and 3. Perform two iterations.
2. After the solution is converged, determine the line flows and line losses and the slack bus
real and reactive power (Use Rectangular Newton-Raphson method).
3. If the load at bus 3 is increased to 50 + j45 MVA, Explain what the changes happen on
bus 3.
4. Set the load at bus 3 back to 20 + j15 MVA, Assume the voltage at the load bus should be
0.98 pu in this case. Make your changes on the network to increase the voltage at the load
bus to its required value. The results of this part should be as follows:
Synchronous Generator Control

P: ………...….. Q: ……..………… |V|: …….…………. δ: …………….……
Capacitor Bank: Mvar = ……………………………………
Accuracy = 0.001
MVA, max number of iterations = 40

Questions:
1. How does the change of active and reactive power affect the bus voltages? Is there any
difference? Why?
2. State why it is necessary to control flow of power in a system and enumerate the different
types of control components and their functions.
3. Figure 1 shows a three-bus system connected by short lines. All the data is provided in
the figure.
(a) Assuming that no reactive compensation is provided at bus 2, compute the complex
voltages at buses 2 and 3.
(b) Reactive power is now injected into bus 2 to maintain its voltage at 1.02 per unit.
Calculate the complex voltages, reactive power flows in the lines, and the reactive
power injected into bus 2.
Use Rectangular Newton-Raphson method

Accuracy = 0.001 MVA
max number of iterations = 30
Base = 100 MVA

Experiment (10) Power System Security
Objectives:
1. Perform Contingency analysis of a power system using PowerWorld Simulator.
Power System Security

One of the most important factors in the operation of any power system is the desire to maintain
system availability and reliability. This ensures a secure operation of the system and improved
economic operation. Power system security is the ability of the system to withstand one or more
component outages with the minimal disruption of service or its quality. System security
involves practices designed to keep the system operating in emergency state when components
fail and to restore it to its preventive state. For instance, a generating unit may break down or
have to be taken off-line for maintenance purposes. This leads to frequency and voltage
instability as the available generating unit experiences more loads than usual, hence frequency
drops and bus voltages lowers. If this is not foreseen and defensively prevented by use of
protective devices such as relays for load shedding, it can lead to the collapse of the concerned
system. Therefore the control objective in the emergency state is to relieve system stress by
appropriate actions while economic consideration becomes of secondary.
Contingency Analysis
Contingency analysis is the study of the outage of elements such as transmission lines,
transformers and generators, and investigation of the resulting effects on line power flows and
bus voltages of the remaining system. It represents an important tool to study the effect of
elements outages in power system security during operation and planning. Power flow analysis is
probably the most important of all network calculations. It is performed to investigate the
magnitude and phase angle of the voltage at each bus and the real and reactive power flows in
the system components.
Contingency analysis is a method by which we can predict steady state bus voltages and line
currents in a power system following switching on or off a line in the system. The method does
not require the exact values of voltages and currents, it rather assess the approximate values to
check whether the system, components and buses will be overloaded or will face
under/overvoltage following switching on or off the prescribed line. Contingency analysis
frequently uses [ZBus] and loads are assumed to be treated as constant current injectors.
Removing a line is treated as adding negative impedance.

Modeling Contingency Analysis

Contingency analysis process involves the prediction of the large power system network failure
that the effect of individual contingency selection becomes very tedious and time-consuming
when the power system network is large. Practically, it is found that all the possible outages do
not cause the overloads or under voltage in the other power system equipment. The process of
identifying the contingencies that actually leads to the violation of the operational limits is
known as contingency selection. These indices are calculated using the conventional power flow
for individual contingencies in an off line mode.
An unpredictable condition in the power system is known as a contingency. The impact of the
occurrence of contingencies should be evaluated. This process, usually called contingency
analysis, aims at detecting post contingency operational limits violations. Power systems are
operated so that overloads do not occur either in real time or under any statistically likely
contingency. The contingency analysis is required to operate the power system in such a way
that power is delivered reliably. Within the constraints placed on the system operation by
reliability considerations, the system will be operated most economically. The primary purpose
of maintaining power system security is to keep power system operation under stable condition if
the Single line failure of transmission line or transformer or generator outage does not lead to
cascade tripping. This is often called maintaining system “security” Simulator is equipped with
tools for analyzing contingencies in an automatic fashion Contingencies can consist of several
actions or elements.
Operating Limits
For all the state and control variables must be within specified practical limits. These limits are
dictated by specifications of power system hardware and operating constraints and described
below.
(a) Voltage magnitude |Vi| must satisfy the inequality, |Vi|min < |Vi| < |Vi|max . This limit arise
due to the fact that the power system equipment is designed to operate at a fixed voltage
with allowable variations of +5 to +10 of rated values.
(b) Certain of δi (state variables) must satisfy, |δi – δk|min < |δi – δk|max. This constraint limit
the maximum permissible power angle of the transmission line connecting buses “i” and
bus “k” and it is imposed by considerations of stability.
(c) The physical limitations of P and Q generator sources, P Gi and QGi are constrained as
follows: |PGi|min < |PGi |< |PGi|max, |QGi|min < |QGi |< |QGi|max. Where PL and QL are system
real and reactive power loss.
N-K Contingency
Here N is the number of element and k is the respective contingency applied to power system
network and k=0, 1, 2, …, N. If K=0 means that the system is a healthy condition (pre
contingency state). If K=1, only one element out of service or Generating unit is trip or stop
working. That is called the N-1 criterion. The “N-1” criterion is an “abstraction” representing
equivalently a single contingency or the tripping of one element following a normative incident,
like a three-phase short circuit.
Traditionally system dynamic security analysis is carried out on a few pre-selected contingencies
in the time interval of several minutes. In many instances the hazardous impacts of contingencies
can be easily ignored until their occurrence because their probabilities of occurrence are quite
low.
The Single Outage Coningency (N-1) Criterion

The N-1 Criterion is outages of any one of the following contingencies:
1. Loss of a single-circuit overhead interconnection or internal line, radial circuits which
connect loads using a single overhead line or cable;
2. Loss of a single transformer, except those which connect loads using a single radial
transformer;
3. Loss of a generator, whether grid-connected or embedded;
4. Loss of Shunt devices such as Capacitor/Reactor/SVC etc.
Example: Suppose the trivial power system consisting of two generators, a load, and a double
circuit line is to be operated with both generators supplying the load as shown in the following
(ignore losses):
Now, we shall postulate that one of the two circuits making up the transmission line suffered a
forced outage and opened. This results in the flows shown in the following:
Now there is an overload on the remaining circuit. We shall assume for this example that we do
not want this condition to arise and that we will correct the condition by lowering the generation
on unit 1 to 400 MW. The secure dispatch is

Now, if the same contingency analysis is done, the post contingency condition is shown below.
By adjusting the generation on unit 1 and unit 2, we have prevented the post contingency
operating state from having an overload. This is the essence of what is called “security
corrections”.
Contingency Analysis
(A) Use PowerWorld Simulator to modify the Example 6.9 (Textbook (1) i.e. Glover) case by
inserting a second line between bus 2 and bus 5. Give the new line a circuit identifier of ‘‘2’’ to
distinguish it from the existing line. The line parameters of the added line should be identical to
those of the existing lines 2–5.
Determine the new line’s effect on V2, the line loadings, and on the total real power losses.
(B) By using this simulator, the user can determine whether the given system can still operate under
an acceptable state in certain contingencies. Assume the bus voltages should be maintained
within +10% of the rated voltage. Investigate whether the system will remain secure:
1. When the transmission line between buses 4 and 5 is out of service.
2. When the transmission line between buses 2 and 7 is out of service.
3. When the transformer between buses 3 and 4 is out of service.
4. When the Generator at bus 3 is out of service
5. Click on Auto Insert, and choose automatically generate contingency involving…. a
single transmission line or transformer.

Questions:
1. Write an essay on the importance of maintaining security in a power system.
2. Consider the following power system network. Both generators are at 30 MW output and
both loads are consuming 30 MW. Bus 1 is the slack bus:
The data for this network is as follows:
(a) Using Rectangular Newton Raphson method to determine the initial transmission system
loading and bus voltages.
(b) In this problem we are only concerned with outages on lines 1–2, 1–3, and 1–4. Do any
of these outages, taken one outage at a time, result in overloads? If so, how much and
what lines are overloaded?
(c) The generator at bus 1 is going to reduce its output and at the same time the load at bus 4
is going to reduce its load until there are no overloads due to the lines listed in part (b).
How much should the load on bus 4 and the generation on bus 1 be reduced to eliminate
all overloads?

Experiment (11) Contouring
Objectives:
1. Describes the visual approach to electric power system, showing the power flow in
normal and contingency situations using voltage and current contouring technique by
using PowerWorld Simulator.
Line Flow Visualization

Key to understanding the state of the transmission system is to know the current flows and
percentage loading of the various transmission lines. However, this can be quite difficult,
particularly for large systems. By far the most common means for representing transmission
system flows is through the use of the one-line diagram. Traditionally MW/Mvar/MVA flows on
transmission line/transformer (lines) have been shown using digital fields. Such a representation
provides very accurate results, and works well if one is only interested in viewing a small
number of lines.
One newer technique is to supplement such representations though the use of animation to
illustrate how power is actually flowing in a system. As an example, Figure 1 shows a one-line
diagram of the high voltage (345 kV and above) transmission system in the Eastern Interconnect
in North America.
Fig.1: High Voltage Line Flows in North America.
Another visualization idea that has proven useful for quickly indicating the loading on a large
network has been the use of dynamically sized pie-charts to indicate loading on each

transmission line. As an example, Figure 2 again shows the Figure 1 system with pie-charts used
to indicate the loading on each transmission line.
Fig.2: Pie Charts Showing Line MVA Percentages.
But this technique also runs into difficulty when a large number of pie charts appear on the
screen. To remedy this problem, an entirely different visualization approach is useful:
contouring.
Contouring Bus Data

For decades, power system engineers have used one line diagrams with digital numerical
displays next to each bus to represent bus-based values. The advantage of this numerical display
is that the results are highly accurate and are located next to the bus to which they refer. The
disadvantage of this display is that it not useful when one wants to examine the values at more
than a handful of buses, say to find a patterns in the power system. In order to overcome this
problem the use of contouring is presented.
Contours have been used extensively for the display of spatially distributed continuous data. The
problem with displaying power system data with a contour is that it is not spatially continuous.
For example voltage magnitudes only exist at buses. Therefore virtual values must be created to
span the entire two-dimensional contour region. The virtual value is a weighted average of entire
by data points with different averaging functions providing different results. Once these virtual
values are calculated a color-map is used to relate the numeric virtual value to a color shown on
the screen. A wide variety of different color maps are possible. One common mapping is to use
blue for lower values and red for higher values.
An example of the application of contouring to power systems is shown in Figure 3, which
contours the voltages at approximately 1000 of the 115 and 138 kV buses in the New York and
New England regions. For example, Figure 4 shows the same case, but with a color mapping
such that only those buses with voltage magnitudes below 0.98 per unit are highlighted.

Fig.3: Voltages Magnitudes at 115/138 kV Buses in New York and New England.
Fig.4: Voltage Magnitudes at 115/138 kV with Values below 0.98 per unit.

Contouring Line Data

Besides being useful to represent bus-based values, contouring can also be applied to line-based
values. In order to accomplish this, a line is represented by a user specified number of points in
the contour. In this manner, the contouring algorithm can be used with no further modification to
determine the virtual values throughout the contour. As an example, Figure 5 shows about 1400
of the 345 kV and above transmission lines/transformers of the U.S. portion of the North
American Eastern Interconnect. The key to the successful application of contouring on such a
large data set is to only contour the information of interest to the user, in this case lines loaded
above 50% of their limits. Less heavily loaded lines are not of interest and hence not included in
the contour.
Fig.5: Eastern Interconnection Line Loading Contour.
Contouring
Open PowerWorld Simulator case Example 6.9 (Textbook (1) i.e. Glover).
Part I: Bus data contouring
Select object type to contour: Bus.
Select the value you want to contour: Voltage\ per unit magnitude
Define the range of values in the color map:

1. Use Rectangular Newton Raphson method to obtain the load flow of the power system.
2. Run the Contouring with the above settings.
3. If the transmission line between buses 4 and 5 is out of service. Recalculate Contouring and
comment on results.
Part II: Line data contouring

Select object type to contour: Line/Transformer.
Select the value you want to contour: Amps/Amps (max)
Define the range of values in the color map:
1. Use Rectangular Newton Raphson method to obtain the load flow of the power system.
2. Run the Contouring with the above settings. Comment on results.
3. If the transmission line between buses 4 and 5 is out of service. Recalculate Contouring and
comment on results.
Questions:
1. Write an essay on the importance of the Contouring in a power system.
2. For the following two-bus system, bus 1 is a slack bus.
(a) Using Rectangular Newton-Raphson method, obtain the load flow analysis of the
power system.
(b) Set bus data contouring with the following ranges, run contouring and Comment on
results: maximum: 1.1 pu, minimum: 0.90 pu, nominal: 1 pu
(c) Modify the power system by inserting a second line. The line parameters of the added line
should be identical to those of the existing lines 2–5. Explain the effect of adding the new
transmission line using Contouring on PowerWorld Simulator.

Experiment (12) Fault Analysis
Objectives:
1. To determine the short circuit fault currents in a simple power system network using
2. To investigate the effect of fault type (line to ground, line to line, etc), fault location,
fault impedance using PowerWorld Simulator.
3. To study the effect of transformer grounding type on fault currents using PowerWorld
Simulator.
Introduction
Fault analysis is the calculation of fault currents and voltages.
Applications
1. Design
(a) Sizing of circuit breakers and fuses
(b) Design of good protective system
2. Industrial systems
The impact of voltage drop in the performance of large induction motors
The typical frequency of occurrence for:

 Three-phase fault: 5%
 Single line-to ground fault: 70%
 Line-to-line: 15%, and
 Double line-to-ground (DLG) fault: 10%.
Fault Impedance
Unless the exact situation is known faults are usually modeled as ideal short circuits. The terms
bolted fault or solid fault are sometimes used to describe ideal short circuits. The assumption of
bolted fault is conservative.

Information Available from a Fault Study

1. Fault current levels, for sizing breakers
2. Line currents, voltages, phase angles for rely settings and fuse selection
Fault Analysis
In a three-phase system, short circuit faults can occur in different ways: three-phase short circuit,
two-phase short circuit, two-phase to ground short circuit, one-phase to ground short circuit. A
three-phase short circuit fault is a symmetrical fault, whereas the other are unsymmetrical faults.
Three-phase faults are rare, but more severe than the other cases. Thus, in short circuit studies,
three-phase short circuit faults are frequently considered.
Various short circuit tests can be carried out to provide necessary data for short circuit study.
However, such tests are usually very costly and furthermore they are destructive. The alternative
is to develop a model of the tested system to simulate the short circuits instead of actual testing.
 During a fault, the current can be separated into two major components: a dc current and
an ac current. The dc component decays eventually to zero as the energy stored in the
system damps in form of I2R losses. In calculation of short circuit currents, it is usually
assumed that the fast transient components of the fault current have damped out and
disappeared. Therefore, this short circuit current is the steady-state 50-Hz sinusoidal
component of the fault current.
 The method of symmetrical components is normally used for asymmetrical fault analysis.
According to this method, a set of asymmetrical phase components can be transformed to
a new set of components, called symmetrical components. By applying this method, the
sequence networks of a balanced three-phase network can be separated into three
uncoupled networks. Furthermore, for an unbalanced three-phase system, the three
sequence networks are connected only at the unbalanced point. In this case, the
unbalanced three-phase systems are greatly simplified.
Single Line to Ground Fault Line to Line Fault

Double Line to ground Fault Three Phase Fault
Fault Analysis
Based on the following power system, answer the following questions using PowerWorld
Simulator:
1. Assuming that there is a there is a line-to-line fault, involving phases b and c, at bus 3
(a) Determine the per-unit and actual subtransient fault currents in phases a,b and c.
(b) Determine the per-unit and actual current supplied by each of the generators;
(c) Determine the per-unit bus voltage magnitude at bus 3.
2. Assume that there is a Single Line to Ground fault with ZF = j0.1 pu, involving phase
a, at the 75% of the length of the transmission line.
(a) Draw the per-unit positive, negative and zero sequence networks.
(b) Determine the zero-sequence bus admittance matrix Ybus0.
(c) Determine the subtransient fault current in per-unit and in Amps.
(d) Determine the per-unit line-to-ground voltages at faulted point.
3. To determine the effect of the location of fault, apply a zero-impedance single phase fault
on the transmission line connected from bus 2 to bus 3. Calculate the fault currents when
the faults occur at 0% - 100% along the line in 10% steps. Plot the variation of the fault
current magnitude versus the distance of the fault from the bus 2, and evaluate the results.

Questions:
1. Categorize the various types of unsymmetrical faults and state the order of frequency of
occurrence of shunt faults.
2. Draw a general circuit which can be used to determine the zero sequence network of a
two-winding transformer. Using this circuit, draw the zero sequence networks of (a) start-
star transformer with points grounded (b) delta-delta transformer
3. Based on the following power system, answer the following questions:

Assume that the system is on no load at the time of fault and the prefault voltages at all
buses are 1-pu.
The system data is shown in the following table:

Voltage rating X1 X2 X0
Equipment MVA rating
(kV) (pu) (pu) (pu)
G1 100 11 0.25 0.25 0.05
G2 100 11 0.20 0.20 0.05
T1 100 11/220 0.06 0.06 0.06
T2 100 11/220 0.07 0.07 0.07
Line 1 100 220 0.10 0.10 0.30
Line 2 100 220 0.10 0.10 0.30
(a) Draw the per-unit positive, negative and zero sequence networks.
(b) Assume that a line to line fault occurs at the terminals of the Generator 2 (G2):
1. Determine the fault currents in phases a,b and c in amperes.
2. Determine the line currents and line to neutral voltages in pu under fault conditions.
(c) Assume that there is a Single Line to Ground fault with ZF = j0.1 pu, involving phase a, at
middle of the line 1.
1. Determine the zero-sequence bus admittance matrix Ybus0.
2. Determine the fault currents in phases a,b and c in pu.
3. Determine the per-unit line-to-ground voltages at the faulted point.

Experiment (13) Optimal Power Flow
Objectives:
1. To understand the fundamentals of economic dispatch and solve the problem with and
without line losses.
2. To analyze the problem of Economic Dispatch with the aid of PowerWorld Simulator.
3. To analyze the problem of Optimal Power Flow with the aid of PowerWorld Simulator.
Introduction
Generation and distribution of power must be accomplished at minimum cost but with maximum
efficiency. This involves the real and reactive power scheduling of each power plant in such a
way as to minimize the total operating cost of the entire network. In other words, the generator’s
real and reactive power is allowed to vary within certain limits so as to meet a particular load
demand with minimum fuel cost. This is called the Optimal Power Flow (OPF) or sometimes
known as the Optimal Power Dispatch or Economic Dispatch (ED) problem.
Optimal Power Flow (OPF) plays an important role in power system operations and planning. In
the normal operating condition OPF is used to determine the load flow solution which satisfies
the system operating limits and minimize the generation costs.
Optimal Power Flow

In the solution of OPF, the main objective is to minimize total operating costs of the system. In
OPF, when the load is light, the cheapest generators are always the ones chosen to run first. As
the load increases, more and more expensive generators will then be brought in. Thus, the
operating cost plays a very important role in the solution of OPF. The amount of fuel or input to
a generator is usually expressed in Btu/hr (British thermal units per hour) and its output in MW.
Figure 1 shows a typical input-output curve of a generator, also commonly known as the heat-
rate curve.

Fig.1: Typical Input-output Curve of a Generator.
It specifies the relationship between how much heat must be input to the generator and its
resulting MW output. In all practical cases, the cost of generator i can be represented as function
of real power generation expressed in $/hr, (Operating Cost)
Ci = (ai+biPi +ci Pi2) * fuel cost
Where Pi is the real power output of generator i, and ai, bi, ci are the cost coefficients. The
incremental cost can be obtained from the derivative of Ci with respect to Pi,
𝑑𝐶𝑖
= (𝑏𝑖 + 2𝑐𝑖 𝑃𝑖 ) ∗ 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 $/MWhr
𝑑𝑃𝑖
Typical incremental operating cost curve is shown below in figure 2.
Fig.2: Typical Incremental Cost Curve of a Generator.
For the area of an interconnected power system consisting of N units operating on economic
dispatch, the total variable cost CT of operating these units is
Let PT equal the total load demand in the area. Neglecting transmission losses,

A criterion for the solution to this problem is: All units on economic dispatch should operate at
equal incremental operating cost. That is,
Suppose one unit is operating at a higher incremental operating cost than the other units. If the
output power of that unit is reduced and transferred to units with lower incremental operating
costs, then the total operating cost CT decreases. That is, reducing the output of the unit with the
higher incremental cost results in a greater cost decrease than the cost increase of adding that
same output reduction to units with lower incremental costs. Therefore, all units must operate at
the same incremental operating cost (the economic dispatch criterion).
Equality Constraints
The equality constraints of the OPF reflect the physics of the power system as well as the desired
voltage set points throughout the system. The physics of the power system are enforced through
the power flow equations which require that the net injection of real and reactive power at each
bus sum to zero. This can be achieved by active and reactive power analysis:
Pi =P Load + P Loss
Qi = Q Load + Q Loss
Inequality Constraints
In a power system components and devices have operating limits & these limits are created for
security constraints. Thus the required objective function can be minimized by maintaining the
network components within the security limits.
Inequality constraints.
Pgi min ≤ Pgi ≤ Pgi max
Qgi min ≤ Qgi ≤ Qgi max
∑Pgi -PD- PLoss = 0
The inequality constraints on voltage magnitude V of each PQ bus

Vi min ≤ Vi ≤ Vi max
The inequality constraints on phase angle δ of voltages at all buses i

δi min ≤ δi ≤ δi max
When inequality constraints are included, we modify the economic dispatch solution as follows.
If one or more units reach their limit values, then these units are held at their limits, and the
remaining units operate at equal incremental operating cost λ. The incremental operating cost of
the area equals the common λ for the units that are not at their limits.
One unit may be very efficient with a low incremental operating cost, it may also be located far
from the load center. The transmission losses associated with this unit may be so high that the
economic dispatch solution requires the unit to decrease its output, while other units with higher
incremental operating costs but lower transmission losses increase their outputs.
When transmission losses are included in the economic dispatch problem becomes
The above equation is satisfied when each term in parentheses equals zero. That is,
Or
Economic dispatch has one significant shortcoming—it ignores the limits imposed by the
devices in the transmission system. Each transmission line and transformer has a limit on the
amount of power that can be transmitted through it, with the limits arising because of thermal,
voltage, or stability considerations.
The solution to the problem of optimizing the generation while enforcing the transmission lines
is to combine economic dispatch with the power flow. The result is known as the optimal power
flow (OPF). There are several methods for solving the OPF, with the linear programming (LP)
approach the most common (this is the technique used with PowerWorld Simulator). The LP
OPF solution algorithm iterates between solving the power flow to determine the flow of power
in the system devices and solving an LP to economically dispatch the generation (and possibility
other controls) subject to the transmission system limits. In the absence of system elements
loaded to their limits, the OPF generation dispatch will be identical to the economic dispatch
solution, and the marginal cost of energy at each bus will be identical to the system λ. However,
when one or more elements are loaded to their limits the economic dispatch becomes
constrained, and the bus marginal energy prices are no longer identical. In some electricity
markets these marginal prices are known as the Locational Marginal Prices (LMPs) and are used
to determine the wholesale price of electricity at various locations in the system.

Optimal Power Flow

Consider a five bus system shown in figure 1. The variable operating costs for each of the units
are given by:
C1= 10P1 + 0.016P12 $/hr
C2= 8P2 + 0.018P22 $/hr
C4= 12P4 + 0.018P42 $/hr
Fuel cost dependent value for:

G1 = 373.50 Mbtu/hr G2 = 403.60 Mbtu/hr G4 = 253.20 Mbtu/hr
where P1, P2, and P4 are the generator outputs in megawatts. Each generator has min/max limits
of: 100≤ P1 ≤400 MW 150 ≤ P2 ≤500 MW 50 ≤ P4 ≤ 300 MW
Assume a Load Scalar of 1.0.
1. Verify that the economic dispatch is optimal.

2. Draw a graph showing the incremental cost curves for all of the area generators.
3. Explain briefly how changing load affects the economic dispatch and power flow solutions?
4. Determine the maximum amount of load this system can supply without overloading any TL
with the generators dispatched, which TL is being critical element?
5. Assume that the losses are included, with each TL modeled with an R/X ratio of 1/3.
(a) Calculate the Penalty Factors Li .
(b) Verify that the economic dispatch is optimal.
6. Assume that the lossless are excluded, and after turning on the OPF option,
(a) Verify that the OPF matches ED solution in part 1.
(b) Increase the Load Scalar field from 1.00 to the maximum economic loading value
obtained from part 4, are the bus marginal prices still identical?
(c) Explain the changes happen on the system if the load scalar is above the maximum
economic loading value (take load scalar = 1.8).
Questions:
1. Explain the difference between economic dispatch and optimal power flow.
2. The following figure shows the one-line diagram of a simple 5-bus power system
with generator at buses 1, 2 and 3. Bus 1, with its voltage set at 1.06<0 pu, is taken as
the slack bus. Voltage magnitude and real power generation at buses 2 and 3 are
1.045 pu, 40 MW, and 1.030 pi, 30 MW respectively.
(a) Obtain the power flow solution using Rectangular Newton Raphson method
(accuracy= 0.0001, Max. iterations= 20).
(b) The generation cost and the real power limits of the generator of the power system are
as follows:
C1 = 500 + 5.3P1 + 0.004P12
C2 = 400 + 5.5P1 + 0.006P12
C3 = 200 + 5.8P1 + 0.009P12
200≤ P1 ≤450 MW 150 ≤ P2 ≤350 MW 100 ≤ P4 ≤ 225 MW
Obtain the optima dispatch of generation.

Experiment (14) Transient Stability
Objectives:
1. To analyze the transient stability of a single machine infinite bus and multimachine
systems using PowerWorld Simulator.
Introduction
Power system stability refers to the ability of synchronous machines to move from one steady
state operating point following a disturbance to another steady-state operating point, without
losing synchronism. There are three types of power system stability: steady-state, transient, and
dynamic.
Steady State Stability

Which refers to the ability of the various machines in the system to remain in synchronism after
a small and slow disturbance, such as a gradual change in load. In addition, this kind of stability
studies is usually analyzed by load flow to check phase angles and bus voltages.
Dynamic Stability
a small disturbance, such as badly set automatic controls. The steady state and dynamic stability
studies are less extensive in scope and involve one or just a few machines undergoing slow
changes in load. The solution technique is to examine the stability of the system under
incremental variations about the equilibrium point.
Transient Stability
a sudden large disturbance, such as a sudden change in load, a fault, loss of a generator, and a
switching operation. Transient stability problems can be subdivided into first-swing (which is
based on a simple generator model) and multi-swing (which must consider effects of generator
control systems along with generator model) stability problems.

In all stability studies, the objective is to determine whether or not the rotors of the machines
being perturbed return to constant speed operation.
The Swing Equation

Consider a generating unit consisting of a three-phase synchronous generator and its prime
mover. The rotor motion is determined by Newton’s second law, given by:
Where:
J: total moment of inertia of the rotating masses, kgm2
αm: rotor angular acceleration, rad/s2
Tm: mechanical torque supplied by the prime mover minus the retarding torque due to
mechanical losses, Nm.
Te: electrical torque that accounts for the total three-phase electrical power output of the
generator, plus electrical losses, Nm
Ta: net accelerating torque, Nm
Where
ωm: rotor angular velocity, rad/s
ϴm: rotor angular position with respect to a stationary axis, rad
Ta = 0 → constant frequency (60-50 Hz)
Ta > 0 → net accelerating torque. Speed will increase indefinitely
Ta < 0 → net decelerating torque. Speed will decrease indefinitely
Define:
Where
ωmsyn: synchronous angular velocity of the rotor, rad/s
δm: rotor angular position with respect to a synchronously rotating reference, rad
Hence, the rotor angular velocity is
The rotor angular acceleration is

Equation of motion becomes
It is also convenient to work with power rather than torque, and to work in per-unit rather than in
actual units.
Finally, it is convenient to work with a normalized inertia constant, called the H constant, which
is defined as
The H constant has the advantage that it falls within a fairly narrow range, normally between 1
and 10 p.u.-s, whereas J varies widely, depending on generating unit size and type.
The synchronous electrical radian frequency is
Then
Frequently the above equation is modified to also include a term that represents a damping
torque anytime the generator deviates from its synchronous speed, with its value proportional to
the speed deviation, This equation called the per-unit swing equation.
Where D is either zero or a relatively small positive number with typical values between 0 and 2.
The units of D are per unit power divided by per unit speed deviation.
Swing equation, is the fundamental equation that determines rotor dynamics in transient stability
studies.
The swing equation is usually expressed in two first order forms as

Figure 1 shows a simplified model of a synchronous machine, called the classical model
(GENCLS), that can be used in transient stability studies. As shown, the synchronous machine is
represented by a constant internal voltage E’ behind its direct axis transient reactance X’d.
Fig.1: Simplified synchronous machine model for transient stability studies.

For a machine connected to an infinite bus
Fig.2: Synchronous Generator connected to an infinite bus.
Total reactance, Xeq = x'd + x, the real power delivered by the synchronous generator to the
infinite bus is
Assuming D = 0, machine dynamics will be governed by

Pe vs δ can be plotted as shown
A and B are equilibrium points. Let us consider slight variations about equilibrium points.
 Point A: If δ > δ1 or δ < δ1, machine will slow down or speed up to restore δ. Point A is a
stable equilibrium point.
 Point B: If δ > δ2 then Pm > Pe and machine will speed up and
 Speed will increase dangerously
 Synchronous operation cannot be maintained
 Machine loses synchronism
 Point B is an unstable equilibrium point.
The Equal Area Criterion

One of the methods for solving the swing equation is by graphical integration, which is called
equal area criterion. This method is applicable only for a single-machine-infinite bus or a two-
machine system.
Assumptions
1. Pm does not change during the swing
2. Pe can be obtained from a steady state solution of the system.
3. Damping powers are negligible.
4. Machines are represented by subtransient reactances.

Case Study: For one-machine-infinite bus system, if a sudden change of Pm occurs.
 Suppose the unit is initially operating in steady-state at pe = pm = pm0 and δ=δ0,

 Pm is greater than Pe during the interval δ0 < δ < δ1, and the rotor is accelerating. The shaded
area A1 between the Pm and Pe curves is called the accelerating area.
 During the interval δ1 < δ < δ2, Pm is less than Pe, the rotor is decelerating, and the shaded
area A2 is the decelerating area.
 At both the initial value δ = δ0 and the maximum value δ = δ2, dδ/dt =0.
 The equal-area criterion states that A1 = A2.
Mathematically:
The maximum value of δm for stability is δmax = 180˚ – δ1, δm = 2δ1– δ0.
Multimachine Stability
The stability of systems with more than two machines can be analyzed by different methods
(other than the graphical method) depending on the type of stability study and the approximation
used in modeling the machines.

Transient Stability (Synchronous Generator connected to an infinite bus)

The following Figure shows a single-line diagram of a three-phase, 60-Hz synchronous
generator, connected through a transformer and parallel transmission lines to an infinite bus. All
reactances are given in per-unit on a common system base. If the infinite bus receives 1.0 per
unit real power at 0.95 p.f. lagging, determine:
(a) The internal voltage of the generator and
(b) The equation for the electrical power delivered by the generator versus its power angle δ.
(c) When a temporary three-phase to-ground bolted short circuit occurs on line 1–3 at bus 1,
shown as point F in the following Figure. Three cycles later the fault extinguishes by
itself. Due to a relay misoperation, all circuit breakers remain closed. Determine whether
stability is or is not maintained and determine the maximum power angle. The inertia
constant of the generating unit is 3.0 per unit-seconds on the system base. Assume pm
remains constant throughout the disturbance. Also assume ωpu(t)= 1.0 in the swing
equation.
 Draw the time variation in the generator angle.
 Set the damping factor to 1. Explain the changes happen.
(d) Assuming the temporary short circuit in part (c) lasts longer than 3 cycles, calculate the
critical clearing time and draw the time variation in the generator angle.
(e) If the synchronous generator is initially operating in the steady state condition when a
permanent three-phase-to ground bolted short circuit occurs on line 1–3 at bus 3. The fault
is cleared by opening the circuit breakers at the ends of line 1–3 and line 2–3. These circuit
breakers then remain open. Calculate the critical clearing angle.

Questions:
1. Discuss why an early fault clearing means better chances of maintaining system
stability.
2. The power system network of an electric utility company is shown in the following
figure. The load data and voltage magnitude, generation schedule, and the reactive
power limits for the regulated buses are tabulated in table 1. Bus 1 is, whose voltage is
specified as V1=1.06<0, is taken as the slack bus. The line data containing the series
resistance and reactance in PU, and one-half of the total capacitance in PU susceptance
on a 100-MVA base is also tabulated.
A three-phase fault occurs on line 5-6 near bus 6, and is cleared by the simulataneous
opening of breakers at both ends of the line. Using PowerWorld Simulator to
perform a transient stability analysis. Determine the system stability:
1. When the fault is cleared in 0.4 Second.
2. When the fault is cleared in 0.5 Second.
3. Repeat the simulation to determine the critical clearing time.

The Impact of PV Generation on Power

Experiment (15)
System Voltage
Objectives:
1. Study the impact of the PV generation on system voltage.

2. To examine how does the location of PV generator influence the system voltage.
Introduction
The use of Distributed Generation (DG) is increasing day by day due to many factors including
their environmentally friendly nature, increased power demand and many others. DGs placement
can be optimized and controlled to get very important benefits other than only green energy.
Power loss minimization, voltage profile improvement, congestion management and deferring
the grid reinforcement are some of them.
Radial distribution feeder is most commonly used configuration because of simplicity and low
cost. Load is distributed through the length of radial feeder. Voltage is dropped in all sections of
the radial feeder due to current flowing. Node voltage is reduced as distance of the node
increases from source. Use of renewable energy resources results in environment friendly
generation. Unlike conventional thermal power plants, DGs can be installed within populated
areas near the load centers because of pollution free generation. As DGs fulfils power demand
locally, expensive system expansion for transmission and distribution network can be avoided.
Additionally power losses may also decrease due to changed power flows.
Research has proved that the technical benefits from DGs cannot be easily achieved when they
are placed just to generate energy. In fact, there is a need of proper study and detailed procedure
to locate DGs of optimal sizes at optimal locations in the network.
DG impact on voltage profile of radial distribution feeder

Figure 1 shows concept of radial distribution feeder showing decreasing voltage along the feeder
length. When a DG is installed at the end of the feeder, power flows are altered and thus voltage
near the DG is increased. Therefore, voltage below lower acceptable limit is increased and thus
all the feeder consumers are supplied within acceptable voltage limits.

Fig.1: DG impact on voltage profile of radial distribution feeder.
DG impact on voltage profile of radial distribution feeder

Small scale DG of less than 10-MW is normally connected directly to the utility system at the
sub transmission and distribution level. In this study, a radial distribution test system operating at
nominal voltage level of 11-kV is modelled using PowerWorld Simulator. The radial test system
used in the simulation is shown in Figure 1. Different operating scenarios of DG connections
were considered as follows:
DG unit consisting of a 4.0 MW, 8 MW, 10 MW and 12 MW

Case 1, DG is disconnected.
Case 2, DG is connected at bus 4.

Voltage level (PU)

Test Case
Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3 Bus 4
Case 1: No DG
Case 2: a
b
c
d
Case 3: a
b
c
d
Case 4: a
b
c
d
Draw and compare between the voltage profiles for all cases.
Questions:
1. How does the connection of PV generation influence system voltage?
2. What are the possible impacts that PV generation would cause to the voltage control?

Projects:
Project 1:
Construct the simple two-bus power system as shown in Figure 1. The nominal system voltage is
20-kV. Bus 1 is the system slack bus.
1. Construct the network one-line diagram based on the specifications given in the diagram. On
the diagram, put the labels showing the following:
(a) Active, reactive and apparent powers generated by the generator
(b) Transmission Losses in term of MW and Mvar
(c) Bus 1 and 2 voltages (in kV) (phase angle in degree)
2. When the output of the shunt capacitor is 0-Mvar solve and run the network and activate
animation to show both MW and Mvar power flow.
3. Observe what happens when the MVA limit of the transmission line is 20 MVA.
Comment on the result. Set the limit of the transmission line back to 40 MVA.
4. Observe the transmission line loss when its series resistance and reactance are
changed to 0.4 and 0.8 pu. Observe the bus voltages and comment on the voltage regulation.
5. Change the line impedance back to its original value. Vary the reactive power of the
shunt capacitor in steps from 0 to 20 Mvar. At each step, record the voltage at bus 2
and the transmission line losses. Plot the results and determine the situation when
optimal voltage regulation is achieved (Use Excel to plot the results).
6. Assume that half the time the load is 25 MW/14 Mvar, and for the other half it is
30 MW/18 Mvar. What single value of Qcap would minimize the average losses? Assume
that Qcap can only be varied in 0.5 Mvar steps.

Capacitor Bus 2 Transmission Losses
Mvar Voltage Ploss Qloss

Project 2:
For the power system shown in figure 1. Generator/Transmission line/step-down transformer
feeds a 100 MW/35 Mvar load.
Parameters of Transformer:
Transformer Control
Automatic Control Type AVR
Min Tap Ratio 0.900000
Automatic
Max Tap Ratio 1.050000
Control
Regulation Min. Voltage 0.995000
Options
Regulation Max. Voltage 1.000000
Tap Position HV Side
Part 1: Off load Tap Changer Transformer:

1. Build the power system shown in figure 1 using PowerWorld Simulator.
2. Set the transformer as an off-load tap changing transformer.
3. Record the Load bus voltage as the off nominal tap ratio changes.
5. Explain the changes happen on the voltage of the load bus with changing the tap ratio.

0.90000
0.92000
0.93000
0.95000
0.96000
0.97000
0.98000
1.00000
1.01250
1.02500
1.05000

Part 2: Under load Tap Changer Transformer (ULTC):
Section 1: Manual Mode
1. Change the transformer’s taps in discrete steps, with each step changing the tap ratio by
0.625%.
2. Adjust the tap under load in steps as shown in table 2.
3. Record the Load bus voltage as the tap ratio changes.
5. Determine the situation when optimal voltage is achieved, why?

1.05000
1.03750
1.02500
1.01250
1.00000
0.99375
0.98750
0.98125
0.96875
0.95625
0.94375
0.93125
0.91875
Section 2: Automatic Mode

2. What value of Tap Ratio that makes the bus voltage approximately equal to the nominal
value.
3. Vary the Mvar load and then record the Load bus voltage and the tap ratio value.
Load Mvar Q Tap Ratio Load Bus Voltage

65
60
55
50
30
20
10

Load Mvar Q Tap Ratio Load Bus Voltage

0
-5
-10
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
4. Observe the changes happen, Discuss?

Project 3:
For the following 7-bus system, bus 1 is the swing (slack) bus. Bus 2 is the voltage controlled bus,
The base power of the system is 100MVA.
Specifications of the system:

Max. MW Output = 100MW
Min. MW Output = 0 MW
Generator 1 (Slack) Nominal voltage = 34.5 kV
Max. Mvar = 40 Mvar
Min. Mvar = -6 Mvar
Max. MW Output = 100MW
Output MW power = 60MW
Min. MW Output = 0 MW
Generator 2 (regulated)
Nominal voltage = 34.5 kV
Max. Mvar = 40 Mvar
Min. Mvar = -6 Mvar
Lengths:
L1= 500 km, L2= 100 km, L3= 300 km, L4= 200 km, L5= 100 km
Transmission lines Series resistance = 0.1019 /km
Reactance = 0.5912 /km
Nominal voltage = 345 kV
Rated power = 100 MVA
Reactance = 0.1580 pu
Transformers Nominal voltage: 34.5/345 kV
Rated power = 150 MVA
Bus 2 26 MW
Bus 3 50 MW, 34 Mvar
Loads
Bus 3 37 Mvar
Switched shunt capacitors
Bus 7 10 Mvar

1. Construct the network one-line diagram according to the specifications given above.
2. Consider that the capacitor banks in the system are out of service and the tap position of the
transformers is set to be 1.
(a) Use Gauss-Seidel method to determine the electrical quantities obtained from the load flow
program for all buses and the line flows and line losses and the slack bus real and reactive
power.
(b) Use Polar Newton-Raphson method to determine the electrical quantities obtained from the
load flow program for all buses and the line flows and line losses and the slack bus real and
reactive power.
(c) Compare the results obtained when using GS and using NR methods.
(Compare in terms of: Load flow results (more accurate/less accurate), the number of
iterations required for convergence, and computation time)
3. Now consider the case when only the generator at bus 1, the transformer between buses 1 and
4, the transmission line between buses 3 and 4, and the load at bus 3 are in-serviced. The rest
of the system components are not in-serviced.
(a) Set the reactive load at bus 3 to be zero. Increase the active load from 30-MW to 70-MW
by 10-MW per step. Record the magnitudes (p.u.) and the angles (deg.) of the
voltages at buses 4 and 3 (use rectangular NR). Work out the voltage drop (regulation).
(b) Set the active load at bus 3 to be 20 MW. Increase the reactive load from 0 to
30MVar by 10MVar per step. Record the magnitudes (p.u.) and the angles (deg.) of
the voltages at buses 4 and 3. Work out the voltage drop.
4. Turn all the other system components to be in-serviced. Set the load at bus 3 back to 50MW,
34Mvar.
Assume the voltage at the buses should be limited between 0.95 and 1.05 p.u. Is there
any violation out of these bus voltage limitations?
Hint: (The bus voltage limits can be specified in the Case Information  Limit
Monitoring Settings and Limit Violations dialog)
5. Record the bus voltage magnitudes at buses 3 and 4 when the amount of nominal reactive for
the shunt capacitor bank at the bus 3 is changed from 0 to 40-MVar in steps of 10Mvar. Note
down the changes of the bus voltages and the system losses. Comments on the results.
6. Change the tap position of the transformer connected between buses 1 and 4, and record the
reactive power output of the generator at bus 1 and the voltage magnitudes at buses 1, 4, and 3
for the tap positions at 0.95, 1 and 1.05. Comment on the results. (all capacitor banks are out of
service).

Project 4:
Each student should submit a rar file contains the following files:
 PowerWorld Simulator Files
 Final Report (PDF File)
Requirements for Final Report:

Prepare a final report for the project. The report should be organized as follows:
Introduction:
 Describe the system being studied and the studies that were to be performed using
Procedures:
 Describe what you did for the power flow study and for the fault analysis study,
 Describe how you prepared your data for entry into PowerWorld, and include your data tables.
Results:
 Provide results from the power flow study of the base system with figures and tables.
 Provide results of the fault studies. Include a table of fault currents showing the fault current
for each type of fault at each bus, and include the all of the short-circuit analysis results as an
appendix to your report.
Analysis and Recommendations:
 Describe deficiencies noted from the original power flow and your suggestions to correct
them. Show the results of your corrected system. Include appropriate figures and tables.
Summary and Conclusions:

 Describe your confidence in your simulation of the power system;
e.g., would you go to your boss and present a case for installing capacitor banks or upgrading
the circuit breakers because of the results you obtained.
Appendices

Part 1: Using the PowerWorld Simulator, create three input data files: bus input data, line input
data, and transformer input data. Note that bus 1 is the swing bus. Your output for this part
consists of three power-flow input data files.
Part 2: Run the power flow program and obtain the bus, line, and transformer input/output data
files that you prepared in Part 1.
Part 3: The Bus voltage magnitude should be between 0.98 < V < 1.03 per unit at all buses
during both light and heavy loads. Find two settings for the compensation, one for light and one
for heavy loads. Hint: Use Shunt Compensation.
List your power flow results for each case:
Case 1: Normal condition
Case 2: Light Load Condition (60%)
Case 3: Heavy Load Condition (120%)
along with a one-paragraph explanation of your methods for increasing/decreasing the voltage at
all buses within the range.
Part 4: Compute subtransient fault currents for a bolted three-phase-to-ground fault at bus 2, 5 ,6,
and transmission line L5-6. Also compute bus voltages during the faults and the positive-
sequence bus impedance matrix. Assume 1.0 per-unit prefault voltage. Neglect prefault load
currents and all losses.
Your output for this part consists of three input data files and three output data (fault currents,
bus voltages, and the bus impedance matrix) files.
Part 5: Compute sub-transient fault currents for (1) single-line-to-ground, (2) line-to-line, and (3)
double line-to-ground bolted faults at bus 2, 5 ,6 and transmission line L5-6. Also compute the
zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence bus impedance matrices. Assume 1.0 per-unit prefault
voltage. Also, neglect prefault load currents and all losses.


Generators
G1: 50 MVA, 13.8 kV, X" = 0.273 pu, X2 = 0.37 pu, X0 = 0.1 pu
Generator neutral are solidly grounded
G2: 150 MVA, 13.8 kV, X" = 0.13 pu, X2 = 0.23 pu, X0 = 0.05 pu
Generator neutral are solidly grounded
Transformers
T1: 150 MVA, 13.8 kV Δ/230 kV Y, X2= X1 = X0 = 0.15 pu
Transformer neutral are solidly grounded
T2: 150 MVA, 13.8 kV Δ/230 kV Y, X2= X1 = X0 = 0.15 pu
Transformer neutral are solidly grounded
Transmission Lines
For all lines:
230-kV
z1 = z2 = (0.66125 + j 2.645) Ω/mile; z0 = (1.984 + j 7.935) Ω/mile;
y1 = 0.9452 µS/mile; y0 = 0.6301 µS/mile;
Maximum MVA = 400 for all lines
Line Lengths:
Line 4-6 = 120 miles;
Line 2-5 = 40 miles.
Power Flow
Bus 1 Slack Bus, V1= 14.076 kV, δ = 0
Bus 3,4 and 5 Load Buses,
S3 = 60 + j 30 MVA
S4 = 40 + j 10 MVA
S5 = 60 + j 20 MVA
Bus 7 Regulated Bus, V7= 14.352 kV, PG7 = 100 MW
System Base
Sbase (3-ph) = 100 MVA;
Vbase(L-L) = 13.8 kV in the zone of G1

Project 5:
1. After find the power flows and considering 5% voltage regulation:

(a) Is there any violations on the bus voltages
(b) Change both transformers to be tap changing transformers (±15% with 5% increment
and determine the needed taps to have 0.95 pu voltage at bus 3. Check the voltage
violations on the other buses.
2. Starting from the original system. It is required to have 1.0 pu voltage at bus 3 by adding
a shunt capacitor at the same bus:
(a) Find the capacity of the needed capacitor
(b) What will happen to the loading of the lines with this capacitor
(c) What is the impact of adding this capacitor on the total losses
3. Starting from the original system. An identical transformer to the transformer between
bus 2 and bus 5 is connected in parallel with the old one and the taps of both of them are
on the nominal value (1.0 pu). Check the sharing of the two transformers in terms of P,
Q, S?
4. Repeat part 3 for different taps
5. A new line is added in parallel with the line between bus 3 and bus 4 which is similar to
the old line. Is there any impact on the total losses and the bus voltages
6. Starting from the system obtained from part 1, if the line between bus 5 and bus 3 is out.
Is the bus voltages are acceptable with this case? You need to restore the voltage at bus 3
to be 0.95 pu by shedding the same percentage of MW and MVAR at bus 3.

Project 6:
A 60-Hz, 230-kV transmission system shown in the following figure has two generators of finite
inertia and an infinite bus. The transformer and line data are given in the Table 1.
The generators transient reactances and inertia constants are given as:
G1: xd' = 0.067 pu H = 11.2 MJ/MVA
G2: xd' = 0.10 pu H = 8.0 MJ/MVA
1. Using Rectangular Newton-Raphson method, obtain the load flow analysis of the power
system.
2. A three-phase fault occurs on line 4-5 near bus 4. Determine the swing equation for each
machine during the fault period, assume the simulation time is 100 sec, time step is 0.5
cycle, the fault occurs at 5 sec and it is cleared at 5.05 sec. Determine the system stability
and plot with explanation the rotor angle and speed versus time curves.

Power System Analysis and Design Using P

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power System Analysis and Design Using P

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Department of Electrical Engineering

Power System Analysis and Design

Eng. TareQ FoQha

Prof. Samer Alsadi

Development of Power World Simulator Cases, Bus voltage regulation, Power

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILOs)

Knowledge and understanding

1 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

Subject specialization and practical skills

General and transferable skills

Some Electronic resources, Websites related to the course:

Assessment Type Weight Date(s)

First Exam 20 Week 6 – 7

2 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

3 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

Power System Planning and Design

Transmission System Planning

4 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

5 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

Computers in Power System Engineering

Power World Simulator

6 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

Experiment (1) Introduction to PowerWorld Simulator

1. To be familiarized with the use of PowerWorld Simulator (PWS) program.

Theory and concepts:

Fig.1 Example of Radial Distribution Network.

7 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

Fig.2 Example of Ring Distribution Network.

Fig.3 Example of Mesh Distribution Network.

8 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

Part I: Radial Networks

Information of the system:

9 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

Part II: Ring Networks

2. What is the aim of the pie chart?

10 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

Experiment (2) Power Factor Correction

1. To determine the impact of adding capacitor bank on a power system.

Theory and concepts:

Power Factor Correction

11 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

In terms of power (triangle of the powers –see Fig. 2–) we get:

Fig.2 Power triangle without PF correction.

So it is considered satisfactory to correct the power

Fig.3 Power triangle with PF correction.

The reactive power of the set of capacitors will be:

The power of the set of capacitors will:

(In case of delta connected capacitors)

12 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

Power Factor Correction

Information of the system:

13 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

1. What are the causes of low Power Factor.

2. Why should the power factor be improved?

3. Discuss why a capacitor bank is usually connected to a three-phase network in a delta

4. Three loads are connected to a 3-phase, 390-Vrms, 50-Hz source:

14 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

Experiment (3) Tap-Changing Three-Phase Transformer

1. To investigate voltage regulation via transformer tap changer in PowerWorld Simulator.

Theory and concepts:

Voltage Control of Transformers

15 | Page Power System Analysis and Design (PowerWorld Simulator)

 Sending end active power: Ps= 3 V S IS * PFS