CSEC Mathematics

Tasheika Wilson 6A2 CAPE PHYSICS LAB Mr Taylor
Lab #:1
Title: Thermistors
Date: 20/09/17
Aim:
1. To investigate the action of a thermistor.

−𝐵
1
2. To determine the value of A and B in the equation 𝑅 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑇
Materials/ Apparatus:
 Oil, dry cell, connecting wires,

 Voltmeter, ammeter, thermistor,
 Thermometer, connecting wires, beaker,
 Heat source, tripod stand.
Diagram:
Diagram Showing Apparatus Set-up
1
Method:
1.The apparatus was set up as shown in the diagram above.
2. Power was admitted to the circuit.
3. The voltage and current readings were recorded.
4. Graphs of resistance vs. temperature, and ln (1/R) vs. was 1/T were plotted.
Results:
TEMPERATURE CURRENT(I) VOLTAGE RESISTANCE 1/R LN(1/R) 1/TK-

1
(V) (R) x10-3
(T/K) / ±0.01 mA
313 20 4.8 0.24 4.17 1.43 3.19
323 26 4.8 0.18 5.56 1.71 3.09
333 36 4.8 0.13 7.70 2.04 3.00
343 42 4.8 0.11 9.10 2.20 2.92
353 52 4.8 0.09 11.11 2.40 2.83
363 58 4.8 0.08 12.50 2.52 2.75
373 68 4.8 0.07 14.29 2.66 2.68
TABLE 1 SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS AND THE CALCULATED

RESTANCES
2
3
4
Calculations:
Calculations for the resistances:
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
4.8
𝑅=
20
𝑅 = 0.24Ω
−𝐵
1
1. = 𝐴𝑒 𝑇
𝑅
Transposing to linear form
1 −𝐵
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛𝐴𝑒 𝑇
𝑅
1 −𝐵
𝑙𝑛 = (𝑙𝑛)𝐴 + 𝑙𝑛𝑒 𝑇
𝑅
1 𝐵
𝑙𝑛 = (𝑙𝑛)𝐴 − 𝑙𝑛𝑒
𝑅 𝑇
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑛𝑒 = 1
1 𝐵
𝑙𝑛 = (𝑙𝑛)𝐴 −
𝑅 𝑇
Gradient Calculations:
Using points (2.72, 2.16) and (3.26, 1.22)

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
2.16 − 1.22
𝑚=
(2.72 − 3.26) × 10−3
𝑚 = −1740.7𝑘
From the equation m= -B
Therefore B= 1740.7k
5
−𝐵
1
1. Finding the value of A, using 𝑅 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑇
Where 1/R=4.17 and -B= −1740.7𝑘 and 1/T= 3.19× 10−3

−3
4.17 = 𝐴𝑒 (−1740.7×3.19×10 )
𝑙𝑛4.17 = 𝐴 − (1740.7 × 3.19 × 10−3 )
𝑙𝑛4.17 = 𝐴 − 5.55
1.43 + 5.55 = 𝐴
6.98 = 𝐴
Discussion:
There are three main types of resistors, fixed resistors, variable resistors and special resistors,
such as thermistors and light-dependent resistors (LDRs).Thermistors are thermally sensitive
resistors whose prime function is to exhibit a large, predictable and precise change in electrical
resistance when subjected to a corresponding change in body temperature. Negative Temperature
Coefficient (NTC) thermistors exhibit a decrease in electrical resistance when subjected to an
increase in body temperature and Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistors exhibit an
increase in electrical resistance when subjected to an increase in body temperature.The
thermistor used in this experiment is a NTC as its resistance fell as the temperature increased.
Over a limited temperature range, the resistance of a conductor varies with temperature
according to the expression Rθ = R0 (1+αθ). Using this relationship the temperature coefficient of
the resistor, α, could found using arithmetic. Oil has a uniform temperature gradient which is
better than that produced by water when heated as such oil was used rather than water.
Additionally water may begin to boil before it is at 100 oC, especially when it contains
impurities. Oils boiling point will still be much higher than that of water. According to the results
for every one degree Celsius rise in temperature, its resistance is reduced by ohm. Oil was used
instead of water because oil has a uniform temperature gradient when it is heated as oppose to
water. Also water may tend to start boiling at temperatures lower than 100oC especially if it
contains impurities. On the other hand, the boiling point of oil regardless of impurities is much
higher than that of water. The value of A was calculated to be 6.98 and the value of B was
1740.7k.
Sources of Error:
1. Parallax in reading the ammeter, voltmeter and thermometer.
2. The thermistor or thermometer may not have reached to the same temperature
simultaneously.
Precautions:
6
1. Care was taken to ensure the connecting terminal of thermistor was long enough to stay
in the fluid.
2. Ensure that the heat source was kept at a distance from the rest of the circuit.
Limitation:
1. Inability to collect instantaneous data with the corresponding temperature.
2. The sensitivity and range of the ammeter and voltmeter.
Conclusion:
Thermistors have two modes of operation. A negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor,
reduces resistance on the increase of temperature while a positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
thermistor, increases its resistance on the increase of temperature. The thermistor used in the
experiment was an NTC thermistor. The Value of A was calculated to be 6.98 and the value of B
=1740.7K
7
Lab #: 2
Date: 14/09/17
Title: I-V Characteristics
Aim: To investigate I-V characteristics of a semi-conductor diode and determine the values of I0
A in the formula 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑎𝑉
Apparatus:
 Voltmeter,
 2 multimeters,
 Connecting wires,
 Semi-conductor diode,
 Power supply
Diagram:
Method:
1. Apparatus was set up as shown above,

2. The voltage was varied and current readings recorded.
3. A graph of current vs. voltage was plotted.
4. A graph of Ln (I) vs. voltage was plotted.
8
Results:
V/V I/A Ln(I)
0.27 0.45 -0.80
0.33 1.64 0.49
0.35 3.63 1.29
0.39 8.84 2.14
0.41 18.46 2.92
0.47 52.10 3.95
0.49 79.8 4.38
0.51 129.48 4.86
0.53 169.21 5.13
Table showing results from experiment
9
10
11
Calculations:
Transpose equation to linear form:
Gradient Calculations:
Using points (0.44, 3.25) and (0.27,-0.80)

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
3.25 − (−0.80)
𝑚=
(0.44 − 0.27)
𝑚 = 23.82
Transposing equation to linear form:
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑎𝑉
𝑙𝑛𝐼 = 𝑙𝑛𝐼0 + 𝑙𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑉
𝑙𝑛𝐼 = 𝑙𝑛𝐼0 + 𝑎𝑣𝑙𝑛𝑒
Recall that lne=1
𝑙𝑛𝐼 = 𝑙𝑛𝐼0 + 𝑎𝑉
In the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑙𝑛𝐼 = 𝑎𝑉 + 𝑙𝑛𝐼0
-1
Therefore a=23.82V
Using equation to find I0
Where lnI =-0.80, a = 23.82 and V = 0.27
𝑙𝑛𝐼 = 𝑎𝑉 + 𝑙𝑛𝐼0
−0.80 = (23.82 × 0.27) + 𝑙𝑛𝐼0
−0.80 = 6.43 + 𝑙𝑛𝐼0
−0.80 − 6.43 = 𝑙𝑛𝐼0
−7.23 = 𝑙𝑛𝐼0
𝑒 −7.23 = 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝐼0
7.25 × 10−4 𝐴 = 𝐼0
Discussion:
Semiconductors are materials which have conductivities which make them neither good
insulators nor good conductors. It has an intermediate conductivity, between that of a metal and
that of an insulator. When investigating the I-V characteristic of the semiconductor diode in this
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lab a graph of current vs. voltage was plotted. The most important diode characteristic is its
current-voltage (I-V) relationship. This defines what the current running through a component is,
given what voltage is measured across it. Resistors, for example, have a simple, linear I-v
relationship, obeying ohm’s Law. The I-V curve of a diode, though, is entirely non-linear.
Depending on the voltage applied across it, a diode will operate in one of three regions:
Forward bias: When the voltage across the diode is positive the diode is “on” and current can run
through. The voltage should be greater than the forward voltage (VF) in order for the current to
be anything significant.
Reverse bias: This is the “off” mode of the diode, where the voltage is less than VF but greater
than -VBR. In this mode current flow is (mostly) blocked, and the diode is off. A very small
amount of current (on the order of nA) – called reverse saturation current – is able to flow in
reverse through the diode.
Breakdown: When the voltage applied across the diode is very large and negative, lots of current
will be able to flow in the reverse direction, from cathode to anode.
From the graph plotted it can be seen that the Diode used was a forward-biased diode. The
calculated value of a is 23.82V-1 and the initial value of I was calculated to be 7.25 × 10−4 𝐴
Source of Error:
1. Parallax may have arisen as an error when taking readings

2. Because data was taken by hand there was much time to take incorrect readings.
Precautions:
1. Ensure that the voltage and current is proper calibrated

2. Ensure meters of appropriate ranges are be used
Limitation:
1. Voltage and current range were too high for the diode.
Conclusion:
The current flowing through the semiconductor is not directly proportional to the potential
difference across it. That is, the semiconductor is Non-ohmic. The value of a was calculated to
be 23.82 and the values of 𝐼0 was calculated to be 7.25 × 10−4 𝐴
13
Lab #: 3
Date: 21/09/17
Title: EMF and Internal Resistance.
Aim: To compare the EMF and Internal Resistance of two dry cells.
Apparatus:
 variable resistor
 dry cell
 connecting wires
 voltmeter
 Ammeter.
Diagram:
Diagram showing the set-up of apparatus
Method:
 The apparatus was set up as shown in the circuit diagram above.

 Power was admitted to the circuit.
 The current and voltage values were recorded. The value of R was varied and the
corresponding voltage and current values were recorded.
 Procedure 3 was repeated
 The procedure was then repeated using another battery
14
15
16
Results:
Resistance / Ω Current / ±0.002 mA Voltage / ±0.05V Current / ±0.002 Voltage / ±0.05 V

(Battery A) (Battery A) mA (Battery B) (Battery B)
10 42 1.30 32 0.80
20 33 1.40 19 0.85
30 26 1.40 12 0.85
40 20 1.40 10 0.85
50 18 1.45 7 0.95
60 12 1.45 6 0.95
70 11 1.45 5 0.95
80 9 1.45 4 0.95
90 8 1.50 2 0.95
100 5 1.50 1 0.95
Table 1. Showing the results for Battery A and Battery B
1. The gradient from the graph voltage vs current from battery A was calculated to be -7..82
Ω the positive value gives the internal resistance of battery A
2. The gradient from the graph voltage vs current from battery B was calculated to be -14.8
Ω the positive value gives the internal resistance of battery B
The y intercept of batteries A and B were found to be 1.565V and 1.02v respectively
Discussion:
The electromotive force of a source is the energy converted from chemical or mechanical
energy into electrical energy per unit charge flowing through it. Sources include cells batteries,
dynamos and solar cell which can be written as E=I(R+r) where (R+r) is the total resistance in
the circuit. The equation can also be written as E=IR+Ir where IR is the potential difference
across the resistor R and Ir is the potential difference across the internal resistance of the cell.
The potential difference across the resistor R is represented by V. Thus E=V+Ir. Which can be
translated into V=E-Ir. The above equation can be rewritten in the form of the line equation
y=mx=+c and then can be represented on a graph. Therefore V=-Ir+E when Comparing the
17
equation with y=mx=+c for a straight line, it is seen that plotting V vs. I yields a straight line.
This makes the y-intercept equivalent to the EMF of the cell and the gradient the negative
internal resistance of the cell.
A common effect of internal resistance is that it acts as the gate keeper for the battery the
lower the resistance, the less restriction the pack encounters. This is considered when designing
batteries in heavy loads such as power tools and electric powertrains. High resistance increases
the temperature of the battery causing the voltage to drop under load. This in turn triggers an
early shutdown. For this reasons batteries may be more efficient having a low internal resistance
as this delivers high current on demand. High resistance heats up the battery causing the voltage
to drop. The equipment cuts off, leaving energy behind which is not efficient.
In the experiment a circuit was used to compare the e.m.f and the internal resistance of
two batteries. A graph of V vs I was plotted. For battery A it was found to have a e.m.f of
1.565V and an internal resistance of 7.82 Ω. Battery B on the other hand had an e.m.f of 1.02V
and an internal resistance of 14.8 Ω. The results obtained seem logical as battery A seems to
convert more energy into electrical energy than battery B and this can be accounted for as battery
B has a higher resistance of current to flow from in, higher internal resistance. The lower the
resistance of the battery the better it is. Hence, it was concluded that battery A was the better of
the two since it had the lower internal resistance of the two batteries.
Source of error:
 Parallax in reading the ammeter and voltmeter.

 The resistance of the wires used was not considered
Precautions:
 To reduce parallax readings of the ammeter and voltmeter were taken perpendicular to
the graduations of the instrument
 The wire used to connect the circuit contains resistance, so thicker wire should be used
to reduce the resistance, so a more accurate result will be obtained.
 Readings were only taken when the values shown on the voltmeter and ammeter are
steady.
Limitation:
 The internal resistance is seldom constant .However, sometimes we assume it to be

constant for simplicity.
 The sensitivity and range of the ammeter and voltmeter.
18
Conclusion:
For battery A it was found to have a e.m.f of 1.565V and an internal resistance of 7.82 Ω. Battery
B on the other hand had an e.m.f of 1.02V and an internal resistance of 14.8 Ω. The lower the
internal resistance, the more valuable the battery is as such battery A is better.
19
Lab # 4
Date: 12/10/17
Title: Resistivity and Wheatstone bridge circuit
Aim: To determine the resistivity of a piece of wire using the Wheatstone bridge circuit
Apparatus/Materials:
 Galvanometer, connecting wires, metre rule,

 fixed resistor, micrometer screw gauge,
 power supply, test wire
Diagram:
Diagram showing the apparatus used to determine the resistivity of a piece of wire using
Wheatstone bridge circuit
Method:
1. The apparatus was set up as shown above

2. The jockey was moved to a point where the galvanometer reading is zero
3. The values of l1 and l2 were recorded.
4. The diameter of the wire was measured and the resistivity of the wire determined.
Results:
L1/cm L2/cm Resistance / Length of Resistance of Diameter of

Ω wire/cm wire / Ω the wire/mm
40.7 59.3 1 25.3 1.46 2.4
39.6 60.4 1 29.3 1.53 2.4
20
Calculations:
It can be assumed that length is a measure of resistance because length is directly proportional to
resistance.
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
Where R = resistance
ρ =resistivity
ℓ= length
A=Area
Experiment was carried out twice therefore the equations can be equated
𝑅1 𝜌𝑙1 𝐴
= ×
𝑅𝑤 𝐴 𝜌𝑙2
𝑅1 𝑙1
=
𝑅𝑤 𝑙2
𝑙2
𝑅𝑤= × 𝑅1
𝑙1
0.593𝑚
𝑅𝑤= × 1Ω
0.409𝑚
= 1.46Ω
The steps above were used to calculate the resistance of the wire in the second trial by
substituting the different length values.
𝑙2
𝑅𝑤= × 𝑅1
𝑙1
0.604𝑚
𝑅𝑤= × 1Ω
0.396𝑚
= 1.53Ω
It was assumed that wire was cylindrical:

𝑑 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 =
4
21
 𝑥 0.0024𝑚2
4
= 4.52x10-6 m2
𝑝𝑙
Finding resistivity from R= 𝐴1:
Trial 1 Trial 2
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐴
p= p=
𝑙 𝑙
= 1.46 x 4.52 x 10-6 = 1.53 x 4.52 x 10-6

0.293m 0.256 m
= 2.25 x 10-5 = 2.70 x 10-5
Average resistivity
(2.25 x 10−5 + 2.70 x 10−5 )

2
Resistivity of wire = 2.48 x 10-5 Ωm
Discussion:
Resistance refers to a feature of any object or substance to resist or oppose the flow of an
electrical current. According to ohms law, the amount of current flowing in a circuit for any
given voltage applied to the circuit is determined by the quantity of resistance in the circuit
The unit of resistance is the ohm, the amount of resistance that limits the passage of current to
one ampere when a voltage of one volt is applied to it. The standard abbreviation for electric
resistance is R and the symbol for ohms in electric circuits is the Greek letter omega, Ω.
The resistance of an object is determined by the nature of the substance of which it is composed,
known as the resistivity, the dimensions of the object, and the temperature. Resistivity is
expressed in terms of the ohms resistance per cubic centimetre of the substance at 20° C.
A galvanometer in a circuit called a Wheatstone bridge can be used to make the most accurate
measurements of resistance. Such a circuit is entails three known resistances and an unknown
resistance connected in a diamond formation. Across two opposite ends of the diamond a DC
voltage is connected and a galvanometer is bridged across the other two points. When all four of
the resistances bear a fixed relationship to each other, the currents flowing through the two arms
of the circuit will be equal, and no current will flow through the galvanometer. By varying the
value of one of the known resistances, the bridge can be made to balance for any value of
unknown resistance, which can then be calculated from the values of the other resistors.
22
The principle of the Wheatstone bridge is that a relationship exists between the resistances of
component P, Q R and S. That is P/Q=R/S. This is the working principle of the Wheatstone
bridge. By using this principle the resistivity of the wire was calculated in the experiment. The
arrangement of the circuit in practice was different. Due to the assumption that length can used
as a measure of resistance corresponding lengths were substituted for resistance in the equation.
After a fixed voltage was applied across the wire a slider connected to the galvanometer was
adjusted until its reading was zero. The lengths of wire were measured with a meter rule.
Subsequently, the resistivity was determined to be 2.48 x 10-5 Ωm .When compared to literature
values it was found that this resistivity was closest to Nichrome which has a resistivity of
1.10×10−6 Ωm at 20°. Nichrome commonly refers to any alloy of nickel, chromium, and often
iron and/or other elements or substances. Nichrome alloys are normally used in resistance wire.
Sources of error:
 Internal resistance of the power source.

 Resistance of connecting wires.
Limitations:
 The wire may not have been uniform not perfectly cylindrical so the resistance of the
wire may not have been proportional to its length.
 Sensitivity of the galvanometer.
Precautions:
 To reduce parallax readings of the ammeter and voltmeter were taken perpendicular to
the graduations of the instrument.
 Readings were taken when the pointers on the galvanometer was steady.
Conclusion: The resistivity of the wire was found to be 2.48 x 10-5 Ωm Ωm and the identity of
the wire assumed to be nichrome.
23
Lab # 5
Date: 17/11/17
Title: Capacitors
Aim:
1. to investigate the discharging of a capacitor

2. To determine the time constant and the capacitance of the unknown capacitor.
Material/ Apparatus:
 Capacitor, resistor, ammeter

 Voltmeter, cell, stopwatch, Power source.
Diagram:
Diagram showing the set-up of the Apparatus
Method:
1) The apparatus was set up as shown above
2) The capacitor was charged to a predetermined voltage by connecting A to C
3) The capacitor was discharged by connecting B to C
4) The voltage was recorded every five seconds.
24
Results:
VOLTAGE/V TIME/s LnV
12.5 0 2.53
10 5 2.30
9 10 2.20
7.5 15 2.0
7 20 1.95
6 25 1.79
5.5 30 1.70
5 35 1.61
4.5 40 1.50
4 45 1.39
3.5 50 1.25
3.25 55 1.18
3 60 1.10
2.5 65 0.92
2.25 70 0.81
2.25 75 0.81
2 80 0.69
2 85 0.69
Table: Showing Data Collected From the Experiment
25
26
Calculations:
Finding RC from V vs. t graph
1. From the graph of V vs. t, the time constant was estimated to be 42.5s.
For a graph of the discharging of a capacitor is modelled by the equation V = V0e-(t/RC). The term
RC governs the rate at which the charge on the capacitor decays. When t = RC, V = V0/e = 0.37
V0 and the product RC is known as the time constant for the circuit.
Finding V (voltage at the time constant)

V=0.37 V0
V= 0.37(12.5)
V=4.625
Therefore, using the graph to estimate the value of t, at 4.625V the time constant is
approximately 42.50s.
 Transpose equation into linear form to obtain time constant from ln (v) vs. t graph
−𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑣0 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
−𝑡
𝑙𝑛𝑣 = 𝑙𝑛𝑣0 + 𝑙𝑛𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑡
𝑙𝑛𝑣 = 𝑙𝑛𝑣0 − 𝑙𝑛𝑒 ; 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑛𝑒 = 1
𝑅𝐶
𝑡
𝑙𝑛𝑣 = 𝑙𝑛𝑣0 −
𝑅𝐶
In the form y=mx+c

𝑡
𝑙𝑛𝑣 = 𝑙𝑛𝑣0 − 𝑅𝐶; Where y= lnv, m= -1/RC, x=t and lnvo= c
Finding the gradient, using points (54, 1.2) (5.2.30)

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
1.2 − 2.30
𝑚=
(54 − 5)
𝑚 = −0.0224
1
Since gradient= − 𝑅𝐶
1
-0.0224= -𝑅𝐶
27
1
0.0224= 𝑅𝐶
1
RC = 0.0224
RC= 44.64s= time Constant; from ln (V) vs. t graph
Average time constant

42.50𝑠+44.64
= 𝑅𝐶
2
43.57s= time constant
Using τ = RC to find capacitance of the Capacitor:

43.57= RC
43.57/10000 =C
4.357×10-3F= C
Discussion:
Capacitors are devices that can store electric charges and energy. Capacitors have several uses,
such as filter in DC power supplies and as energy storage banks for pulse lasers. A capacitor can
be slowly charged to the necessary voltage and then discharged quickly to the energy needed.The
product of Resistance R and Capacitance C is called the Time Constant τ, which characterizes
the rate of charging and discharging of a Capacitor. It is the time taken for the charge on a
capacitor to gall to 1/e (0.368) of its initial value. The time constant can be represented by τ=CR.
As such the larger the value of R then the longer it takes for the capacitor to discharge. The time
constant as well as the capacitance of the capacitor was found experimentally from the two
graphs plotted. The first graph V vs. t gave a logarithmic trend line. It illustrated how the initial
rate of discharge was faster at the start than the sections on the graph which followed. The graph
of the discharging of a capacitor is governed by the equation V = V0e-(t/RC). As such the term
RC governs the rate at which the charge on the capacitor decays. Furthermore, when t = RC, V =
V0/e = 0.37 V0 and the product RC is known as the time constant for the circuit. This made it
possible to find the time constant with the aid of the graph. The second graph plotted was merely
the same data from the first graph however it was put in its linear form. V = V0e-(t/RC) governs an
exponential function which was made linear simply by taking the logarithm of both sides of the
equation to obtain a second equation ln V= ln V0-t/RC. Further analysis of this equation will
show that, if a graph is plotted of lnV vs. then the gradient of this graph is -1/RC. Revealing a
second method by which the time constant can be determined. The capacitance of the capacitor
can then the found by manipulating the known equations. The time constant of the capacitor was
found to be 43.57s. The capacitance was then found to be 4.357×10-3F. Any inaccuracies in the
results are due to the various errors associated with the experiment.
28
Sources of Error:
 The resistance of the wires used was not considered

 The time taken to connect the wires in the discharging position was not considered
Precautions:
 The change in circuit (wire) connection was made quickly to be able to consider all time
and voltage readings.
 It was ensured that the capacitor was fully charged before discharging it.
Limitation:
 Some of the energy stored in the capacitor is lost as heat

 The apparatus used to discharge the capacitor causes losses in power
Conclusion: The time constant of the capacitor was found to be 48.18s. The capacitance was then
found to be 4.357×10-3F. Any inaccuracies in the results are due to the various errors associated
with the experiment.
29
Lab #: 6
Date: 20/11/17
Title: Nuclear Physics-Radioactivity
Aim: To simulate a radioactive decay and determine the half- life and the decay constant.
 coins
 container (cup)
 open space
Diagram:
Method:
1) The coins were collected and displaced onto a flat surface in open space.
2) The number of tails were retrieved and counted.
3) Steps 1 and 2 were repeated until minimum number of coins were left.
4) Graphs of # of tails vs. # of throws and ln(N) vs. # of throws were plotted and the half-life
and decay constant was determined.
30
Results:
Number of throws Number of tails (N) Ln(N)
0 120 4.8
1 66 4.2
2 32 3.5
3 14 2.6
4 10 2.3
5 2 0.7
6 1 0
Calculations:
1. The average half-life was calculated from the graph of number of tails vs number of
throws.
Initial number of tails=120

Throws to reduce to 60 tails = 1.15-0=1.15units
Throws to reduce to 30 tails = 2.1-1.15= 0.95 units

Throws to reduce to 15 tails = 2.9-1.15=1.75 units
(𝟏.𝟏𝟓+𝟎.𝟗𝟓+𝟏.𝟕𝟓)
Average half-life= 3
=1.30 Units
 Average Half-life from Ln(N) graph

Gradient calculations:
(1, 4.8), (6, 0)

𝑦 −𝑦
𝑀 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1
2 1
4.8−0
𝑀= 1−6
31
4.8
𝑀= −5
𝑀 = −0.96
Changing equation into linear Form:
N=N0e− λt
Take loge (ln e) (natural logarithms) on both sides
lnN=lnN0e− λt
lnN= lnN0-Lne− λt
lnN= lnN0- λt Lne (because lne =1)
lnN=lnN0- λt
The linear form of the equation matches the number the graph plotted, hence the gradient =λ in
the graph of lnN vs Throws
Gradient =λ=0.96
ln(2)
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 =
λ
0.693
=
0.96
= 0.72
32
33
34
Discussion:
Radioactivity refers to the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei by the emission of

subatomic particles. These particles are called alpha particles and beta particles, or of
electromagnetic rays called X rays and gamma rays. Radiation has a host of uses. Radiation
shows useful applications through radioactive isotopes. Applications include radioactive dating,
tracers, thickness control, smoke detectors, imaging, sterilization, and cancer treatment. Ionizing
radiation can damage DNA in the nucleus of cells. They can also lead to mutations, increased
risk of developing cancer, sterility and other radiation sickness. As such care must be taken in
handling radioactive material. Radioactive material should be disposed of properly or stored in
lead containers when not in use.
The half- life and the decay constant were determined from the 2 graphs plotted. The first
graph, number of tails vs number of throws, yielded a curve modelling radioactive decay. This is
representative of the fact that the number of radioisotopes decreases with time. It was also of
seen that the curve did not pass through all the points. The fluctuations about the curve indicates
the randomness of the process of radioactive decay. From the graph the half-life which was
almost constant was determined to be 1.30 units. The second graph was made possible by finding
the natural log of the number of tails vs the number of throws. This graph was linear and had a
negative gradient as it is a decaying straight line graph. Measuring the half-life from this graph
was made possible as the gradient of the graph gave the decay constant which is related to the
half-life by the equation, T1/2=ln2/ λ .Where T1/2 represents the half-life and λ represents the
decay constant. Using this method the λ was found to be 0.96 and the half-life 0.72. The value of
the half-life from both graphs are similar but the value determined by the straight line graph is
more accurate as is it easier to plot a line of best fit rather than a curve of best fit.
Sources of Error:
 Miscounting the coins.

 Some coins fell on top of others.
Precautions:
 Care was taken to ensure no coins fell from the table.
35
Limitation:
 Some of the coins used were of different types (size and weight).
 Some of the coins fell on top of each other.
Conclusion: The half- life was determined to be 1.30 units and 0.72 units using a more accurate
method. The decay constant was found to be 0.96.
36
Lab #:8
Date: 08/02/18
Title : Magnetic Flux
Statement: Plan and design an experiment to determine the effect of temperature on the strength
of a magnet using a hall probe.
Hypothesis: The magnetic flux density of a magnet is inversely proportional to the temperature of
the magnet.
Aim: To determine if the magnetic flux density of a magnet is inversely proportional to the
temperature of the magnet using a hall probe.
 Hall probe, freezer, oil bath
 stop watch, voltmeter, horse shoe magnet
 ammeter, water, Bunsen burner,
 ice, thermometer, , 6 v D.C. power supply,
 protractor, beaker, connecting wires
Diagram:
37
Method:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.
2. Calibrate the hall probe by placing it between the poles of the magnet ensuring that the
semiconductor material is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. Measure
the hall voltage in a known magnetic field and record the value of the corresponding hall
voltage from the volt meter.
3. Heat the same horseshoe magnet to 10 oC for about 10 minutes using oil. Heat the oil
using a Bunsen flame if necessary to maintain the temperature at 15oC. Use the
thermometer to check the temperature of the oil.
4. Remove the magnet from the oil and use the probe to measure the hall voltage as done in
step 2 and record this value.
5. Repeat steps 3-4 nine more times using temperatures 20-100 oC for the temperature of the
magnet.
Variables:
 Manipulated: temperature of the magnet

 Controlled: magnet used, current passing through the hall probe, supply voltage, distance
between magnet and probe
 Responding: hall voltage (Potential difference) of the probe.
Data to be collected:
Table one showing results from calibration.
Hall p.d. / V Temperature of magnet/ oC Magnetic field strength/ T
From calibration From calibration
Table two showing the results of experiment which will be used to plot a graph.
38
Hall p.d. / V Temperature of magnet/ oC Magnetic field strength/ T
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Expected Results:
It is expected that through varying the temperature of the magnet the hall P.D will also vary
giving a value of hall P.D which can be compared to the results from calibration to determine the
magnetic field strength at a particular temperature. It is expected that upon increasing the
temperature the readings of hall voltage will decrease. As a result of obtaining decreased hall
voltage readings the calculated magnetic field strength readings should also decrease with
increasing temperature. The validity of the hypothesis can subsequently be tested.
Treatment of results:
1. Hall p.d. is proportional to the magnetic field strength. Using value of hall p.d. recorded at a
known magnetic field strength, the unknown magnetic field strength with the corresponding
hall PD at a particular temperature may be calculated using the ratio: B0/V0 = B/V, where B0
is the known magnetic field strength, V0 is the Hall p.d. produced by B0, B is the unknown
magnetic field strength at a particular temperature and V is the hall p.d. produced by B.
Thus:
B = (B0V)/V0
2. A graph of magnetic field strength vs temperature will be plotted.
39
Interpretation of Results
If the graph produces a straight diagonal line with a negative gradient this would mean that
magnetic flux density of a magnet is inversely proportional to the temperature of the magnet
because increasing the temperature decreases the magnetic field strength. If this is true the
hypothesis is valid otherwise it is invalid.
Precautions:
 When placing the probe in the magnetic field the semiconductor material must be
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field
 While heating the magnet stir the oil using the thermometer to ensure even heat
distribution.
Limitations:
 It was assumed that the temperature of the oil was the same temperature of the magnet.
Sources of error:
 Heat loss in transferring the magnet from the oil to the hall probe.
 Parallax error when reading ammeter and thermometer.
40
Lab #:9
Date: 19/02/18
Title: Radioactivity
Formal Statement: Plan and design an experiment to determine the effect on the amount of back
scattered alpha particles on the atomic number of the metal to which it is exposed. The one that
is repelled is the back scattered particle.
Hypothesis: The amount of back scattered alpha particles is directly proportional to the atomic
number of the metal to which it is exposed.
Aim: To determine if the amount of back scattered alpha particles is directly proportional to the
atomic number of the metal to which it is exposed.
 Geiger-Muller tube fitted to a microscope bearing a zinc sulphide screen,

 evacuated chamber, alpha particle source (radium/polonium),
 alpha particle emitter, , rate meter,
 Vernier calliper micro-meter screw gauge, aluminium, copper, silver and gold foil
Diagram:
41
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SET UP OF THE EXPEREMENT
Method:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.
2. Take a reading of background radiation using the rate meter connected to the GM tube.
3. Allow the microscope to rotate between 90° and 270° via 180° to study and account for
only alpha particles that are back scattered.
4. Allow alpha source to fire a fine beam of alpha particles at a very thin sheet of gold foil.
5. Determine the angle at which the most alpha particles are being reflected to the GM tube
and use the rate meter and record the measured count rate.
6. Turn off the alpha emitter and replace the gold foil with another type of foil
7. Repeat steps 2-6 for the remaining types of foils measuring their dimensions to keep them
the same.
Variables:
Responding: count rate corresponding to each foil from the GM tube
Manipulated: types of foil used
Controlled: distance of foil from alpha emitter, amount of alpha particles, dimensions of foils,
(environment) evacuated chamber, velocity of the alpha particles
Data to be collected:
Type of foil Background radiation Measured count rate Actual count rate
Aluminium
Copper
Silver
42
Gold
Table 1. Showing data to be collected
Expected Results:
It is expected that the alpha source will progressively emit particles and by varying the angle of
the GM tube along we can determine the angle at which the back scattering is most prevalent.
The corresponding count rate of the foil used can be then be determined. It is expected that upon
increasing the atomic number of the metal used to make the foil. The amount of backscattering,
hence the count rate, will increase. The validity of the hypothesis can subsequently be tested.
3. The actual count rate of each foil should be calculated.
Actual count rate= the reading measured on the rate meter- background radiation count
reading
4. A graph of count rate vs. increasing atomic number should be plotted.
Interpretation of Results
If the graph produces a straight diagonal line with a positive gradient this would mean that count
rate increases with increasing atomic number (aluminium  copper  silver  gold), hence the
count rate is directly proportional to atomic number. If this is the case then the hypothesis is valid
otherwise it is invalid.
Sources of error:
1. Parallax in reading the Vernier caliper and micrometer screw gauge.

2. The inherent error of the instruments used e.g. Rate meter, GM tube and Vernier caliper.
Precautions:
 Experiment must be performed in an evacuated chamber. If the experiment is done in air

the alpha particles will lose all their energy and stop short of the foil.
 A very narrow beam of alpha particles should be used. This will ensure that there is a
small collision area reducing the uncertainty in the scattering angles.
 The foils used should be very thin to prevent too many alpha particles from being
absorbed and to ensure that the alpha particles are scattered only once
Limitations:
43
1. It may be difficult to ensure that the foils have exactly the same dimensions.
Lab #: 9
Date: 19/02/18
Title: Photoelectric Effect
Aim: to investigate the photoelectric effect when light is shone on a metal surface and determine
the work function and Planck’s constant
Apparatus/ Materials:
 Evacuated quartz tube, connecting wires, voltmeter, ammeter,
 Electromagnetic radiation source, potentiometer,
 D.C source voltage, metal plate.
Diagram:
DIAGRAM REPERSENTING THE SET-UP OF THE EXPERIMENT
44
Method:
1) The apparatus was set up as shown in the diagram above.
2) Power was admitted to the potentiometer circuit.
3) The light source was used to shine a variety of different radiations with different
wavelengths unto the metal plate connected to the positive terminal of the DC source and
the potentiometer was adjusted to find the stopping voltage for each wavelength of light.
4) The stopping voltage was found by finding the voltage at which the photoelectric current
on the ammeter was equal to 0.
5) The frequency of each wavelength of light was calculated and the stopping voltage for
each wavelength of light was recorded and tabulated as shown below.
Results:
Wavelength Frequency ×1014Hz Stopping voltage/V Midpoint wavelength
390-400 7.59 0.75 395
414-425 7.14 0.56 420
440-450 6.74 0.42 445
465-475 6.38 0.29 470
490-500 6.06 0.15 495
Calculations:
Gradient calculations using points (7.34, 0.65) and (6.1, 0.17)
0.56 − 0.10
𝑀=
(7.14 − 6.2) × 1014
𝑀 = 4.89 × 10−15 𝑉/𝐻𝑧
45
Determining Planks Constant:

According to Einstein’s equation:
1
ℎ𝑓 = Φ + 𝑚𝑉 2
2
The work function of the metal is given by:
Φ = h𝑓0
The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is given by:

1
𝑚𝑉 2 = 𝑒𝑉𝑠
2
Therefore:
𝑒𝑉𝑠 = ℎ𝑓 − h𝑓0
ℎ𝑓 h𝑓0
𝑉𝑠 = −
𝑒 𝑒
Comparing to that of a straight line graph, y = mx + c then:
ℎ
The gradient 𝑚 = 𝑒
h𝑓0
The y intercept 𝑐 = −
𝑒
Therefore:
ℎ
4.8×10-15 V/Hz = 𝑒
h = (4.8×10-15 V/Hz) × (1.60217662 × 10-19C)
h = 7.6 ×10-34 Js
Therefore, Planck’s constant = 7.6×10-34 Js
Determining the work function:
The x- intercept = the threshold frequency, ie. Frequency at which Vs = 0
From the graph, the x- intercept = 6.0 ×1014 Hz
Work function, Φ = hf0
=- (7.6×10-34) Js × (6.0×1014)1/s (Hz)
= -4.56×10-19J
46
= -4.56×10-19J /1.60 ×10-19
=2.85eV
Thus 4.56×10-19 J=2.85eV
Work function, Φ =2.85eV
47
48
Discussion:
Photoelectric Effect, formation and liberation of electrically charged particles in matter

when it is irradiated by light or other electromagnetic radiation. The frequency of a Photon
determines the amount of energy it contains. For photoelectric emission to take place one would
have to consider the energy of the photon and the type of metal being tested. The energy of a
photon is directly proportional to its frequency. Giving rise to the equation E = hf (where E=
energy of the photon, h = Planck's constant (6.63 × 10-34 Js) and f is the frequency of the
radiation.) The minimum frequency for a metal, required to cause photoelectric emission is
termed the threshold frequency, f0 whilst the minimum energy required to remove an electron
from a metal is called the work function, W. Work function and the threshold frequency are
related by the equation W = h f0
Work function is a characteristic feature of the metal and for some metals like nickel it is
a range. Consequently, it is easier to remove electrons from some metals than others. Thus, the
threshold frequency (of a photon) needed to remove an electron from a metals varies. The
smaller the work function the lower the threshold frequency.
When an electron is ejected from a metal surface it will have kinetic energy. The amount of
kinetic energy the electron will have depends on the difference between the energy of the photon
and the work function of the metal. Ek= E – W .Thus Ek= hf - h f0 or [E k= h(f – f0)].
For a given metal there is a threshold frequency. The metal also has a corresponding cut-off
wavelength. This is the maximum wavelength of the incident electromagnetic radiation required
for electrons to be emitted.
To achieve the aim of the lab a graph of stopping potential vs frequency was plotted. The
gradient of the graph gave Plank’s constant over the charge of an electron which was transposed
to find Plank’s constant. The work function was subsequently found using the the threshold
frequency determined by finding the x-intercept on the graph and the calculated value of Plank’s
constant. Plank’s constant was found to be 7.60×10-34 Js which is relatively close to the true or
accepted reference value of planks constant being 6.6310-34 Js suggesting that the experiment is
somewhat accurate but still contain some degree of error because of the sources of error
associated with the experiment. The work function was then found to be 2.85eV which when
compared to literature was closest to the work function of 2.90eV.
There are various applications of the photoelectric effect. A popular application is the photocell.
It can be found in light meters, photocopiers, digital cameras and it is also used in the
manufacture of photovoltaic cells.
49
Sources of error:
1. More readings of stopping voltage at each frequency could be taken to reduce random
errors.
2. Fluctuation of values when readings were to be taken
3. Photoactive surface irregularities.
Precaution:
1. Care was taken to take readings perpendicular to the graduations of the voltmeter and
ammeter.
2. Care was taken to ensure the instruments were zeroed before any measurements were
taken
Limitation:
1. Sensitivity and range of ammeter and voltmeter.
Conclusion: The work function and Planck’s constant were determined to be 2.85eV and
7.60×10-34 Js respectively.
50
Date: 12/03/18
Lab #: 10
Title: Comparator (I)
Problem Statement: Design a circuit of an operational amplifier to turn on an alarm when a
patient’s blood pressure gets too high.
Hypothesis: An alarm can be triggered when a patient’s blood pressure exceeds 140/90 mm Hg.
Aim: to investigate if an alarm can be triggered when a patient’s blood pressure exceeds 140/90
mm Hg
 Comparator, Light dependent resistor (LDR)

 Sensor, pump tube pressure gauge.
 Voltmeter, ammeter, power supply, diode, alarm.
Diagram:
Diagram showing circuit
51
Diagram showing set up of apparatus
Method:
1. Set up apparatus as shown in the diagram above.

2. Use the pump (hand operated) to pressure up the tube
3. Check pressure gauge to see when pressure reaches 140/90 mm Hg.
4. Adjust Rx until the alarm begins to go off.
5. To test, use bleed valve to release some of the pressure until the alarm stop going off.
6. Use pump to increase the pressure again to 140/90 mm Hg
7. Observe if the alarm goes off.
Variables:
 Manipulated: Pressure.
 Controlled: size and type of tube, the sensor, the resistance value.
 Responding: state of alarm (on or off)
Expected Results:
52
Pressure at which alarm start to sound Pressure at which alarm start to sound
when being increased when being deceased
If the alarm sounds when a pressure of 140 mm Hg or greater is reached and stops sounding
when the pressure is below 140 mm Hg then the hypothesis is true otherwise the hypothesis is
not true.
Precautions:
 Ensure that tube is secure.

 Ensure that there are no holes in the tube being used.
Limitations:
 Operation amplifiers experience hysteresis (i.e. increasing pressure may produce a

different switching point than a decreasing pressure)
Sources of error:
 Parallax error in reading the gauge.

 The light from the environs affects the LDR which causes fluctuations(noise)
Date: 12/03/18
53
Lab #: 11
Title: Comparator (II)
Statement: design a circuit of an operational amplifier as a comparator to turn on a water

sprinkler system during low light intensity of early morning or early evening.
Hypothesis: a water sprinkler system will turn on during low light intensity (400 lux) of early
morning or early evening
Aim: to investigate if a water sprinkler system will turn on during low light intensity of early
morning or early evening.
 Comparator, Light dependent resistor (LDR)

 Sensor Digital photometer, shutter lamp
 Voltmeter, ammeter, power supply, diode, sprinkler.
Diagram:
Method:
1. Set up apparatus as shown.

2. Turn on shutter lamp.
3. Open the lamp slightly allow little light to fill the dark room
4. Use photometer to record the intensity of the light.
5. Open the lamp 20 degrees more and record the intensity of the light and check to see if
the sprinkler is on
6. Repeat for degrees of 30, 40… until the lamp is completely open. Record intensity each
time and observe the state of the sprinkler.
Variables:
 Manipulated: light intensity going in LDR.

 Controlled: State of room( darkness)
 Responding: state of the sprinkler (on or off)
54
Expected Results:
Degree of openness Intensity (lux) State of the sprinkler
20
40
60
80
100
If the sprinklers turn on when the light intensity is 400 lux then the hypothesis is proven to be
valid, if the sprinklers does not come on then it is invalid.
Precautions:
 Ensure that no other light source is in the room is present in the room.
Limitations:
 Operational amplifiers experience hysteresis (i.e. increasing pressure may produce a

different switching point than a decreasing pressure)
Sources of error:
 Not all environmental conditions could be control
55

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Tasheika Wilson 6A2 CAPE PHYSICS LAB Mr Taylor

1. To investigate the action of a thermistor.

 Oil, dry cell, connecting wires,

Diagram Showing Apparatus Set-up

2. Power was admitted to the circuit.

3. The voltage and current readings were recorded.

TEMPERATURE CURRENT(I) VOLTAGE RESISTANCE 1/R LN(1/R) 1/TK-

313 20 4.8 0.24 4.17 1.43 3.19

323 26 4.8 0.18 5.56 1.71 3.09

333 36 4.8 0.13 7.70 2.04 3.00

343 42 4.8 0.11 9.10 2.20 2.92

353 52 4.8 0.09 11.11 2.40 2.83

363 58 4.8 0.08 12.50 2.52 2.75

373 68 4.8 0.07 14.29 2.66 2.68

TABLE 1 SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS AND THE CALCULATED

Calculations for the resistances:

Transposing to linear form

Using points (2.72, 2.16) and (3.26, 1.22)

From the equation m= -B

Where 1/R=4.17 and -B= −1740.7𝑘 and 1/T= 3.19× 10−3

1. Parallax in reading the ammeter, voltmeter and thermometer.

1. Inability to collect instantaneous data with the corresponding temperature.

2. The sensitivity and range of the ammeter and voltmeter.

Title: I-V Characteristics

1. Apparatus was set up as shown above,

V/V I/A Ln(I)

0.27 0.45 -0.80

0.33 1.64 0.49

0.35 3.63 1.29

0.39 8.84 2.14

0.41 18.46 2.92

0.47 52.10 3.95

0.49 79.8 4.38

0.51 129.48 4.86

0.53 169.21 5.13

Table showing results from experiment

Transpose equation to linear form:

Using points (0.44, 3.25) and (0.27,-0.80)

Where lnI =-0.80, a = 23.82 and V = 0.27

−0.80 = 6.43 + 𝑙𝑛𝐼0

−0.80 − 6.43 = 𝑙𝑛𝐼0

1. Parallax may have arisen as an error when taking readings

1. Ensure that the voltage and current is proper calibrated

Title: EMF and Internal Resistance.

Diagram showing the set-up of apparatus

 The apparatus was set up as shown in the circuit diagram above.

Resistance / Ω Current / ±0.002 mA Voltage / ±0.05V Current / ±0.002 Voltage / ±0.05 V

100 5 1.50 1 0.95

Table 1. Showing the results for Battery A and Battery B

 Parallax in reading the ammeter and voltmeter.

 The internal resistance is seldom constant .However, sometimes we assume it to be

Title: Resistivity and Wheatstone bridge circuit

 Galvanometer, connecting wires, metre rule,

1. The apparatus was set up as shown above

L1/cm L2/cm Resistance / Length of Resistance of Diameter of

40.7 59.3 1 25.3 1.46 2.4

39.6 60.4 1 29.3 1.53 2.4

It was assumed that wire was cylindrical:

= 1.46 x 4.52 x 10-6 = 1.53 x 4.52 x 10-6

(2.25 x 10−5 + 2.70 x 10−5 )

 Internal resistance of the power source.

1. to investigate the discharging of a capacitor

 Capacitor, resistor, ammeter